GEOLOGY 2B – Structural Geology – Lecture 3

Force and stress

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 Introduction

• Stress: much more abstract concept than strain, as stress can never be
observed directly.
• We use observation of strain to say something about stress.
→ Deformation structures tell us something about the stress field that the rock
experienced.

The relationship between state of stress and deformation structures is not

straightforward, unless we know about:
d 5
re s 4 an
o Mechanical or physical properties of the rock

L e c tu
o Temperature
o Pressure
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Contents

1. Forces
2. Stress
3. Normal stress and shear stress
4. Stress – sign conventions

5. Evolution of stress with respect to ϴ

6. Biaxial stress, 2D stress
7. Stress at a point
8. Stress ellipsoid and principal stresses
9. Triaxial stress, 3D stress
10. Stress states

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 1. Forces

In physics, a force is any interaction which tends to change the motion

of an object (with a mass m). It is defined by a:
• magnitude and
• direction (i.e. vector)

y
e.g. force of 10 grams
(magnitude) in x direction

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 1. Forces – Newton’s Laws of Motion

First Law – Inertia Principle

A body remains at rest or moves in a straight line of constant velocity as long as no external forces act on it.
→ This helps us get to the moon.

Second Law – Action Principle

A body acted on by a force will accelerate such that force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
→ This is why good fuel economy basically requires a reduction in mass of the vehicle.

Third Law – Reaction Principle

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction (F = -F).

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1. Forces – Newton’s Laws of Motion… in action

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 1. Forces

Mass (m) is the amount of material the body contains.

Can be calculated from volume and density (ρ).
𝑚=𝜌 ×𝑉

Weight (W) is the force of gravity acting on the mass. It is the product of
the mass (m) and the gravitational acceleration (a). 𝑊 =𝑚 ×𝑎

One Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kilogram of a mass at the rate of 1 meter per square second.

1 kg⋅m⋅s−2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y8-T8RouhPA
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1. Forces

𝑚 ×𝑎

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1. Forces – normal and parallel components

Resolves forces in to NORMAL (Fn) & PARALLEL (Fs) components

F
Fn
F 𝜽
𝜽
𝐹 𝑛= 𝐹 cos 𝜃
Fs
𝐹 𝑠 =𝐹 sin 𝜃

F
F

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 Body forces

By existing in a force field, the body experience a BODY FORCE (i.e. weight).
This depends on “g”, therefore different weight on different planets but MASS is constant

g (potential of field gravity)

Mass

In geology, body forces dominantly controlled by the overburden (gravity loading) - vertical

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Body forces

Fossen (2010)

• Slab pull
• Ridge push

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 Surface forces

Surface forces (or applied force) originate when one body pushes or pulls another body.
The force that acts across the contact area between the two bodies is a surface force.

Applied force

In geology, surface forces dominantly controlled by plate tectonics - horizontal

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 2. Stress
STRESS = FORCE / AREA
Stress is a force per unit area
Eish!

i.e. force / unit area = STRESS

Where is the stress the biggest?
STRESS (A) << STRESS (B)
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 2. Stress
STRESS = FORCE / AREA

If F = 70 kg,
If F = 70 kg, And A ~ 5000 cm2,
and A ~ 5 cm2, Then σ ~ 0.014 kg/cm2!
15 cm
then σ ~ 14 kg/cm2… No problem for me!

A = 0.35 x 15 cm
~ 5 cm2
0.35 cm

51 x 100 cm

STRESS ≠ STRAIN
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 2. Stress – units and conversion
Force is in newton, N = kg.m.s-2
Stress = Force/Area = (m.a)/Area = kg.m.s-2.m-2 = N.m-2 = Pa (Pascal)
100 000 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 1 bar
1kbar = 100 MPa
10 kbar = 1 GPa

Hacker, lecture notes 15

 3. Normal and shear stress
In two dimensions, the stress σ is divided into vector components:

 Normal stress σn
 Shear stress σs or τ

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 Normal stress component
area = a σ
area = a
Fn
𝜽
𝜽
F
area = a’ σn area = a’

σn
F
Remember

σ
𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺=
𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨 𝑭 𝒏 𝑭 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ⁡𝜽
𝝈𝒏 = =
𝒂′ 𝒂
We know F and a 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
We want to determine value of normal stress on a’ 𝑭 𝟐
𝝈𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒂′=
𝒂 𝒂
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟐
𝝈𝒏 =𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 17
 Shear stress component
area = a area = a
σ
Fn
𝜽 σn
F 𝜽
area = a’
Fs area = a’
𝝉
F 𝝉 σn

Remember
σ

𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺=
𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨 𝑭𝒔 𝑭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝉= =
We know F and a 𝒂′ 𝒂
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
We want to determine value of shear stress on a’ 𝑭
𝝉= × 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒂′=
𝒂
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒂

𝝉=𝝈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 18

 Uniaxial stress

σ1

𝜽
σn
τ
τ σn

σ1

Uniaxial stress
𝟐
𝝈𝒏 =𝝈𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝝉=𝝈 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
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4. Stress – sign conventions

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Contents

1. Forces
2. Stress
3. Normal stress and shear stress
4. Stress – sign conventions

5. Evolution of stress with respect to ϴ

6. Biaxial stress, 2D stress
7. Stress at a point
8. Stress ellipsoid and principal stresses
9. Triaxial stress, 3D stress
10. Stress states

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 5. Evolution of stress with respect to ϴ
𝜽

100% σn
𝝈𝒏 =𝝈𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝟐
𝐹 𝑛= 𝐹 cos 𝜃
𝝉=𝝈 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝐹 𝑠 =𝐹 sin 𝜃
σn
σs

Evolution of normal (σn) and shear stress (τ) as a function of

A - the angle 𝜃 between the orientation of the stress (σ1) and
- the plane (= dip of the plane)
In point A: Shear stress at its highest, but normal stress has decreased.
B
In point B: Shear stress is slightly smaller than in A but normal stress has deacresed
significantly.
0

100%
σs

0
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 6. Biaxial stress
σ

𝜽
Uniaxial stress
σn
𝟐
τ 𝝈𝒏 =𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝝉=𝝈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
σ

σ1
σ1 Biaxial stress 𝜽
σn
> > with = 0 τ1
𝜽
σn
𝝈𝒏 =𝝈𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 𝜽 +𝝈 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 σ1

σ3 τ σ3
𝝉=( σ1 – σ 3 ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝜽
σn τ3
σ3 σ3
σ1
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 6. Biaxial stress

At two 𝜽 values
σn τ
τ = 0 and σn ≠ 0
→ Principal stresses σ1 and σ3

𝜽 𝜽

σ1

𝜽
Biaxial stress
σn
𝟐 𝟐
σ3 τ σ3
𝝈𝒏 =𝝈𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 +𝝈 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝝉=( σ1 – σ 3 ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
σ1

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 7. Stress at a point

• A mineral grain is at rest.

• Any force applied on the grain is balanced
by an opposing force of equal magnitude
but opposite sign (3rd Law of Motion).
→ Mineral grain experiences stresses from all
directions.
A point represents the
intersection of an infinite number
of planes and stresses on these
planes describe an ellipse.
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 8. Stress ellipsoid and principal stresses

• In 3D the stress ellipse is a stress ellipsoid.

• 3 mutually perpendicular axes: the principal

stresses: σ1, σ2, and σ3 (with σ1 > σ2 > σ3).

→ They are orthogonal to each other.

→ These axes are perpendicular to the 3 planes

where σn is maximal, and τ = 0: the principal
σ1 long axis (maximum stress) planes of stress.
σ2 intermediate
σ3 short axis (minimum stress)
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9. Triaxial stress

3rd Law: six independent components:

= stress tensor

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 σ1 9. Triaxial stress, 3D stress

σ3 Finding shear stresses = 0.

How? By rotating the infinitesimal cube.
σ2

Principal planes of stress

Principal axes of stress
Principal stresses…

… of a given point or homogeneous domain

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 10. Stress states

If σ1 = σ2 = σ3 → isotropic stress.

If principal stresses unequal → anisotropic stress.

σ1 > σ2 ≥ σ3
or σ1 ≥ σ 2 > σ3

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 10. Stress states

Hydrostatic stress
General triaxial stress
(isotropic state of stress)
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 10. Stress states

Mean stress
(σ1 + σ2 + σ3)/3
Total stress Deviatoric stress

How these different

Produce
stress
inflation
components affect
Produce the
strain
or deflation
rocks?
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The deviatoric stress tensor is the difference between the mean stress and the total stress
 Summary – take home messages
• You have to understand the difference between forces, stress on a plane (both vector quantities) and
stress at a point (stress tensor).

• Stress at a point and the stress ellipsoid are in many ways similar to strain and the strain ellipsoid.

• The term stress can be used for stress on a plane or stress at a point (local state of stress).

• You have to understand that stress is something that may or may not lead to strain, and if it does, it
cannot be expected to produce a strain ellipsoid of similar shape and orientation.

• Stress acting on a plane (surface) is a vector determined by the applied force and the area that it acts on.
An oblique vector decomposes into a normal and a shear stress component.

• Stress at a point (state of stress) describes the total state of stress at that point and is a second-order
tensor (33 matrix in three dimensions).

• A complete description of the state of stress in a body is given by the stress tensor field, which describes
how the three-dimensional state of stress varies in the body (rock).
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• Stress cannot be decomposed in the same way as force, because stress also depends on area.
Terminology – force and stress
• Anisotropic stress
• Compression
• Deviatoric stress
• Differential stress
• Effective stress
• Force
• Homogeneous stress
• Hydrostatic stress/pressure
• Inhomogeneous stress
• Isotropic stress
• Lithostatic stress/pressure
• Mean stress
• Normal stress
• Principal plane
• Principal stress
• Shear stress
• Stress ellipsoid
• Stress field
• Stress trajectory
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