Meaning and Definition of Translation

Meaning of Translation
The English word translation has been derived from the Latin word
translation, which itself comes from trans- and latum—together meaning "a
carrying across" or "a bringing across.
 In other words, it is the business of carrying across a message/written content
from one text to another, from one person to another and from one
language(source language) to a different language (target language).
It can happen within the same language (from one dialect to another dialect or
from one form to another) or between languages.
It is best seen as a communication process where the transfer of a
message/written content from one language into a new language takes place.
Definition of Translation
Roman Jacobson, a leading linguist and noted expert in the subject of
translation, defined translation as "the interpretation of verbal signs by
means of some other language."'
Through this process of translation, texts in one language are transformed
into texts in another language with the same meaning.
Some scholars define translation as an art or craft and some others call it a
science.
It is called an art as all good translations are expressions of the creative urge
of the translators.
Likewise, it is a science because of the technical formalities and
complexities involved in its process.
Definition of Translation
Oxford University defines translation as ‘The process of translating words
or text from one language into another:’
The Cambridge Dictionary also endorses that.
This can mean the word to word rendering of the text in one language to
another or replacing the equivalents of the words or phrases in one text to
another.
The translated text may have formal equivalence when the source text and
the translated text look alike in form.
It may have functional equivalence when the source text and the target text
or translated text convey the same sense or perform the same function,
though they have formal differences.
Definition of Translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a text in a source
language (SL) into a comprehensive version of target language (TL)
without causing any loss to the original message.
It is often thought that if one is a bilingual s/he can be a good
translator, which is not the truth.
People having good communicative and writing experiences in both
the languages can be good translators, which includes their being
bilinguals.
What’s the Difference Between Interpretation
and Translation?
1. Spoken versus written: Interpretation is the transference of meaning
between spoken languages, while translation is the transference of
meaning between written languages.
2. Real time versus delayed: Interpreting occurs in real time.
It happens in person, on the phone, or through a television/ video service.
Because translation involves the written word, it typically takes place
long after a text is created, which gives the translator time to access
resources (dictionaries, glossaries, subject matter experts, etc.) to produce
an accurate and effective end document (or website, help file, etc.).
What’s the Difference Between Interpretation
and Translation?
3. Level of accuracy: Interpretation and translation demand different
levels of accuracy.
While interpreters aim to be completely accurate, it’s difficult to
achieve in a live conversation.
They may omit some details of the original speech as they interpret
into the target language.
Conversely, translators have time to evaluate and revise each word
and sentence before delivering their product, so they can achieve a
greater level of accuracy and greater fidelity to the original.
What’s the Difference Between Interpretation
and Translation?
The focus in translation is normally on the linguistic units.
It involves formal memory, i.e. formal record of dates, numbers etc.
which should be precise and accurate.
There is a permanent record of what is being done.
The focus in interpretation is generally on ideas.
It involves semantic memory, i.e. meaning is the most important
element in the message.
Generally speaking, there is no record of what is being said.
Types and Modes of Interpreting

Three kinds of interpreting can generally be distinguished:

1. Simultaneous Interpretation: In this kind of interpretation, the interpreter
listens to what is being said and then translates it orally and simultaneously
into the TL.
2. Consecutive Interpretation: This normally takes place in conference
meetings, where the interpreter sits in the conference room and takes of
what is being said.
At the end of each statement, he gives an oral statement, he gives an oral
translation summarizing what has been said.
 3. Whispered Interpretation: The Interpreter sits between delegates and
whispers into their ears the oral translation of what is being said.
1.2. Types of translation
Word-for-word Translation
Word for word translation translates every word in the source language text
into target language text in the same form of grammar and word arrangement.
This is also presented as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately
below the SL words.
The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most
common meanings, out of context.
Cultural words are translated literally.
The main purpose of word-for-word translation is to understand the mechanics
of the source language and to interpret a difficult text as a pre-translation
process.
Literal Translation
Literal translation is first stage of translation in which we simply transfer
words from one language to another.
We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in
the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the
source language.
This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the
interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person
as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.
Beginners are encouraged to start with literal translation but at the same
time they should understand the differences between the structures of the
source language and the target language.
Literal Translation
The SL grammatical constructions are changed into their nearest TL
equivalents but the lexicons are again translated singly, with lesser
regard to context and other socio-cultural suggestions of the
expression.
As a pre-translation activity this suggests the problems to be solved.
Literal Translation is considered an inferior form of translation as it is
likely to distort the meaning of the text in an unintentional manner.
 Faithful Translation
A faithful translation aims to recreate the precise contextual meaning
of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.
Faithful Translation

It ‘transfers’ cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical

and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the translation.
It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text
conceptions of the SL writer.
Semantic Translation
Semantic Translation can be understood as the method of sense-for-
sense translation.
It takes into its consideration the context and the various linguistic
features of the source text while transmitting it to the target language.
Semantic Translation

 Peter NewMark defines Semantic translation as an attempt to render as closely as the semantic
and the syntactic structures of the TL allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original, thus
making it accurate but not a proper way to communicate.
 Semantic Translation gives more importance to the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and
natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on meaning where suitable so that no assonance,
word-play or repetition jars in the finished version.
 The difference between faithful and semantic translation is a close one as the first is
uncompromising and dogmatic while the other is more flexible, allows the creative exception
to utmost fidelity and make provisions for the translator’s intuitive empathy with the original.
 Semantic translation is written at the author’s linguistic level, is economical and is used for
‘expressive’ texts.
 which differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the
aesthetic value of the SL text.
Free Translation
Free translation is an unbounded method in translating a source
language of material.
There is no special rule to do this activity.
The translator tends to focus on the message conveyed in the source
language text, then translate it into the target language by his/her own
words which commonly used in the target language.
The translator may add or omit some words if necessary.
Free translation reproduces the matter without bothering about the
manner or the content without considering much about the original
form of the text.
Communicative Translation
According to Peter Newmark, communicative translation attempts to
render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that
both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible
to the readers.
It is more suitable for informative and vocative texts.
Administrative, Technical, Official
Translation
Administrative, Technical and Official Translation cater to the
professional requirements of diverse fields where the subject matter is
official, scientific, legal or technical in nature and encapsulates translation
of various official documents, instructions, rules and regulations, office
orders, policy decisions, user manuals for different products, software and
machines; detailed discussions on technical processes etc.
The translation of these kinds require an expertise in the field(technical,
legal or official), along with a good command over jargons and technical
terms employed in the field.
One may require a higher degree of objectivity and specialized training to
achieve accuracy and clarity in this kind of translation.
Trans creation
An imaginative translation is defined as trans creation.
According to Anjana Tiwari an act of translation at its best should be seen as an act
of trans creation.
One may be right according to one’s idea of creativity and accordingly, of the process
of translation as well.
“Trans creation is a cross between straight translation and creative copywriting, using
specialist translators to come up with appropriate and relevant counterparts to word
plays or other creative concepts while maintaining the sense of the original text.”
Whereas translations are often too liberal and abstract or written in very formal ,
incomprehensible English or are philosophically one sided, trans creations are often
reader friendly, comprehensible and offer an unbiased philosophical perspective
while presenting the main theme of the text in lucid language.
Trans creation
It makes the reader feel as if the text was originally written in their own
language and they can easily relate to the meaning encapsulated in it.
Literary trans creations are extremely popular all the world over as they
bridge the gap between different dialects, languages and cultures by
providing the essence of particular works of literature in a simple, clear,
non pedantic style and language.
Informal Translation
This presents all the information in a non-literary text, rearranged in a
more logical form, sometimes partially summarized, and not in the form
of a paraphrase.
Machine Translation
In view of the increasing demand for translation, the complexity involved in the
process of translation and absence of competent translators, the scientists and
linguists have collaborated to automate translation or to aid the human translator
in terms of specially designed soft-ware programmes with an in-built
mechanism for substituting the structures in the source language into a chosen
language.
Machine Translation or Automated translation is a way to translate with the help
of software producing translation from one human language to another.
It is also referred to as Computer Aided Translation or CAT.
Machine translation is time saving and economically viable, but fails in
situations where the text involves deeper nuances and requires expertise in the
field.
What is Translation Theory?
 Translation can not be separated from theory.
 Theory is a basic in translation.
 Theory basis that provides the rule and meaning in translation by which every translation can be
measured.
 It must be an appropriate translation determination and it should be measured by suitable theory.
 If the translation process is not based on translation theory, the result of the translation will fail
and can’t succeed as a target translation.
 Therefore, translation theory is an important necessity.
 Some definitions:
 a. Theory is a basic in translation.
 b. Translation theory is used to transform one language to another language to get good
translation
What is Translation Theory?
Translation theory, in a narrow sense, is concerned with the translation
method appropriately used for a certain type of text, and it is therefore
dependent on a functional theory of language.
However, in a wider sense, translation theory is the body of knowledge
that we have about translating, extending from general principles to
guidelines, suggestions and hints.
What translation theory does is, first, to identify and define a translation
problem (no problem - no translation theory!); second, to indicate all the
factors that have to be taken into account in solving the problem; third, to
list all the possible translation procedures; finally, to recommend the most
suitable translation procedure, plus the appropriate translation.
Translation Theory According to Translation
Experts
1. Catford Translation Theory
According to Catford (1965) “The replacement of textual material in one language
(Source Language) by equivalent textual material in another language (Target
Language).
It means translation is the replacement of language text, the language resources
appropriate to the target language.
Catford (1978:20) defined translation as:
“…the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual
material in another language (TL)”.
Replacing textual material of the source language with textual material in the target
text means translator have to replace anything related to the source text with
something that relevant in the target text.
1. Catford Translation Theory

 The textual material can be the words, phrases, sentences, language style, and the grammatical
structure.
 In other words, translators have to look for the most relevant words, phrases, sentences, or
grammatical structure that can replace the source text, so the target readers can understand.
 2. Newmark Translation Theory
 According to Newmark (1988) “Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language
in the way that the author intended the text.”
 Newmark (1991: 27) defines the act of translating very briefly.
 It is the act of transferring meaning of a stretch or a unit of language, the whole or a part, from one
language to another.
 Newmark also believes that it becomes a craft and an art to make a creative translation.
 He states that translation is a craft consisting in attempts to replace a written message and statement
in one language by the same message and statement in one language by the same message and
statement in another language.
2. Newmark Translation Theory

In the theory of translation, Newmark agreed that translation theory:

a. Semantic translation and communicative translation.
b. The message in course language should be similar with the target
language.
c. Translation should make clear meaning from source language.
d. Translation should be informative not expressive.
It means the reader must be given detail explanation, so they know the
message in the source language and target language.
Linguistic Theory of Translation (by Catford, Nida) focuses on finding
the equivalence (of meaning, grammar, content...)
Translation Theory

Functionalist Theories of Translation (German school) by K.Reiss, Neubart,

Wilses, Vermeer, Skopco) do not pay attention to source texts.
Their main aim is what we do with translation.
Sociolinguistic Theories
They do not completely overlook language structures, instead they deal with
it at a higher level in accordance to their functions in the communicative
process.
These structures may involve rhetorical devices or figures of speech such as
simile, metaphor, irony, hyperbole, etc., in both literary and non-literary texts.
These theories require the translator exhibit language competence as well as
language performance.
Translation strategies
In modern translation studies, the phrase "translation strategy" is widely used
to describe the translation process.
“Translation strategy” can also designate fundamental approaches to solving
particular problems (= “how to translate or do something”) within the
framework of a general task (general “translation strategy”).
 Krings (1986:18) defines translation strategy as "translator's potentially
conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of
a concrete translation task," and Seguinot (1989) believes that there are at least
three global strategies employed by the translators: (i) translating without
interruption for as long as possible; (ii) correcting surface errors immediately;
(iii) leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the
revision stage.
Translation strategies
Moreover, Loescher (1991:8) defines translation strategy as "a potentially
conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any
segment of it."
As it is stated in this definition, the notion of consciousness is significant in
distinguishing strategies which are used by the learners or translators.
In this regard, Cohen (1998:4) asserts that "the element of consciousness is what
distinguishes strategies from these processes that are not strategic.“
Venuti (1998:240) indicates that translation strategies "involve the basic tasks of
choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing a method to translate it."
He employs the concepts of domesticating and foreign zing to refer to translation
strategies.
Translation strategies
Jaaskelainen (1999:71) considers strategy as, "a series of
competencies, a set of steps or processes that favor the acquisition,
storage, and/or utilization of information."
He maintains that strategies are "heuristic and flexible in nature, and
their adoption implies a decision influenced by amendments in the
translator's objectives.“
Taking into account the process and product of translation,
Jaaskelainen (2005) divides strategies into two major categories: some
strategies relate to what happens to texts, while other strategies relate
to what happens in the process.
Translation strategies
Product-related strategies, as Jaaskelainen (2005:15) writes, involves
the basic tasks of choosing the SL text and developing a method to
translate it.
However, she maintains that process-related strategies "are a set of
(loosely formulated) rules or principles which a translator uses to reach
the goals determined by the translating situation" (p.16).
Moreover, Jaaskelainen (2005:16) divides this into two types, namely
global strategies and local strategies: "global strategies refer to general
principles and modes of action and local strategies refer to specific
activities in relation to the translator's problem-solving and decision-
making."
The unit of translation
The unit of translation : the linguistic unit which the translator uses when
translating
The unit of translation can vary.
It is what you are translating at that moment.
It can range from a word, a sentence to a paragraph or whole passage.
 Newmark : all lengths of language can be used as units of translation in
the course of translation activity.
The function of the whole texts and references to extra textual features is
also important.
Newmark considers paragraph and text as higher units of translation.
 Types of texts
The category (within a set of categories) of which a text has membership by
virtue of its characteristics or function. => SOCIO-TEXTUAL PRACTICE,
TEXT TYPOLOGIES.
In Karl‟s work, he divides the language functions into three categories:
informative function; expressive function and appellative function.
 Borrowing from Karl‟s method of classification, Reiss links the three
functions to their corresponding language „dimensions‟ and to the text
types or communicative situations in which they are used.
So she divides texts into three main types and a supplementary one,
namely informative texts, expressive texts, operative texts and audio-
medial texts.
Types of texts
The main characteristics of each text type are summarized by Reiss
(1977/1989: 108–9) as follows:
1. Informative text type: „Plain communication of facts‟: information,
knowledge, opinions, etc.
The language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or
referential, the content or „topic‟ is the main focus of the communication.
2. Expressive text type: „Creative composition‟: the author uses the
aesthetic dimension of language.
The author or „sender‟ is foregrounded, as well as the form of the
message.
Types of texts
Operative text type: „Inducing behavioral responses‟: the aim of the appellative
function is to appeal to or persuade the reader or „receiver‟ of the text to act in a
certain way, for example to buy a product (if an advert), or to agree to an argument (if
a political speech or a barrister's concluding statement).
The form of language is dialogic and the focus is appellative.
 Audio-medial texts, such as films and visual and spoken advertisements which
supplement the other three functions with visual images, music, etc.
However, text types are categorized according to their main function.
For some texts, they don't belong to one single text type, that is, a source text can be an
expressive text from one point of view and also an operative text from another.
 These texts that belong to more than one text types simultaneously are called hybrid
types.
Types of texts
For example, a biography might be somewhere between the informative
and expressive types, because it provides some information about the
author for readers while it also conforms to the aesthetic standards as a
literature and performs the expressive function of language.
In addition, a religious speech may belong to operative type as well as
informative type, since it gives some information about the religion and
meanwhile it achieves the operative function by trying to persuade the
audience to do something in a certain way.
Therefore, some texts with this kind of hybrid character have not only
one language function but several functions mixed together.
The analysis of meaning
 Analysis is the process that involves examining of the SL text in order to arrive at the message coded in it.
 While analyzing a text one goes through at least four kinds of meaning- grammatical, referential,
connotative and socio-cultural.
 Grammatical Meaning refers to the meaning of a linguistic structure emphasizing the relationship between
different units of a language.
 A sentence can be ambiguous and it may be intentional on the part of the writer.
 In such a case, the onus is on the translator to reproduce it correctly.
 Referential Meaning refers to the relationship between language and the entities which are external to the
language.
 In order to comprehend the text correctly one has to know the dictionary meaning.
 There can be multiple meanings attached to a sentence and a translator has to interpret the referential
meaning of the ambiguous words/ sentences.
 Connotative Meaning refers to the secondary meaning/ expression of the word.
 It is different from the Referential meaning.
The analysis of meaning
 Socio-cultural Meaning emphasizes the relationship between language and socio-cultural
assumptions, which lie behind any usage of the verbal expression.
 The translators’ main focus is on the comprehension of the whole/ part of the text in all its
dimensions.
 Dynamic equivalence and the receptor of the message
 Translation can be said to be dynamically equivalent to its ST only when a translation
produces in the audience a response which is essentially the same as that of the original
audience.
 Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence is his major contribution to translation studies.
 The concept is first mentioned in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by
Bible Translating” (1959) as he attempts to define translating.
 In his influential work Toward a Science of Translating (1964), he postulates dynamic
equivalent translation as follows:
Dynamic equivalence and the receptor of the message

In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so

concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-
language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship
between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that
which existed between the original receptors and the message (1964:159).
However, he does not give a clear definition of dynamic equivalence until
1969.
In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, dynamic
equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of
the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the
same manner as the receptors in the source language” (1969:24).
Dynamic equivalence and the receptor of the message

The expression “dynamic equivalence” is superseded by “functional equivalence” in

his work From One Language to Another (1986, with De Waard).
However, there is essentially not much difference between the two concepts.
The substitution of “functional equivalence” is just to stress the concept of function
and to avoid misunderstandings of the term “dynamic”, which is mistaken by some
persons for something in the sense of impact (Nida 1993:124).
In Nida’s theory, dynamic equivalence is defined with “receptors’ response” as its
nature.
Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between
the original text and its translation, Nida’s concept of translating shifts from “the
form of the message” to “the response of the receptor”.
Thus, the importance of receptors’ role in translating is emphasized.
Dynamic equivalence and the receptor of the
message
 In his view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the
original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures
between the source text and its translation, but compare “receptors’
response”.
If the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the
translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as
the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated
as a dynamic equivalent translation.
That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal
correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how
the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it.
Textual pragmatics and equivalence
Brown and Yule (1983 : 6) as cited by Baker defined text as ‘the
verbal record of a communicative event’ it is an instance of language
in use rather than languages an abstract system of meanings and
relations’.
Text is main body of books as distinct from notes.
The translator focuses on analyzing and exploring a source text in a
purpose of concerning to reveal a target text, which equal in value.
Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence between the source text
and the target text emphasizing the information and cohesion.
Textual pragmatics and equivalence
 Pragmatic equivalence looks at how texts are used in communicating situations that involve
variables such as writers, reader, and cultural context.
 Pragmatic equivalence refers to words in both languages having the same effect on the readers in
both languages.
 Pragmatics is the study of language in use.
 It is a study dealing with matters from a practical point of view.
 It is the study of meaning, not as generated by the linguistic system but as conveyed and
manipulated by participants in a communicative situation.
 Method/procedures and process of translation
 The Translation Process
 The translation process, whether it is for translation or interpreting, can be described simply as:
 1. Decoding the meaning of the source text, and
 2. Re-encoding this meaning in the target language.
The Translation Process

To decode the meaning of a text, the translator must first identify its
component, translation units, that is to say the segments of the text to be
treated as a cognitive unit.
 A translation unit may be a word, a phrase or even one or more sentences.
Behind this seemingly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive
operation.
To decode the complete meaning of the source text, the translator must
consciously and methodically interpret and analyze all its features.
This process requires thorough knowledge of the grammar, semantics,
syntax, idioms and the like of the source language, as well as the culture of
its speakers.
The Translation Process
The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the
meaning in the target language.
In fact, often translators' knowledge of the target language is more
important, and needs to be deeper than their knowledge of the source
language.
For this reason, most translators translate into a language of which they
are native speakers.
 In addition, knowledge of the subject matter being discussed is essential.
In recent years studies in cognitive linguistics have been able to provide
valuable insights into the cognitive process of translation.
Translation Procedures
The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark (1988) proposes:
Transference: it is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text.
It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey (2000:5) named
"transcription."
Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the
normal morphology of the TL. (Newmark, 1988b:82)
Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one;
however, "they are not accurate" (Newmark, 1988b:83)
Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word. (Newmark,
1988b:83)
Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the culture specific word is
explained in several words. (Newmark, 1988b:83)
Translation Procedures
Componential analysis: it means "comparing an SL word with a TL word which has
a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first
their common and then their differing sense components." (Newmark, 1988b:114)
Synonymy: it is a "near TL equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy. (Newmark,
1988b:84)
Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names of
organizations and components of compounds.
It can also be called: calque or loan translation. (Newmark, 1988b:84)
Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for
instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific
SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an SL verb to a TL word, change
of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth. (Newmark, 1988b:86)
Translation Procedures
Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original
text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and
the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective. (Newmark, 1988b:88)
Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or
the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89)
Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is
compensated in another part. (Newmark, 1988b:90)
Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the culture specific word is explained.
Here the explanation is much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent.
(Newmark, 1988b:91)
Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different procedures.
(Newmark,
Semantic vs. Communicative translation
Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect
as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.
Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and
syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual
meaning of the original.
Generally , a communicative translation is likely to be smoother ,
simpler , clearer, more direct, more conventional , conforming to a
particular register of language , tending to under translate, i .e . to use
more generic , hold- all terms in difficult passages .
Semantic vs. Communicative translation
A semantic translation tends to be more complex , more awkward , more detailed , more
concentrated , and pursues the thought-processes rather than the intention of the transmitter ,
It tends to over translate , to be more specific than the original , to include more meanings in
its search for one nuance of meaning .
Loss of meaning
To fail to have the same meaning or effectiveness when it is translated into another language.
Loss is a situation in which terms or concepts in the SL text do not find their
substitutes in the target text.
Moreover what is often seen as 'lost' from the SL may be replaced in the target language text.
Lack of correspondence between the SL and TL item creates gap in translation and results in
the loss of meaning.
Loss of meaning
The loss of meaning in translation is due to the gaps between two
languages.
It is impossible to find exact sameness in two languages or cultures.
So the gap is common and natural in it.
Loss is the disappearance of certain features in the target language text
which are present in the source language text.
Gaps are the serious threats in translation.
The main concern of a translator is to bridge the gaps in order to make
the translation meaningful and faithful as the original.
According to House (1994) there are three types of gaps in translation.
cont’d
They are:
a. Linguistic gap
 b. Cultural gap
c. Extra-linguistic gap
Linguistic gaps are such situations that occur due to the differences between two
languages.
Every language is unique i.e. no two languages are identical in the world.
Linguistic gaps can be observed at different levels of language, such as:
i) Graph logical level
Two languages are different in their graphics.
Graphemes available in one language may be absent in another language.
Cont’d
 ii) Phonological level
 Phonemes of English language are different from other language so there occurs
phonological gaps.
 iii) Lexical/ Word level
 Some lexical items available in SL may not be available in TL so there will be lexical gaps.
 iv) Structural level
 The difference between linguistic structures and grammatical rules of two languages creates
structural gaps.
 v) Functional Level
 Functional meaning of a language in the context of source language may not be available in
the target language.
 Such lacunas, create functional gaps in translation.
Cultural Gap
 Culture is the mirror of society.
 It is an inseparable part of a language in a society.
 Translation is more cultural and less linguistic phenomena.
 Culture includes food, habits, dress, festivals, rituals, etc.
 The concept in one culture does not have in another culture and then creates cultural gaps.
 Translation of cultural terms is very daunting activity.
 But the quality of translation depends on the degree of closeness between source language
and the target language and cultural terms.
 If there is vast difference between (SL) and (TL) culture, there will be two much cultural
distance in translation.
 Cultural gaps make translation impossible so it needs further explanations to make its
readers easy to understand the concept.
Cultural Gap
Through such reasons, a translator must have socio-cultural, knowledge for the
sake of a good translation.
Culture is an indispensable tenet for translation.
Translators should be aware of cultural values, meanings of the particular SL.
Extra Linguistic Gap
Lack of correspondence between context of SLT and TLT creates extra linguistic
gaps.
Translation is not exclusively a linguistic activity.
Many extra –linguistic factors play a crucial role in translation.
When the background knowledge and real world knowledge are different then
extra-linguistic gaps occurs.
Requirements for the translator
 You'll usually need a degree or postgraduate qualification in translation.
 Relevant degrees include: languages - courses which specialize in linguistics or translation
may give you an advantage but are not essential.
 combined degrees which include a subject like law or science with languages.
 Apart from the key skills for interpreting, the work of the interpreter and/or translator also
requires a high degree of personal integrity and a good understanding of their role.
 As a specialist in your field, you should meet the following requirements:
 Personal requirements (social and self-management skills)
 You
 are trustworthy, discreet, reliable and a person of integrity;
 are aware of your responsible role and are committed to the ethical principles of the
profession;
Job-specific requirements (technical skills)
You
have native-speaker competence in the target language and an excellent
vocabulary and good knowledge of grammar;
are able to translate contents verbatim from one language into another,
even complex ones, all the while finding the appropriate words
instantly;
have the ability to summarize texts and reports;
have a good educational background, a positive attitude towards
learning and change,
can interpret clearly, precisely and fluently in a well-structured manner;
Literary translation
is much more complex and challenging than any other translation.
Every literary text is linked to the literary and cultural tradition of the
language in which it is written.
Sentences in it are very intimately bound up with the very nature of the
language and have their roots deep in the life and habits of the people.
Words are very rich in their connotative meaning.
In addition to the explicit meaning, a literary text contains implicit and
suggested meaning, which is equally important.
The translator has to be prepared for every possible meaning.
Literary translation
There are two distinct approaches to the theory of literary translation.
Rossetti (1861) believes that the work of a translator involves self-denial and
repression of his own creative impulses.
Edward Fitzerald (1851) was in favor of the use of ‘a little art’ to shape literary
effects.
Different views regarding the translation activity arise directly from the efforts
at attaining equivalence between the source and the target language text.
Ezra Pound rightly said that a great age in literature is perhaps always a great
age in translations, or follows it.
This is true as far as Indian language literatures are concerned.
Dryden argued that something is always lost in all translations.
Literary translation
The difference between Literature and its translation starts from the stage of
conception.
A writer writes because of a deep feeling/ experience that have moved him/her
to express it verbally whereas a translator translates a text in one’s own language
because the original text stimulates him/her or has a deep affinity for the text.
The creative text loses much of its charm when the translator translates the inner
melody and the uniqueness of the vision of the author.
The sound effect that a poem produces is very important and one can see
rhythm, rhyme, meter, alliteration, assonance, repetition, language verities,
narrative and poetic structures, figures of rhetoric in a poetry playing an
important role.
Literary translation
 No two languages in the world are similar so it is natural that these
peculiarities of a literary writing cannot be reproduced in another
language; although the translator adheres to the meaning in its strict
sense.
Words with their base, stress, pattern of sense and their connotations are
changed in translation.
Some images are unlikely to have their equivalents in the target language;
sometimes the original words contain something more than their plain
meaning which is missing in the target language.
The translation of metaphors, proverbs, idioms and phrases also pose
problems to translators.
Literary translation
 Many Indian idioms and proverbs do not have equivalents in English language.
The customs and the conventions in one part of the world are widely different
from those in another.
For a culture specific word in the SL, there may not be any corresponding word in
TL.
Thus, the element of culture is often a major challenge for a literary translator.
It has been found that words which relate to Ecology (flora, fauna, geographical
features etc. ), Material culture (food, clothes, transport, communication etc. ),
Social culture (custom, tradition, work, ideas etc.), Description of non-verbal
communication (Facial expressions, gestures etc.) and Proper nouns (names. Nick
names etc.) are the most difficult and challenging to translate from the SL to TL.
Literary translation
These can be overcome by borrowing the word from the SL, by defining the term, by
substituting the word or literally translating it; or simply by the methods of omission,
addition, trans creation or transliteration.
Adaptation/ Appropriation/ Accommodation are inevitable in the practice if the translation
is to maintain the essence, impact and the effect of the text in the source language.
This is particularly true in the context of the translation of the poetry due to its high
emotive and artistic nature.
A translator may come across a couple of words which are untranslatable due to strong
cultural roots because the cultural context is missing in the target language.
Here, one must keep in mind that a particular word may not be translatable, but the
language is.
All literary translators face almost the same problems whether translating prose or poetry.
Propositions about translation