Radiographic

Radiographic Testing
Inspection
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PART 1
 Radiographic Inspection
 Radiation is passing straight
through a material.

 Radiation is absorbed by
material depending on:
• Material density
• Object thickness (shape)
• Radiation energy

 Transmitted radiation can be

detected by photographic
film or other detectors.
Notes reference: section 1
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 EM waves associated with electrical and
magnetic fields
 Speed of EM waves 3,00,000 Km/s

Notes reference: section 2

Wavelength vs. Photon Energy

 Short wavelength  Long wavelength

 High frequency  Low frequency
 High energy  Low energy

Notes reference: section 2

 Atomic Structure
• Atom: Simplest form of matter

• Atoms are thought to consist of a positively charged

nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively
charged electrons that orbit the nucleus.

Notes reference: section 3

 Atomic Structure
 The nucleus of the atom is made up of protons
and neutrons.

 The electrons orbits the nucleus.

Name Charge

Proton Positive

Neutron No

Electron Negative

Notes reference: section 3

• Atomic Number (Z)

Number of Protons in an atom OR

Number of electrons in an atom

• Mass Number (A)

• Number of Protons and Neutrons in an atom

Structure of an Atom
Atomic Structure
Mass number
(the total number of Protons & Neutrons)
A
XZ Chemical symbol of element

Atomic number
(number of Protons)

Notes:

 Mass number (A) is sometimes called as ‘Atomic mass number’.

 Symbol Z (atomic number) comes from the German word Zahl
meaning number.

Notes reference: section 3

Atomic Structure

Number of Protons & Neutrons = 59 (mass no)

59
Co 27 Chemical symbol of Cobalt

Number of Protons = 27
Number of electrons = 27
Number of neutrons = 59 – 27 = 32
 Isotopes
Isotopes – atoms of an element with:
• the same number of protons (atomic number )

different number of neutrons (atomic mass )

Notes reference: section 3

Radioactive Isotopes
 Some isotopes are stable, others are unstable.

 Unstable isotopes transform into another element and in so

doing emit radiation.

 Three forms of radiation:

• Alpha  (helium cores).
• Beta  (electrons).
• Gamma  (photons).

 Neutrons may also be emitted.

Notes reference: section 5.1

Radioactive Isotopes
Radioactive Isotopes
Radioactive Isotopes
Equipment
X-ray Gamma Rays

• Electrically generated. • Generated by the decay of

unstable isotopes.
X-Ray or Bremsstrahlung Production
3 requirements for X-ray production:
• Electron source.
• Means of electrons accelerating to a high velocity.
• Means of halting electrons.
X-Ray Production
Tungsten filament ( Cathode)
 source of an electrons
 high melting point ~3400 °C
 Heated filament will release electrons
 Focusing cap by itself limits stream of electrons…
X-Ray Production
Negative charge applied on Focussing cap repel electrons
towards the target

- -

-
- -
 X-Ray Production
~ 95% of energy turns into heat. Actual focal spot –
large size will carry heat out.

Actual focal spot

Target is tilted at an Effective focal spot

angle ~21° is smaller than
Actual.
X-Ray Production
Direct anode assembly.
 X-Ray Production – output controls
 The standard controls on the X-ray set are:
 Energy [keV]

 Current [mA]

 Time [s]

Current [mA]
 Tube current controls the intensity of radiation.(intensity).

 Current up - Number of electrons up- X RAY intensity up

 
 Exposure time reduces
X-Ray Production – output controls
Energy [keV]
 Tube voltage controls the penetrating ability of
the radiation (quality).

Voltage up

electron speed up

kinetic energy up

penetrating power up
Gamma rays
Gamma rays
 electromagnetic radiation
 emitted during disintegration of atom nuclei

Alpha emission (helium core)

 Positive charge, high mass (mass no 4)

Beta emission (electron)

 Negative charge, low mass

Gamma emission (photon)

 No charge, no mass
Properties of Gamma Ray Sources
Activity

 Number of disintegrations per unit of time

 Curie [Ci] = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second.

 Becquerel [Bq] = 1 disintegration per second.

 1 Ci= 3.7 x 1010 Bq

 Specific Activity: Activity per unit mass. Its unit is Ci/g

Half-life
 Time required for disintegration of half of nuclei in material
 Activity is reducing with time
Properties of Gamma Ray Sources
Industrial radioisotopes – comparison
Penetrating
Main emissions Average
Symbol Half-life power
[MeV] energy [keV]
[mm] of Fe
Co 60 5.3 years 1.17 & 1.33 1250 40 – 200

Ir 192 74 days 0.31, 0.47, 0.61 450 10 – 60

Se 75 120 days 0.12 to 0.40 320 5 – 35

Yb 169 32 days 0.17, 0.20 200 5 – 15

Tm 170 128 days 0.05, 0.08 72 up to 8

All sources used today in industry are artificial produced by

process called ‘activation’.