Meiosis

12

PPT Lectures by
Stephanie Scher Pandolfi
and Sharon Gillies

© 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.

Key Concepts
Meiosis is a type of nuclear division resulting in cells that
have half as many chromosomes as the parent cell. In
animals, it leads to the formation of eggs and sperm.

Each cell produced by meiosis receives a different

combination of chromosomes. Because genes are located on
chromosomes, each cell produced by meiosis receives a
different complement of genes. The resulting offspring that
are genetically distinct from each other and from their
parents.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-2

Key Concepts
The leading hypothesis to explain meiosis is that genetically
varied offspring are more likely to thrive in environments
where parasites and disease are common.

If mistakes occur during meiosis, the resulting egg and

sperm cells may contain the wrong number of chromosomes.
It is rare for offspring with an incorrect number of
chromosomes to develop normally.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-3

Introduction
• During sexual reproduction, a sperm and an egg unite to form
a new individual.
– This process is called fertilization.

• Meiosis is nuclear division that precedes the formation of

gametes (egg and sperm) and results in a halving of
chromosome number.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-4

Chromosomes Come in Distinct Types
• Each organism has a characteristic number of chromosomes.
• The karyotype is the number and types of chromosomes
present in an organism.
• Sex chromosomes determine the sex of the individual; all
other chromosomes are autosomes.
– Humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell except their
gametes.
– 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
– 22 pairs of autosomes.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-5

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-6
Homologous Chromosomes Have the Same Genes
• Chromosomes of the same type are called homologous
chromosomes, or homologs.

• Chromosomes carry genes. A gene is a section of DNA that

influences one or more hereditary traits in an individual.
– Different versions of a specific gene are called alleles.

• Homologs carry the same genes in the same locations, but

each one may contain different alleles.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-7

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-8
The Concept of Ploidy
• The haploid number n indicates the number of distinct types
of chromosomes present.

• A cell’s ploidy (n, 2n, 3n, etc.) indicates the number of each
type of chromosome present.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-9

Ploidy Varies among Organisms
• Organisms whose cells contain just one of each type of
chromosome are called haploid (n).

• Those whose cells contain two versions of each type of

chromosome are termed diploid (2n).
– Diploid cells have one paternal chromosome and one
maternal chromosome.

• Organisms with three or more versions of each type of

chromosome are called polyploid (3n, 4n, etc.)

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-10

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-11
An Overview of Meiosis
• Meiosis reduces chromosome number by half. In diploid
organisms, the products of meiosis are haploid.

• Just before meiosis begins, each chromosome in the diploid

(2n) parent cell is replicated.
– When replication is complete, each chromosome consists
of two identical sister chromatids attached at the
centromere.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-12

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-13
Meiosis Is Two Cell Divisions
• Meiosis consists of two cell divisions, called meiosis I and
meiosis II.

• The two divisions occur consecutively but differ sharply.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-14

An Overview of Meiosis I
• During meiosis I, the diploid (2n) parent cell produces two
haploid (n) daughter cells.

• The homologs in each chromosome pair separate and go to

different daughter cells.

• Although the daughter cells are haploid (n), each chromosome

still consists of two identical sister chromatids.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-15

An Overview of Meiosis II
• During meiosis II, the sister chromatids of each chromosome
separate and go to different daughter cells.

• The four haploid daughter cells produced by meiosis II also

have one of each type of chromosome, but now the
chromosomes are unreplicated.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-16

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-17
Meiosis Is a Reduction Division
The outcome of meiosis is a reduction in chromosome
number. For this reason, meiosis is known as a reduction
division.

• In most plants and animals, the original cell is diploid and

the four daughter cells are haploid.
– In animals, these daughter cells become gametes via a
process called gametogenesis.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-18

Fertilization Results in a Diploid Zygote
• When two haploid gametes fuse during fertilization, a full
complement of chromosomes is restored. The cell that results
from fertilization is diploid and is called a zygote.

• In this way, each diploid individual receives a haploid

chromosome set from both its mother and its father.
– Homologs are therefore referred to as being either
maternal chromosomes, from the mother, or paternal
chromosomes, from the father.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-19

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-20
The Life Cycle of a Sexual Organism
• An animal’s life cycle summarizes life from fertilization
through offspring production.

• Meiosis in an adult produces haploid gametes that combine

during fertilization to form a diploid zygote, which develops,
through mitosis, into an adult of the next generation.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-21

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-22
The Phases of Meiosis I
• Meiosis I is a continuous process with five distinct phases.
These phases are as follows:
1. Early prophase I
2. Late prophase I
3. Metaphase I
4. Anaphase I
5. Telophase I

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-23

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-24
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-25
Figure 12.7 The Phases of Meiosis.
12-26
Figure 12.7 The Phases of Meiosis.
12-27
Figure 12.7 The Phases of Meiosis.
12-28
Figure 12.7 The Phases of Meiosis.
12-29
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-30
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-31
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-32
The Phases of Meiosis I
• Early Prophase I: The homolog pairs come together in a
pairing process called synapsis. The structure that results from
synapsis is called a tetrad, consisting of two homologs. The
chromatids of the homologs are called non-sister chromatids.

• Late Prophase I: These non-sister chromatids begin to

separate. Exchange or crossing over between homologous
non-sister chromatids occurs where chiasmata are formed
during this stage.

• Metaphase I: The tetrads line up at the metaphase plate.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-33

The Phases of Meiosis I
• Anaphase I: The paired homologs separate and begin to
migrate to opposite ends of the cell.

• Telophase I: The homologs finish migrating to the poles of the

cell. Then the cell divides in the process of cytokinesis.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-34

The Result of Meiosis I
• The end result of meiosis I is that one chromosome of each
homologous pair is distributed to a different daughter cell.

• A reduction division has occurred.

– The daughter cells of meiosis I are haploid and are still in
the form of sister chromatids.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-35

The Phases of Meiosis II
• Like meiosis I, meiosis II is a continuous process, but with
four distinct phases:
1. Prophase II
2. Metaphase II
3. Anaphase II
4. Telophase II

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-36

The Phases of Meiosis II
• Prophase II: The spindle apparatus forms and one spindle
fibre attaches to the centromere of each sister chromatid.
• Metaphase II: Replicated chromosomes line up at the
metaphase plate.
• Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate. The resulting
daughter chromosomes begin moving to opposite sides of the
cell.
• Telophase II: Chromosomes arrive at opposite sides of the
cell. A nuclear envelope forms around each haploid set of
chromosomes, and each cell undergoes cytokinesis.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-37

The Result of Meiosis II
• Meiosis II results in four haploid cells, each with one of each
type of chromosome.
– Thus, one diploid cell with replicated chromosomes gives
rise to four haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-38

Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis
• The key difference between the two processes is that
homologs pair in meiosis, but do not in mitosis. Because
homologs pair in prophase of meiosis I, they can migrate to
the metaphase plate together and then separate during
anaphase of meiosis I, resulting in a reduction division.

• Meiosis thus produces four daughter cells with half the

genetic material of the parents, while mitosis produces two
daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cells.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-39

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-40
Figure 12.8 A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis.
12-41
Figure 12.8 A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis.
12-42
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-43
Where Does Crossing Over Occur?
• After replication, sister chromatids stay tightly joined along
their entire length.
• When homologs synapse, two pairs of non-sister chromatids
are brought close together and are held there by a network of
proteins called the synaptonemal complex.
• Crossing over occurs when chromosomal segments are
swapped between adjacent homologs.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-44

A Closer Look at Crossing Over
• At each point where crossing over occurs, the non-sister
chromatids from each homolog get physically broken at the
same point and attached to each other. As a result, segments
of maternal and paternal chromosomes are swapped.

• Crossing over can occur at many locations along the length of

such synapsed homologs. Both sets of non-sister chromatids
may undergo crossing over, resulting in the swapping of
segments between maternal and paternal chromosomes.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-45

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-46
The Consequences of Meiosis
• Independent shuffling of maternal and paternal chromosomes
and crossing over during meiosis I result in four gametes with
a chromosome composition different from that of the parent
cells.

• The changes in chromosomes produced by meiosis and

fertilization are significant because chromosomes contain the
cell’s hereditary material.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-47

Sexual Reproduction Leads to Greater Variation
• Offspring produced during asexual reproduction are clones
that are genetically identical to one another as well as to the
parent.

• In contrast, offspring produced by sexual reproduction, the

fusion of gametes, have a chromosome makeup different from
that of one another and from that of either parent.

• Genetic variation in sexual reproduction results from

independent assortment and crossing over.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-48

Independent Assortment Produces Genetic Variation
• Separation and distribution of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis I can result in a variety of combinations of
maternal and paternal chromosomes.

• Each daughter cell gets a random assortment of maternal and

paternal chromosomes, and thus genes, which generates a
great deal of genetic diversity in the subsequent gametes.

• Humans, with a haploid chromosome number of 23, can

produce 223 (~ 8.4 million) different combinations of
chromosomes in gametes.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-49

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-50
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-51
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-52
The Role of Crossing Over
• Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the
same chromosome, combinations that did not exist in each
parent.

• Crossing over is a form of genetic recombination that

increases the genetic variability of gametes produced by
meiosis beyond that produced by random assortment of
chromosomes.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-53

How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation?

Crossing over and the random mixing of maternal and

paternal chromosomes ensure that each gamete is genetically
unique.

• The genetic variation introduced during meiosis ensures that

even in self-fertilization, where gametes from the same
individual combine, the offspring will be genetically
different from the parent.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-54

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-55
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-56
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-57
Outcrossing Further Increases Genetic Variation
• In many sexually reproducing species, gametes from different
individuals combine to form offspring, a process called
outcrossing.

• Outcrossing increases the genetic diversity of the offspring

because chromosomes from two different parents are
combined.
– In humans, this means that two parents can potentially
produce 8.4 million  8.4 million = 70.6  1012 genetically
distinct offspring.
– This does not even take additional variation from
crossing over into consideration!

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-58

Why Does Meiosis Exist?
• Sexual reproduction is common among multicellular
organisms, but organisms in most lineages of the tree of life
undergo asexual reproduction.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-59

The Paradox of Sex
• The mathematical model of John Maynard Smith predicts that
asexually reproducing organisms should reproduce faster and
outcompete similar organisms that invest in sexual
reproduction.

• Asexual reproduction is much more efficient than sexual

reproduction because no males are produced.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-60

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-61
The Paradox of Sex
• Although the paradox of sex remains an active area of
research, more biologists are becoming convinced that
sexual reproduction is helpful for two reasons:
1.offspring are not doomed to inherit harmful alleles, and
2.at least some offspring may be able to fight off new strains
of disease-causing agents.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-62

Mistakes in Meiosis
• If a mistake occurs during meiosis I and the chromosomes
from the parent cells are not properly distributed to each
daughter cell, the resulting gametes will contain an abnormal
set of chromosomes.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-63

How Do Mistakes Occur?
• For a gamete to get one complete set of chromosomes, each
pair of homologous chromosomes must separate from each
other during the first meiotic division, and the sister
chromatids must separate from each other and move to
opposite poles during meiosis II.

• If both homologs or both sister chromatids move to the same

pole of the parent cell, the products of meiosis will be
abnormal. This sort of meiotic error is referred to as
nondisjunction.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-64

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-65
Types of Nondisjunction
• If nondisjunction occurs in meiosis I, two gametes will have
an extra copy of a chromosome (causing a condition called
trisomy), and two gametes will lack that chromosome
(monosomy).
– An example of trisomy is Down syndrome, which is
caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-66

Frequency of Nondisjunction
• Nondisjunction may occur in as many 10 percent of meiotic
divisions. However, aneuploid zygotes (those with too few or
too many chromosomes) typically do not survive to produce
viable offspring.

Mistakes in meiosis are the leading cause of spontaneous

abortion (miscarriage) in humans.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-67

Why Do Mistakes Occur?
• Meiotic errors appear to be accidental, with no genetic
predisposition.

• Recent research indicates that the molecular mechanism

involves misattachment between microtubules and
kinetochores early in meiosis I.

• Maternal age is an important factor in the frequency of

trisomy.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-68

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-69
Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
12-70
Most Common Aneuploidy Disorders
• Most instances of aneuploidy in humans involve Down
Syndrome (chromosome 21) or the sex chromosomes.

• Sex chromosome aneuploidy can occur in many different

forms:
– Klinefelter syndrome develops in XXY males.
– Trisomy X (karyotype XXX).
– Females with Turner Syndrome have monosomy – their
karyotype is XO (they are lacking a second X
chromosome) and are usually sterile.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-71

Summary
• You should be able to
– Identify homologous chromosomes.
– Draw and label a cell undergoing meiosis.
– Describe how crossing over occurs.
– Explain the mechanisms that result in each cells produced
by meiosis receiving a different combination of
chromosomes.
– Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction.
– Design an experiment to test the changing-environment
hypothesis.
– Describe anueploidy.

Chapter 12 © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc. 12-72