An Introduction To Vibration

Analysis

Sadiq Usman Khattak

Inspection Engineer
Fauji Fertilizer Bin Qasim Limited
 COURSE SCHEME:

This course is divided into three parts

1ST PART - FUNDAMENTALS:

• Maintenance Philosophies
• Vibration definition
• Why measure vibration
• Causes of machinery vibration
• Vibration and machine life
• Results of machine deterioration
• Characteristics of vibration
 Cont…

COURSE SCHEME:

 2ND PART – VIB. TRANSDUCERS:

• Vibration transducers
• Accelerometers
• Vibration frequency analyzers
• FFT spectral parameters
 3RD PART- DIAGNOSTICS:
• Vibration Analysis / diagnostics
 1ST PART - FUNDAMENTALS

Maintenance Philosophies
Vibration definition
Why measure vibration
Causes of machinery vibration
Vibration and machine life
Results of machine deterioration
 Characteristics of vibration
 MAINTENANCE PHILOSPHIES

Maintenance within industry today can be broken down into

four areas

Reactive Planned

Predictive Proactive
 MAINTENANCE PHILOSPHIES

Reactive Maintenance / Breakdown Maintenance

Often called ‘Breakdown Maintenance’ and has the concept ‘fix
it when it breaks’.
It can still be cost effective to use this philosophy on low
criticality machines that do not effect safety, environment or
production upon failure.
 MAINTENANCE PHILOSPHIES

Reactive Maintenance
 MAINTENANCE PHILOSPHIES

Planned Maintenance / Preventive Maintenance

Also known as ‘Shutdowns’. This is based upon ‘Timed Intervals’

between maintenance on machines.
Can be very effective if maintenance and resources are aimed at
the machines that need it the most. It can be very difficult to
distinguish which machines actually need maintenance.
 MAINTENANCE PHILOSPHIES

Predictive Maintenance
Also known as ‘Condition Based Maintenance’. Using non-
intrusive technologies to determine the actual condition of a
machine and its rate of failure.
Can be very effective in extending machine life with big financial
savings if implemented properly.
MAINTENANCE PHILOSPHIES
 MAINTENANCE PHILOSPHIES

Proactive Maintenance
Often referred to as ‘Root Cause Analysis’.
This philosophy works hand in hand with Predictive
Maintenance, eliminating the source of the fault to
try to prevent it from re-occurring.
 Benefits of Implementing Predictive Maintenance
Program
• Increase in machine productivity
• Extend intervals between overhauls
• Minimize the number of ‘open, inspect and repair if necessary’ overhaul routines
• Improve repair time
• Increase machine life
• Resources for repair can be properly planned
• Improve product quality
• Save maintenance costs
Maintenance and Criticality

Critical
Essential
Important
Non Essential
 DEFINITION OF VIBRATION:
Theoretical Definition:

Vibration is a periodic, back and forth motion (oscillation) of an object.

Practical Definition:
Vibration is a dynamic response of bearing housing to the force generated
inside the machine.
 WHY MEASURE VIBRATION?

 It is natural for machines to vibrate.

 Some vibration is there even in best machines.
 Therefore: vibration level may be normal
 Mechanical trouble is usually the reason for excessive vibration:
Something causes it!
 CAUSES: Unbalance, misalignment, worn gears, looseness………
many more!!
 Based on amplitude / frequency i.e. low / high frequency
instrumentation required for measurement of machine’s vibration &
assigns a numeric value to the level of vibration.
 Cont…

WHY MEASURE VIBRATION?

Imbalance
 Vibration analysis
Misalignment
can help to detect a
wide variety of fault
conditions.
 We can detect
different fault
conditions, and
assess the severity. Vane wear
Bearing
faults Looseness
Broken rotor
bars
 CAUSES OF MACHINERY VIBRATION

Machines vibrate because of internal & external forces.

Internal forces: Bearing defects, unbalance, internal looseness, misalignment etc.
External forces: Piping strain, soft foot, transmitted vibration (beating) etc0

Machinery Vibration Involves:

 Motion of Rotors
 Casing Vibrate All At
 Piping The Same
 Foundation Time
 VIBRATION AND MACHINE LIFE

 Causes periodic stresses in Fatigue Failure

machine parts
 Severe vibration causes
machine parts to come into Wear / Damaging
contact

 Hence Control of vibration is important !

 Most common component failure leading to total machine failure is
BEARINGS!
 Cont…

VIBRATION AND MACHINE LIFE:

It is through the bearings that all machine forces are transmitted.

Rated Load
Capacity
3
16,666
_______ Rate
______
Bearing Life in Hours = X Load
RPM

Includes dynamic load from

vibratory sources such as
unbalance & misalignment
Therefore, low levels of vibration indicate low vibratory forces, which in turn
result in improved machinery life
 GENERAL RESULTS OF MACHINERY
DETERIORATION
 Dynamic forces generated by the machine will increase in intensity,
causing increase in vibration Wear, causing build-up of deposits may
cause unbalance, setting of foundation may cause misalignment.
 Physical integrity (stiffness) of the machine will be reduced, causing an
increase in vibration loosing or stretching of mounting bolts, broken
welds, cracked foundation deterioration of grouting, increased bearing
clearance through wear or rotor loose on its shaft will result in reduced
stiffness to control even normal dynamic forces.

Conclusion: Increase in machinery vibration is a positive indicator

of developing problems.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

 Each mechanical problem generates vibration in its own unique way. It

is possible to identify specific nature of the problem by measuring &
noticing its vibration characteristics:

Frequency

Amplitude

Spike Energy

Phase
 VIBRATION FREQUENCY
Definition:

Amount of time required to complete one full cycle of vibration. It is the

repetition rate of vibration per unit of time.
TIME/CYCLE
1
_____
Frequency =
Period

Time for 01 cycle

of vibration

1
_____ , Frequency is 60 cycles/sec
If period = S
60
 Cont…

VIBRATION FREQUENCY

 Vibration meter / data collector / analyzers provide a direct reading of

vibration frequencies generated by the machines.
 Most commonly expressed is CPM, Hertz or in terms of CPM.
 If a machine operates at 3600 RPM, it is much more meaningful to know
that a vibration occurs at 3600 CPM (1 x RPM) than 60 Hz.
 Cont…
VIBRATION FREQUENCY
SIGNIFICANCE:

 Frequency of vibration pinpoints the specific cause of vibration. Very

important analysis / diagnostic tool.
 Mostly vibration problems have frequencies directly related to the
rotational speeds.

Fan 2400 RPM If vibration at

2400 CPM, then
Belt
fan is the source
Motor 3600 RPM of vibration
 Cont…

VIBRATION FREQUENCY
SIGNIFICANCE:
 Each vibration frequency, related to rotating speed (RPM), has common
cause.
 Knowing frequency of vibration how frequency relates to the rotating
speed of the machine components is truly the first step in the analysis
process.
 Not all problems will result in vibration frequencies that are directly
related to the rotating speed of the machine e.g. Antifriction bearing
problems.
 Different machinery problems cause different frequencies of vibration
 VIBRATION FREQUENCY
SIGNIFICANCE:

Frequency Identifies The Vibration Source

 Of RPM Most Likely Causes Other Possible Causes & Remarks

1 x RPM Unbalance 1) Eccentric journals, gears or pulleys

2) Misalignment or bent shaft - If high axial vibration
3) Bad Belts - If RPM of belt
4) Resonance
5) Reciprocating forces
6) Electrical problems
7) Looseness
8) Distortion - soft feet or piping strain
2 x RPM Mechanical 1) Misalignment - if high axial vibration
Looseness 2) Reciprocating forces
3) Resonance
4) Bad belts - if 2 x RPM of belt
3 x RPM Misalignment Usually a combination of misalignment and excessive axial
clearances (looseness).
Less than Oil Whirl (less 1) Bad drive belts
1 x RPM than 1/2 RPM 2) Background vibration
Synchronous Electrical Common electrical problems include broken rotor bars, eccentric
(A.C. Line Problems rotor unbalanced phases in poly-phase systems, unequal
Frequency) air gap.
Many Times RPM Bad Gears Gear teeth times RPM of bad gear
(Harmonically Aerodynamic Forces Number of fan blades times RPM
Related Freq.) Hydraulic Forces Number of impeller vanes times RPM
Mechanical Looseness May occur at 2, 3, 4 and sometimes higher harmonics if
severe looseness
Reciprocating Forces
High Frequency Bad Anti-Friction 1) Bearing vibration may be unsteady - amplitude and frequency
(Not Harmonically Bearings 2) Cavitation, recirculation and flow turbulence cause random,
Related) high frequency vibration
 Cont…
VIBRATION FREQUENCY

COMPLEX VIBRATION:
 Machines can often have several causes of vibration, each cause having
its own unique frequency (i.e. Complex Vibration).
 Each vibration frequency present can be readily identified along with its
cause using standard analysis equipment & technique.
 Knowing the predominant frequency (i.e. with highest amplitude) is
important.
 Cont…

CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE:

 Magnitude of vibration expressed in terms of signal level .

Displacement
pk
pk
Velocity rms
Acceleration 0

Spike Energy
pk
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
Displacement:

 Total distance traveled by the vibrating

pk-pk
part from one extreme limit of travel to
other extreme limit.
 Severity of vibration depends not duly
on displacement but frequency as well as
FATIGUE repeated cycles of flexing
caused by excessive vibratory forces.
 Complex vibration means frequencies,
higher frequency vibration may lead to
more fatigue.
 Cont…

DISPLACEMENT

Displacement - measures the total distance the transducer

(bearing) travels back and forth during one 'cycle‘.

Stress Measurement
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
Velocity:
 Provides overall measurement of vibration that takes into account all
frequencies of vibration, determining overall condition of machine.
Fatigue = Displacement x Frequency
Velocity = Displacement x Frequency
Velocity = Fatigue
 Measure of vibration velocity is a direct measure of fatigue.
 Not necessary to know the frequency of vibration in order to evaluate
the severity of vibration velocity since frequency is already a part of
velocity.
 A measurement of overall vibration velocity is a valid indicator of the
overall condition of a machine, even for complex vibration.
 Industry standard Velocity.
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE

Acceleration:
Measures the rate of change of velocity (how quickly the velocity is
changing)

Acceleration is recommended for use when sources within a machine

generate frequencies over 120,000CPM
WHEN TO USE DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY OR
ACCELERATION
DISPLACEMENT

Useful when frequency range is less than 600 CPM

VELOCITY

To be used when frequency range is b/w 600CPM to 120,000CPM.

ACCELERATION

To be used above 120,000CPM

 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
Spike Energy:
 Vibration velocity is measured in RMS as per ISO standards.
 RMS is average vibration amplitude as a function of time.
 RMS is not effective for detecting problems that produce short duration
spikes or pulses, with significant true peak but small RMS as compared
to other sources of vibration such as unbalance or misalignment.

 Rolling elements bearings deterioration show little increase in

displacement, velocity or acceleration.
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
Spike Energy:

Problem:

RMS combined with other inherent sources of vibration such as unbalance and
misalignment tend or dominate bearing vibration.
Solution:
True peak-peak measurement instead of RMS, filter out other common
frequencies of vibration that mask bearing vibration.
Hence SPIKE ENERGY.
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
What is Spike Energy ?

 When flaws defects appear in bearing, resulting vibration will appear as a

series of short duration spikes or pulses.
 Duration / period of pulse generated by impact depends on physical size
of the flaw.
 In bearing defects, pulse periods are short , frequencies high!
 Micro flaws generate pulse with frequencies of 50 KHz (3,000,000 CPM) or
less.
 When fundamental pulse frequencies reduces to 5 KHz (300,000 CPM),
bearing deterioration has reached severe levels.
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
Features of Spike Energy:

 Since frequency of bearing vibration are high, utilize vibration

acceleration signals from an accelerometer transducer (B/C very high
vibratory forces can occur at high frequencies of vibration even though
the displacement and velocity amplitude may be quite small.
 Incorporate band pass filter to filter out all frequencies above 50 KHz
(3,000,000 CPM) and below 5 KHz (300,000 CPM).
 Since spike-pulse has low RMS incorporate a true pk - pk deterioration.
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE

Phase:
Definition:
 Phase is another name for the relative timing between two events in
different signals.
 In machinery application, the phase of equivalent events on different
vibration signals is called relative phase.
Units
 Degrees, One complete cycle of vibration equals to 360 Degrees.

 Comparative phase measurements aids in pin pointing the specific

problem associated with a particular frequency.
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
Measuring Phase:
 Use a strobe light, triggered by the vibration signal.
 Apply transducer to machine at the point of interest to pick up vibration
signal needed to trigger the strobe light.
 Place a reference mark on the shaft / rotating assembly at a location that
can be readily observed with the strobe.
 As machines rotates, strobe light flashes each time the reference mark
reaches a certain angular position. Flashing action makes eye believe that
the pulley is standing still ( for 1 x vibration)
 Take comparative phase readings by mounting transducer to other
measurement locations using same reference mark and angular reference.
STROBOSCOPE
 Cont…

VIBRATION AMPLITUDE

VIBRATION
SIGNAL
PHASE
LAG

TIME

KEYPHASOR
SIGNAL

DEGREES
OF 0° 360°
ROTATION
2ND PART – SIGNAL PROCESSING
 SIGNAL PROCESSING

• Vibration transducers / Accelerometers

• Vibration frequency analyzers
• FFT spectral parameters
 THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

 Device held or attached to the machine to convert the machines

mechanical vibration into an electrical signal.
 This electrical signal is processed by the associated instrument in to
measurable characteristics of vibration amplitude, frequency and phase.
 Standard vibration transducer used is ACCELEROMETER.
 Cont…

THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

Accelerometer:
 Vibration transducer that produces a voltage output proportional to vibration
acceleration (G’s).
 Amount of voltage generated per unit of vibration acceleration (G) is the
SENSITIVITY.
 Component of the accelerometer that generates the electrical signal is called a
“Piezo Electric” element.
 Piezo Electric crystal generates an electrical signal / charge when mechanically
stressed or “Squeezed”.
Produced Electrical Charge  Applied Force
 When the accelerometer is held or attached to a vibrating object, the Piezo
Electric elements will be subjected to resultant “Inertia” force of the mass.
 Cont…

THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

Accelerometer:
 A force proportional to the vibration acceleration is applied to the
piezoelectric elements, resulting in an electrical charge signal proportional
to vibration acceleration.
 Amplifiers are there to amplify the signal.
 G’s signal is converted to other units of vibration amplitude by electronic
circuitry of integration.
 Cont…

THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

ELECTRONICS
COMPONENT

MICA PRELOAD BOLT

INSULATOR
MASS
CONDUCTIVE
PLATE PIEZOELECTRIC
CRYSTAL
ELECTRICAL
INSULATOR
BASE
ASSEMBLY
 Cont…

THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

Accelerometer Mounting:
 Cont…

THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

Accelerometer Mounting:
 Axial vibration readings should be taken on the bearing as close to the shaft as
possible WITHOUT COMPROMISING PERSONAL SAFETY!
 Vibration should not be taken on :
• Thin structural members (Fan Housings, Duct work, thin steel panels as
these are flexible.
DATAPAC-1500
DYNAMIX-2000
ACCELEROMETER
 VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

Fast Fourier Transformation:

 Any complex waveform can be separated into simple sinuoidal waveform
components or vice-versa.
 This means it is possible to take a vibration time waveform and
mathematically calculate the vibration frequencies.
 The frequency domain presentation of timewaveform is called as
spectrum.
Anti Windows
ANALOG INPUT A/D
Alias & Input FFT
SIGNAL Filter
Converter
Buffer

Calculate Display or
average Storage
 Cont…

VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

INPUT :
 Acceleration converted to desired units.

ANTI – ALIAS FILTER :

 “Range” of vibration frequencies is selected (F max).
 There could be vibration frequencies in the incoming analog signal higher
than Fmax

 Frequencies higher than Fmax are also digitized and included in FFT
calculation.
 These higher frequencies do not occur with the selected Fmax, they appear
as CALCULATED vibration frequency components in the FFT display.
 VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER
ANTI – ALIAS FILTER :
 These frequencies are actually FALSE or NON-EXISTENT and called
“ALIAS” frequencies.
 Anti Alias filter is al low pass electronic filter that filters out of the analog
signal frequency above Fmax
A/D CONVERTER :
 Depending on Fmax, certain period of vibration time wave form is collected
called “ data set”.
 A/D conversion for mathematical processing.
 Cont…

VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

WINDOWING :
 Mathematically calculating the vibration amplitude and frequency
components present in a digitized time wave form (data set) requires that
the beginning and ending amplitudes of the wave form be zero values.
 Electronic circuit called “Window” acts to reduce the amplitude at the
very beginning and ends of the collected data set to zero level.
 Window is normally selected.
FFT CALCULATION :
 Computer clip programmed to carry out FFT to determining individual
frequencies of vibration present AND the amplitude of each frequency
component.
 Cont…
FFT CALCULATION :
 Cont…

VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

AVERAGING :
 Some transient event may occur during collection of sample (data set) of
vibration time wave form data ( process parameter, bumping, nearby
machine startup etc.).
 “Transient” event may change the time wave form.
 Therefore, FFT is performed on more than one sample of data and results
averaged.
 Cont…

VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

Defining FFT Spectral Parameters:
 Following FFT spectral parameters must be defined to take an FFT:

1. Amplitude units Displacement, Velocity, G’s

Range of vibration frequencies

2. Fmax
to be analyzed

3. Frequency Units CPM, Hz

Accuracy of displayed
4. No. of lines of resolution frequency

How many FFTs are taken and

5. No. of Spectral Averages
amplitude averaged to
minimize random and
transient events.
 Cont…

VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

Selecting Fmax:
 Must be high enough to include all significant, problem related
frequencies.
 BUT! Higher the Fmax, lower the accuracy of measured frequencies.

 Fmax should be realistic.

 For rolling element bearings, use 0 –120,000 CPM.
 For sleeve bearings, use 10 x RPM.
 For machines with gear drives use 3.25 x GMF
 Cont…

VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

Selecting The No. of Lines of Resolution:
 LOR are many filters stacked side by side to cover the selected frequency
range. The cursor goes to the center of the LOR in which the vibration
signal is contained.
Fmax
Frequency Resolution = _______
LOR
120,000
_________
= = 300 CPM
400
(+ 150 CPM)

 There is a possibility of problems that can cause very close vibration

frequencies when selecting the FFT parameters of Fmax AND LOR (e.g. 2 x
RPM and 2 x AC line frequency caused by electrical problems).
 Cont…

VIBRAITON FREQUENCY ANALYZER

Selecting The No. of Spectral Averages:
 For obtaining FFT, practice is to collect and average the data from more
than one data set (data set is a sample of wave form) to minimize
influence of transient conditions.
 4 – 8 averages recommended for general types of units.
 For high frequency of vibration such as GMF, min of 8 averages is
recommended.
3RD PART: VIBRATION DIAGNOSTICS
 CAUSES OF VIBRATION

•Unbalance of rotating parts

•Misalignment of couplings & bearings
•Bent shafts
•Worn, eccentric or damaged gears
•Bad drive belt and drive chains
•Bad bearings (anti-friction type)
•Torque variations
•Electromagnetic forces
•Hydraulic forces
•Looseness
•Rubbing
•Resonance
 HOW MUCH VIBRATION IS TOO MUCH ?
•Manufacturers specified limits.
•End users limits
•Comparison with identical machines.
•Note:- Same load, Mounting, Temp, Pressures.
•Standards specific to type ie:-
•BS4999 part 142 -Electrical Motors On Test.
•General standards
•BS4675 (ISO2372- VDI 2056)
•Now BS7854 Part 1 1996 ISO 10816-1 1995
•IRD General Machinery Severity Chart.
 VIBRATION STANDARDS

 How do you know

when to take action?

 Standards are
available.

 There is no substitute
for training and
experience.
 CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES
Class I
Small Machine to 20 HP
Class II

Medium Size Machine 20 to 100 HP

Class III

Large Machines 10-200 rev/Sec, 400 HP and Larger Mounted on rigid

Support

Class IV

Large Machines 10-200 rev/Sec, 400 HP and Larger Mounted on

Flexible Support
 TECHNICAL DATA REQUIRED FOR ANALYSIS

• Machine sketch (Or method of point identification)

• Machine speeds.
• Number of blades on fan.
• Number of vanes on impeller.
• Number and type of drive belts.
• Types and geometry of rolling element bearings.
• Types of journal bearings. ( Note thrust bearing )
• Machine configuration i.e. Vertical motor.
• Type of machine support.
• Environment i.e. Background vibration
 REVIEW THE MACHINE’S HISTORY &
CHARACTERISTICS.

• Are previous readings available?.

• Did the reported fault appear gradually or suddenly?
• Modifications / Servicing prior to fault?
• What is the machine’s normal running speed and load?.
• Can load be easily applied and removed.
• Are the machine drawings and technical data available?.
• Are there any limitations to the number of starts or excessive run up time.
• Is the machine in an intrinsically safe area.

A wise analyst will ask these questions before arriving on site.

 YOUR SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
• Define the problem.
• Review the machine history.
• Inspect and assess the machine.
• Obtain accurate machine data and define the fundamental exciting
frequencies.
• Mark measurement points. Fit reference pickup& shaft phase ref.
• Collect overall readings in velocity and gSE.
• Define your instrument setup for the analysis, i.e. :- Measurement
parameters, Overall Amplitude, FMAX , No of Lines, averages. Then obtain
spectral data (H, V & A) at each bearing point.
• Carry out your analysis of the signatures obtained.
Cause Amplitude Frequency Phase Remarks
Unbalance Most common cause of
Proportional to 1 x RPM Single
Unbalance Reference vibration
Largest in Radial Mark-Stable
Direction. repeatable.
Misalignment Best found by appearance of a large axial
Large in Axial 1 x RPM Usual Single
Couplings or vibration. Use dial indicators or other
direction. 50% or 2 & 3 x RPM Double or
Bearings and method for positive diagnosis. If sleeve
more of Radial sometimes Triple
Bent Shaft bearing machine and no coupling misalignment
Vibration
Bad Bearings Bearing responsible most likely the one
Unsteady-use Very high Erratic
Anti-Friction nearest the point of largest high frequency
Velocity, Acceleration Several times Multiple
Type vibration. Spike energy measurement
and Spike Energy RPM Marks
Measurements recommended when analyzing bearing failures

Eccentric If on gears largest vibration in line with gear

Usually not large 1 X RPM Single
Journals centers. If on motor or generator vibration
Mark
disappears when power is turned off. If on pump
or blower attempt to balance

Bad Gears or Velocity, Acceleration and Spike Energy

Low-use Very high Erratic
Gear Noise measurements recommended when analyzing
Velocity, Acceleration Gear Teeth Multiple
and Spike Energy times RPM Marks gear problems. Analyze higher orders and
Measurements. sideband frequencies.
Mechanical
Sometimes 2 x RPM Two
Looseness
Erratic reference
Marks, Usually accompanied by unbalance and/or
slightly erratic. misalignment.
Bad Drive Strobe light best tool to freeze faulty belt
Erratic or 1,2,3 & 4 x RPM One or Two
Belts
Pulsing of Belts depending on
Frequency
usually unsteady.
Electrical If vibration amplitude drops off instantly when
Disappears when 1 x RPM Single or
power is turned off or 1 or2 Rotating power is turned off cause is electrical.
x Synchronous double Mark Mechanical and electrical problems will produce
Frequency “beats”
Aerodynamic Rare as a cause of trouble except in cases of
Can be large in 1 x RPM or Multiple
or Hydraulic resonance
the Axial Direction number of Marks
Forces
Blades on Fan
or Impeller x RPM
Reciprocating Inherent in reciprocating machines, can only be
Higher in line 1,2 & higher Multiple
Forces reduced by design changes or isolation
with Motion orders x RPM Marks
---
 SIGNATURE ANALYSIS

• Which frequencies exist and what are the relationships to the

fundamental exciting frequencies.
• What are the amplitudes of each peak
• How do the peaks relate to each other
• If there are significant peaks, what are their source
 FORCE (STATIC) UNBALANCE

• Force unbalance will be in-phase and steady

• Amplitude will increase with the square of speed
• 1X RPM always present and normally dominates
• Can be corrected by the placement of one weight in one plane at
the C of G of the rotor
 COUPLE UNBALANCE

• 1800 out of phase on the same shaft

• 1X RPM always present and normally dominates
• Amplitude varies with square of increasing speed
• Can cause high axial as well as radial amplitudes
• Balancing requires Correction in two planes at 180o 3
 OVERHUNG ROTOR UNBALANCE

• 1X RPM present in radial and axial directions

• Axial readings tend to be in-phase but radial readings might be
unsteady
• Overhung rotors often have both force and couple unbalance
each of which may require correction
 DIAGNOSING UNBALANCE
• Vibration frequency equals
rotor speed.
• Vibration predominantly 900
RADIAL in direction.
• Stable vibration phase
measurement.
900
• Vibration increases as square
of speed.
• Vibration phase shifts in
direct proportion to
measurement direction.
 ECCENTRIC ROTOR

• Largest vibration at 1X RPM in the direction of the centerline of

the rotors
• Comparative phase readings differ by 00 or 1800
• Attempts to balance will cause a decrease in amplitude in one
direction but an increase may occur in the other direction
 SHAFT ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT
THIS SHAFT RIGIDLY FIXED AXIALLY
SHAFTS PINNED AT THIS POINT
0
0

90 0

1 REV
180 0
1 CYCLE

270 0

360 0
 ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT

• Characterized by high axial vibration

• 1800 phase change across the coupling
• Typically high 1 and 2 times axial vibration
• Not unusual for 1, 2 or 3X RPM to dominate
• Symptoms could indicate coupling problems
 PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT

1x 2x
4x
Radial

• High radial vibration 1800 out of phase

• Severe conditions give higher harmonics
• 2X RPM often larger than 1X RPM
• Similar symptoms to angular misalignment
• Coupling design can influence spectrum shape and
amplitude
 BENT SHAFT

• Bent shaft problems cause high axial vibration

• 1X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft center
• 2X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft ends
• Phase difference in the axial direction will tend towards 180°difference
 MISALIGNED BEARING

• Vibration symptoms similar to angular misalignment

• Attempts to realign coupling or balance the rotor will not alleviate the
problem.
• Will cause a twisting motion with approximately 1800 phase shift side
to side or top to bottom
 OTHER SOURCES OF HIGH AXIAL
VIBRATION
• Bent Shafts
• Resonance of Some Component in the Axial Direction
• Worn Thrust Bearings
• Worn Helical or Bevel Gears
• A Sleeve Bearing Motor Hunting for its Magnetic Center
• Couple Component of a Dynamic Unbalance
 TYPE A- MECHANICAL LOOSENESS

• Caused by structural looseness of machine feet

• Distortion of the base will cause “soft foot” problems
• Phase analysis will reveal approx. 1800 phase shift in the vertical
direction between the base plate components of the machine
 TYPE B - LOOSE BEARING, IMPROPER
FIT (IMPULSE / IMPACT)

• Bearing loose in housing

 • Excessive
Multiple internal
harmonics clearance
of RPM
–• starting
Loose bearing
at 7 and liner in capin certain cases to close to 30
extending
• harmonics
Loose rotor on shaft
 Directional
• Bearing (along
looseaxis of loose
(often part)
through friction machining) and shaft
 With turning
greater within
amplitudes at running
the inner speed harmonics,
ring (bearing turning onthe rub event
shaft)
may become more significant
– 0.5X, 1.5X, 2.5X, etc (or a series based on 1/3 X RPM)
– the rub event is MUCH LOWER in amplitude than the impact
EXAMPLES

TA
6-58
 TYPICAL SPECTRUM FOR
LOOSENESS OF ROTATING SYSTEM
 ROTOR RUB

Truncated waveform

• Similar spectrum to mechanical looseness

• Usually generates a series of frequencies which may excite natural
frequencies
• Sub harmonic frequencies may be present
• Rub may be partial or through a complete revolution.
BELT PROBLEMS (A)
WORN, LOOSE OR MISMATCHED BELTS

BELT FREQUENCY
HARMONICS

• Often 2X RPM is dominant

• Amplitudes are normally unsteady, sometimes pulsing with
either driver or driven RPM
• Wear or misalignment in timing belt drives will give high
amplitudes at the timing belt frequency
• Belt frequencies are below the RPM of either the driver or the
driven
 BELT PROBLEMS (B)

BELT / PULLEY MISALIGNMENT

1X DRIVER
OR DRIVEN

• Pulley misalignment will produce high axial vibration at 1X

RPM
• Often the highest amplitude on the motor will be at the fan
RPM
 BELT PROBLEMS (C)
ECCENTRIC PULLEYS

RADIAL
1X RPM OF
ECCENTRIC
PULLEY

• Eccentric or unbalanced pulleys will give a high 1X RPM of

the pulley
• The amplitude will be highest in line with the belts
• Beware of trying to balance eccentric pulleys
 BELT PROBLEMS (D)
BELT RESONANCE
RADIAL

1X RPM

BELT RESONANCE

• High amplitudes can be present if the belt natural frequency

coincides with driver or driven RPM
• Belt natural frequency can be changed by altering the belt
tension
HYDRAULIC AND AERODYNAMIC FORCES
BPF = BLADE PASS
FREQUENCY

• If gap between vanes and casing is not equal, Blade Pass

Frequency may have high amplitude
• High BPF may be present if impeller wear ring seizes on shaft
• Eccentric rotor can cause amplitude at BPF to be excessive
 HYDRAULIC AND AERODYNAMIC FORCES

CAVITATION

• Cavitation will generate random, high frequency broadband energy superimposed

with BPF harmonics
• Normally indicates inadequate suction pressure
• Erosion of impeller vanes and pump casings may occur if left unchecked
• Sounds like gravel passing through pump
 CAVITATION CHARACTERISTICS

• Broadband / white noise

 discernible to 120 KCPM
• Increases HFD / Spike Energy / etc
• Noise (gravelly)
• Rotor erosion
• Quick pressure fluctuations
 RECAP
• 1ST PART - FUNDAMENTALS:
• Vibration definition
• Why measure vibration
• Causes of machinery vibration
• Vibration and machine life
• Results of machine deterioration
• Characteristics of vibration
 2ND PART - FUNDAMENTALS:
• Vibration transducers
• Accelerometers
• Vibration frequency analyzers
• FFT spectral parameters
 3RD PART – DIAGNOSTICS:
• Vibration Analysis / Diagnostics