COURSE CONTENT:

 Basic Orientation
 Review of the Thermodynamic Cycle
 Simple Rankine Cycle Analysis
 Improving Rankine Cycle
Efficiency
 Actual Rankine Cycle
 Ideal & Actual Reheat Cycle
 Ideal & Actual Regenerative Cycle
 Ideal & Actual Reheat-Regenerative
Cycle
 Binary Cycles
 Toping or Superposing Cycles
 Incomplete Expansion Engines
 Other Gas Power Cycles
Brayton Cycle
Air-Standard Cycle, OTTO/Diesel cycle
 Gas Compression Analysis
 Real Gases
 Properties of gas & vapor mixtures
Lesson Review
Laws of Thermodynamics:

The four laws of thermodynamics define

fundamental physical quantities
(temperature,energy, and entropy) that
characterize thermodynamic systems.
The laws describe how these quantities
behave under various circumstances,
and forbid certain phenomena (such
as perpetual motion).
ZEROTH LAW
The “Zeroth Law’ in its wider sense
establishes a notion of internal
thermodynamic equilibrium of a
system. In a narrow sense, the law
states that if two systems are both in
thermal equilibrium with a third
system then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This law
helps define the notion
of temperature.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

States that “One Form of

Energy May be Converted Into
Another”.
The first law establishes a notion
of internal energy for a
thermodynamic system. Heat and
work are forms of energy transfer. The
internal energy of a thermodynamic
system may change as heat or matter
are transferred into or out of the
system or work is done on or by the
system.
All the energy transfers must be
accounted for to see that there is
strict conservation of the total
energy of a thermodynamic system
and its surroundings. The law implies
that perpetual motion machines of
the first kind, which would do work
without using the energy resources of
a system, are impossible.
Stated also as follows:
1. Is also known as the conservation of
energy principle.
2. Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed.
3. States that one form of energy may
be converted into another form or
energy entering to a system is equal
to energy leaving from the system.
4. In the absence of any work
interactions between a system and
its surroundings, the amount of net
heat transfer is equal to the total
energy of a closed system.
5. For all adiabatic processes between
two specified states of a closed
system, the net work done is the
same regardless of the nature of the
closed system and the details of the
process.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

“All energy received as heat by a

heat-engine cycle cannot be
converted into mechanical work.”
An isolated physical system, if not
already in its own internal state of
thermodynamic equilibrium,
spontaneously evolves towards it.
In an isolated physical system,
there is a tendency towards
spatial homogeneity. In particular,
when an isolated physical system
reaches its own internal state of
thermodynamic equilibrium, its
temperature is spatially uniform.
When work is done on or by a
thermodynamic system, a certain
amount of that energy is lost to
inefficiency, related to the
difference between the energy
level of the input and the output.
This loss is described by the
notion of entropy, which is often
used to express the law.
Some of the loss is due to friction
when work is done, and some of it
may be due to the relaxation of
the system towards spatial
homogeneity. The law says that
these two mechanisms occur
always and inevitably. The law
implies that perpetual motion
machines of the second kind are
impossible.
Kelvin-Planck Statement:
1.It is impossible to construct a heat
engine which operates in a cycle and
receives a given amount of heat from
a high temperature body and does an
equal amount of work.
2. No heat engine can have a thermal
efficiency of 100%.
3. For a Power Plant to operate, the
working fluid must exchange heat
with the environment as well as the
furnace.
Clausius Statement:
“It is impossible to construct a device
that operates in a cycle and produces
no effect other than the transfer of
heat from a lower temperature body
to a higher temperature body”
NOTE:
1. Any device that violates the first law
of thermodynamics is called perpetual
motion machine of the first kind.
2. Any device that violates the second
law of thermodynamics is called
perpetual motion machine of the
second kind.
3. Any device that violates the first and
second law of thermodynamics is
called perpetual motion machine.
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

“The absolute entropy of a pure

crystalline substance in complete
internal equilibrium is zero at zero
degree absolute.”

An energy interaction which is accompanied

by entropy transfer is heat transfer.
An energy interaction which is not
accompanied by entropy transfer is work.
There are various ways of expressing
the third law. They derive from the
statistical mechanical explanation of
thermodynamics. They refer to ideally
perfect theoretical models of physical
systems. A common expression of the
law states that no practicable means
can bring a physical system to an
exactly zero absolute thermodynamic
temperature.
Definitions:
1. Carnot cycle is the most efficient
thermodynamic cycle.
2. Heat is transferred during
isothermal process in Carnot cycle.
3. Pressure increases during the
isentropic compression of Carnot
cycle.
4. Pressure decreases during the
isentropic expansion of Carnot cycle.
5. Temperature during heat rejection in
Carnot cycle is known as
temperature sink.
6. The efficiency of Carnot cycle
depends mainly in temperature
ranges.
7. Work is the neat area under T-S
diagram of Carnot cycle is Work.
8. Mean effective pressure is the ratio
of Net Work & Volume Displacement.
 9. A Carnot cycle has two isothermals

and two isentropic processes.

10. Thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle
increases with an increase in the
average temperature at which heat
is added to the system or with a
decrease in the average
temperature at which heat is
rejected from the system.
OPERATION OF A CARNOT CYCLE:
A cylinder C contains m (mass) of a
substance. The cylinder head, the only place
where heat may enter or leave the
substance (system) is placed in contact with
the source of heat or hot body which has a
constant temperature T1. Heat flows from
the hot body into the substance in the
cylinder isothermally, process 1-2, and the
piston moves from 1’ to 2’. Next, the
cylinder is removed from the hot body and
the insulator I is placed over the head of the
cylinder, so that no heat may be transferred
in or out.
 As a result, any further process is
adiabatic. The isentropic change 2-3 now
occurs and the piston moves from 2’ to 3’.
When the piston reaches the end of the stroke
3’ , the insulator I is removed and the cylinder
head is placed in contact with the receiver or
sink, which remains at a constant
temperature T3.
Heat then flows from the substance to the
sink, and the isothermal compression 3-4
occurs while the piston moves from 3’ to 4’.
Finally, the insulator I is again placed over the
head and the isentropic compression 4-1
returns the substance to its initial condition,
as the piston moves from 4’ to 1’.
Analysis of the Carnot Cycle:

(a) Heat Added

QA = T1 (S2 – S1); area 1-2-n-m-1

(b) Heat Rejected

QR = T3 (S4 – S3); area 3-4-m-n-3
= -T3 (S3 – S4)
= -T3 (S2 – S1)
(c) Work
W= QA – QR
= T1 (S2 – S1) – T3 (S2 – S1)
= (T1 – T3) (S2 – S1); area 1-2-3-4-1
(d) Efficiency
e = W / QA = (QA – QR) /QA
= (T1 – T3) (S2– S1) / T1 (S2 – S1)
= (T1 – T3) / T1
Thermal Efficiency; e
Is defined as the fraction of the heat
supplied to a thermodynamic cycle
that is converted into work.
Mean Effective Pressure ( pm or mep ):
- is the average constant pressure that,
acting through one stroke, will do on the
piston the net work of a single cycle.
pm = W / V D
VD = displacement volume (the volume swept

by the piston in one stroke)

= V2 – V3
Work from the TS plane:
QA = mRT1 ln V2/V1
QR = -mRT3 ln V3/V4

for Process 2-3 (Isentropic Expansion):

k-1

T3/T2 = [V2/V3]
for Process 4–1 (Isentropic Compression):

k-1

T4/T1 = [V1/V4]
but T4 = T3 and T1 = T2
therefore;
k-1 k-1

[V2/V3] = [V1/V4]
then;
V3/V4 = V2/V1
QR = -mRT3 ln V2/V1
W = QA - Q R
= mRT1 ln V2/V1 - mRT3 ln V2/V1
W = (T1 - T3) mR ln V2/V1

Efficiency; e:
= W/QA
= (T1 - T3) mR ln (V2/V1) / mRT1 ln (V2/V1)
= (T1 - T3) / T1
Summation of work from the P-V plane:

W= Ʃ W
= W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + W4-1
= p1V1 ln V2/ V1 + [p3V3 - p2V2] /1-k
+ p3V3 ln V4/ V3 + [p3V3 - p2V2] /1-k
Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression:

Expansion Ratio = Volume at the end of

expansion / Volume at
the beginning of expansion

Isothermal Expansion Ratio = V2 / V1

Isentropic Expansion Ratio = V3 / V2

Overall Expansion Ratio = V3 / V1

Compression Ratio = Volume at the beginning

of compression / volume
at the end compression

Isothermal Compression Ratio = V3 / V4

Isentropic Compression Ratio; rk = V4 / V1

Overall Compression Ratio = V3 / V1

EXERCISES:

1. A Steam Engine operates bet. 185˚K

& 650˚K . What is the maximum
theoretical thermal efficiency?
2. A Carnot Engine requires 35 kJ/s of
heat from hot source. The engine
produces 15 kW of power & the
temp. of the sink is 26˚C. What is
the temp. of the hot source?
3. A Carnot Engine receives 185.37
kJ of heat from a reservoir at
724˚K & rejects 46.15 kJ of heat.
Calculate the gauge temp. of the
cold reservoir.
4. A Heat Engine is operated bet.
limits of 1370˚C & 260˚C.
Engine is supplied with 14,142
kJ/kW-hr. Find the Carnot cycle
efficiency.
5. A Heat Engine (Carnot cycle) has
its intake and exhaust
temperature of 157˚C & 100˚C,
respectively. What is the cycle
efficiency?
6. A Carnot Power Cycle operates on 2.0 kg of air bet. the
limits of 427˚K & 1879˚K. The pressure at the beginning of
isothermal expansion is 1018 KPa & at the end of
isothermal expansion is 93 kN/m². Note: k=1.4
Determine:
(a) Vol. at the end of isothermal compression;
(b) Change of entropy during an isothermal
process;
(c) Heat Added;
(d) Heat Rejected;
(e) Work;
(f) Efficiency;
(g) Ratio of expansion during isothermal heating;
(h) Over-all ratio of expansion;
(i) Final P-V & T-S diagrams.
7. A Carnot Power Cycle operates on 1.5 kg of air bet. the
limits of 327˚C & 1777˚C. The pressure at the beginning
of isothermal expansion is 816.32 KPa & at the end of
isothermal expansion is 89 kN/m². Note: k=1.4
Determine:
(a) Vol. at the end of isothermal compression;
(b) Change of entropy during an isothermal
process;
(c) Heat Added;
(d) Heat Rejected;
(e) Work;
(f) Efficiency;
(g) Ratio of expansion during isothermal heating;
(h) Over-all ratio of expansion;
(i) Final P-V & T-S diagrams.
8. A Carnot Power Cycle operates on 0.91 kg of air bet. the
limits of 21.1˚C & 260˚C. The pressure at the beginning of
isothermal expansion is 2.66 MPa & at the end of
isothermal expansion is 1.28 MPa. Note: k=1.4
Determine:
(a) Vol. at the end of isothermal compression;
(b) Change of entropy during an isothermal
process;
(c) Heat Added;
(d) Heat Rejected;
(e) Work;
(f) Efficiency;
(g) Ratio of expansion during isothermal heating;
(h) Over-all ratio of expansion;
(i) Mean effective pressure;
(j) Final P-V & T-S diagrams.
9. A Carnot Power Cycle operates on 1.45 kg of air bet. the
limits of 306˚K & 2017˚K. The pressure at the beginning of
isothermal expansion is 735.83 kPa & at the end of
isothermal expansion is 89 kPa. Note: k=1.4
Determine:
(a) Vol. at the end of isothermal compression;
(b) Change of entropy during an isothermal
process;
(c) Heat Added;
(d) Heat Rejected;
(e) Efficiency;
(g) Ratio of expansion during isothermal heating;
(h) Over-all ratio of expansion;
(i) Mean effective pressure;
(j) Final P-V & T-S diagrams.
SIMPLE RANKINE
DEFINITION:

Rankine Cycle is a cycle that converts

heat into work. The heat is supplied
externally to a closed loop, which
usually uses water. This cycle
generates about 80% of all electric
power used throughout the
world including virtually all solar,
thermal, biomass, coal and nuclear
power plants.
The Rankine cycle is sometimes
referred to as a practical Carnot cycle
because, when an efficient turbine is
used, the T-S diagram begins to
resemble the Carnot cycle. The main
difference is that heat addition (in the
boiler) and rejection (in the condenser)
are isobaric in the Rankine cycle
and isothermal in the theoretical
Carnot cycle.
A pump is used to pressurize the
working fluid received from the
condenser as a liquid instead of as a
gas.
Rankine Cycle is the ideal
cycle used as the standard
of comparison for power
plants.
 Steam
Turbine

Generator
 4-1: Isobaric
Heat Addition

1-2: Isentropic
Expansion

3-4: Adiabatic
Pumping

2-3: Isobaric
Heat Rejection
Process 1-2:
ISENTROPIC EXPANSION
(Steam Turbine)
The dry saturated vapor expands
through a turbine, generating power.
This decreases the temperature and
pressure of the vapor, and some
condensation may occur. The output in
this process can be easily calculated
using the Enthalpy-Entropy Chart or
the Steam Tables.
Process 2-3:
ISOBARIC HEAT REJECTION
(Condenser)
The wet vapor then enters
a condenser where it is condensed at a
constant pressure to become
a saturated liquid
Process 3-4:
ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION
(Pump)
The working fluid is pumped from low
to high pressure, as the fluid is a
liquid at this stage the pump requires
little input energy.
Process 4-1:
ISOBARIC HEAT ADDITION
(Boiler)
The high pressure liquid enters a boiler
where it is heated at constant pressure
by an external heat source to become
a dry saturated vapor. The input
energy required can be easily
calculated using or h-s chart or
enthalpy-entropy chart also known
as steam tables.
 Reasons for considering
Rankine Cycle as an ideal
cycle for Steam Power Plants
 It is very difficult to build a pump that
will handle a mixture of liquid & vapor
at state ‘3 (refer to T-S diagram) &
deliver saturated liquid at state ‘4. It is
much easier to completely condense
the vapor & handle only liquid in the
pump
 In the Rankine Cycle, the vapor may be
superheated at constant pressure
without difficulty. In a carnot cycle
using superheated steam, the
superheating will have to be done at
constant temperature. During this
process, the pressure has to be
dropped. This means that heat is
transferred to the vapor as it
undergoes expansion doing work. This
is difficult to achieve in practice.
Analysis of Rankine Cycle:

A. Heat Added in the Boiler; QA

By Energy Balance

QA = (h1-h4) ; kJ/kg
QA = m (h1-h4) ; kW
Where: m = mass flow rate of steam (kg/s)
Heat Rejected in the Condenser; QR
By Energy Balance

QR = (h2-h3) ; kJ/kg
QR = m (h2-h3) ; kW
B. Turbine Work; Wt
By Energy Balance

Wt = (h1-h2) ; kJ/kg
Wt = m (h1-h2) ; kW
Note: if change in Kinetic Energy is given:

Wt = h1-h2 + ∆KE ; kJ/kg

Wt = m [(h1-h2) + (KE1-KE2)] ; kW
C. Pump Work; Wp
By Energy Balance
c.1 Exact Pump Work

Wp = (h4-h3) ; kJ/kg
Wp = m (h4-h3) ; kW
c.2 Approximate Pump Work

Wp = vf3 (p4-p3) ; kJ/kg

Wp = mvf3 (p4-p3) ; kW
D. Net Cycle Work; Wnet
Wnet = Wt - Wp
= Q A - QR
Wnet = h1 - h2 -Wp
E. Thermal Efficiency; ɳth
ɳth = Wnet / QA

NOTE: The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is not

as high as Carnot cycle but the cycle has less
practical difficulties and more economical.
EXERCISES:

1. Steam is generated at 4.20 MPa & 470°C &

condensation occurs at 0.115 MPa. For
Rankine cycle operating between these
limits, determine QA, QR, Wnet, thermal
efficiency & mass flow rate required for a
net output of 37,000 kW? SOLUTION

2. An ideal Rankine cycle has a throttle

conditions of 6 MPa & 450°C. Exhaust
pressure is at 0.005 MPa. Determine the
Rankine cycle efficiency.SOLUTION
3. In a Rankine cycle, saturated liquid water
at 1 bar is compressed isentropically to
150 bar. First by heating in a boiler & then
by superheating at constant pressure of
150 bar, the water substance is brought to
750°K. After adiabatic reversible expansion
in a turbine to 1 bar, it is then cooled in a
condenser to a saturated liquid. How much
work is generated in the turbine?
SOLUTION
REHEAT
The steam leaving the boiler at state 1
enters the high- pressure section of
turbine where it expands to some
intermediate pressure. Then the steam
leaves the turbine at state 2 and enters
the boiler where it is reheated. The
reheating of the steam is usually done to
the original temperature of the steam. The
reheated steam at stage 3 enters the low
pressure section of the turbine and expands
to the condenser pressure. The wet steam
at state 4 enters the condenser where it
rejects heat to the cooling water and
leaves the condenser at state 5.
The efficiency of the plant sometimes can
be increased by withdrawing the steam
from the turbine after it has partially
expanded, and piping the steam back to the
steam generator for reheating. This also has
the effect of reducing the moisture content
of the steam in the turbine limiting the
amount of moisture to 10 or 12%. This is
important because water can cause
increased turbine-blade corrosion.
PROCESSES OF REHEAT CYCLE:
1-2: Partial isentropic expansion in the turbine
2-3: Constant pressure re-superheating in the
reheater
3-4: Complete isentropic expansion in the turbine
4-5: Constant pressure rejection of heat in the
condenser
5-6: Adiabatic pumping
6-1: Constant pressure addition of heat in the
boiler
Analysis of Reheat Cycle:

A. Heat Added in the Boiler; QA

By Energy Balance

QA = (h1-h6) ; kJ/kg
QA = m (h1-h6) ; kW
Where: m = mass flow rate of steam (kg/s)
Heat Rejected in the Condenser; QR
By Energy Balance

QR = (h4-h5) ; kJ/kg
QR = m (h4-h5) ; kW
B. Turbine Work; Wt
By Energy Balance

Wt = (h1-h2) + (h3-h4) ; kJ/kg

Wt = m (h1-h2) + (h3-h4 ) ; kW
C. Pump Work; Wp
By Energy Balance
c.1 Exact Pump Work

Wp = (h6-h5) ; kJ/kg
Wp = m (h6-h5) ; kW
c.2 Approximate Pump Work

Wp = Vf4 (P6-P5) ; kJ/kg

Wp = mVf4 (P6-P5) ; kW
D. Net Cycle Work; Wnet
Wnet = Wt - Wp
= Q A - QR
Wnet = (h1-h2) + (h3-h4) -Wp
E. Thermal Efficiency; ɳth
ɳth = Wnet / QA

F. Steam Rate; SR
SR = 3600/Wnet
EXERCISES:

1. In a reheat cycle, steam at 8.0 MPa & 485°C enters

the turbine & expands to 1.4 MPa. At this point,
the steam is withdrawn & passed through the
reheater. It re-enters the turbine at 1.3 MPa &
720°C. Expansion now occurs to the condenser
SOLUTION

pressure of 0.006 MPa. For the cycle, & 1 kg

steam, calculate.
for the cycle:
1. Heat Added; QA
2. Wnet
3. Thermal efficiency; ɳt
for the engine:
1. Cycle work; W
2. Thermal efficiency; ɳt
3. Steam flow for an engine output of 40,000
SOLUTION

kW
REGENERATIVE
 The thermal efficiency of a simple
steam power plant is less than fifty percent.
This means that more than half of the heat
added to the water in the boiler is just
wasted and rejected in the condenser. In
order to utilize some of these heats that
would have been wasted and rejected in the
condenser, part of the throttle steam is
extracted or bled for feedwater heating after
it has partially expanded in the turbine. The
extraction/bled points occur near the
saturation state. The process of
of heating feedwater in this manner is called
regeneration and the cycle governing it is
the REGENERATIVE CYCLE.
PROCESSES OF REGENERATIVE CYCLE:
1-2: Partial isentropic expansion in the turbine
2-6: Constant pressure rejection of heat in the
heater
2-3: Complete isentropic expansion in the turbine
3-4: Constant pressure rejection of heat in the
condenser
4-5: Adiabatic pumping in the first pump
5-6: Constant pressure addition of heat in the
heater
6-7: Adiabatic pumping in the second pump
Analysis of Regenerative Cycle:

A. Heat Added in the Boiler; QA

By Energy Balance

QA = (h1-h7) ; kJ/kg
QA = m (h1-h7) ; kW
Where: m = mass flow rate of steam (kg/s)
B. Heat Rejected in the Condenser; QR
By Energy Balance

QR = (m-m1) (h3-h4) ; kW
C. Turbine Work; Wt
By Energy Balance

Wt = m(h1-h2)+(m-m1)(h2-h3) ;kW
D. Pump Work; Wp
By Energy Balance
c.1 Exact Total Pump Work

Wp = Wp1 + Wp2
Wp = (m-m1)(h5-h4) + (m-m1)
(h7-h6) ; kW
c.2 Approximate Total Pump Work

Wp = Wp1 + Wp2
Wp = Vf4 (P5-P4) + Vf6 (P7-P6) ; kW
E. Net Cycle Work; Wnet
Wnet = Wt – Wp ; kW
= QA - QR ; kW
F. Thermal Efficiency; ɳth
ɳth = Wnet / QA

G. Steam Rate; SR (kg/kW-hr)

SR = 3600/Wnet
H. Mass of Extracted Steam; m1
By Heat Balance in the Regenerative Heater

m1h2 + (m-m1)h5 = mh6

thus;

m1 = m(h6–h5) / h2-h5
 REHEAT-
REGENERATIVE
 Four-Stroke Cycle Engine

• EngineThe four stroke

engine was first
demonstrated by Nikolaus
Otto in 18761, hence it is
also known as the Otto
cycle. The technically correct
term is actually four stroke
cycle. The four stroke
engine is probably the most
common engine type
nowadays. It powers almost
all cars and trucks.
The four strokes of the cycle are:

 Intake
 Compression
 Power
 Exhaust

Each corresponds to one full stroke of the

piston, therefore the complete cycle
requires two revolutions of the crankshaft
to complete.
Intake Stroke
Intake. During the intake
stroke, the piston moves
downward, drawing a fresh
charge of vaporized fuel/air
mixture. The illustrated
engine features a 'poppet'
intake valve which is drawn
open by the vacuum
produced by the intake
stroke. Some early engines
worked this way, however
most modern engines
incorporate an extra
cam/lifter arrangement as
seen on the exhaust valve.
The exhaust valve is held
shut by a spring (not
illustrated here
Compression Stroke

Compression. As the
piston rises the poppet
valve is forced shut by
the increased cylinder
pressure. Flywheel
momentum drives the
piston upward,
compressing the fuel/air
mixture.
Power Stroke

Power. At the top

of the compression
stroke the spark
plug fires, igniting
the compressed
fuel. As the fuel
burns it expands,
driving the piston
downward
Exhaust Stroke
Exhaust. At the
bottom of the
power stroke, the
exhaust valve is
opened by the
cam/lifter
mechanism. The
upward stroke of
the piston drives
the exhausted fuel
out of the cylinder.
REFERENCES:
Faires, Moring Vigil & Simmang, Clifford Max.
Thermodynamics. 6th Edition. Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc. New York. 1978

Sta. Maria, Hipolito B. Thermodynamics I. National

Bookstore. 1990

Sta. Maria, Hipolito B. Thermodynamics II. National

Bookstore. 1991

Keenan, Joseph H., Keyes, G. Frederick, Hill, G. Philip,

Moore, Joan G. Steam Tables S.I Units. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1978.