Professional Documents
Culture Documents
[1]
1,
2, l;
lng t spin
lng spin ca in t,
Ngoi ra, s phn b in t theo cc mc trng thi (kh nng c mt ti mt phn
lp no vi mt trng thi nng lng xc nh) cn tun theo nguyn l pauli: mi
trng thi vi ba s lng t n, l,
xc nh ch c th cha hai in t vi spin ngc
chiu nhau. Da vo nguyn l ny, c th d on s in t cho php trn cc bc nng
lng (ng vi cc lp v phn lp) khc nhau (bng 1.1)
Bng 1.1 S lng in t (s trng thi nng lng) trn mt s lp v phn lp
K hiu S lng S lng in t c th
S lng K
hiu
phn lp trng thi
Trn phn
t chnh
lp in t
Trn lp
in t
c th
lp
1
K
s
1
2
2
s
1
2
2
L
8
p
3
6
s
1
2
3
M
p
3
6
18
d
5
10
s
1
2
p
3
6
4
N
32
d
5
10
f
7
14
V d. nguyn t ng (Cu) vi s th th nguyn t Z
nh sau:
1
K
3
L
, c phn phi in t
ec.s)
[2]
(1.1)
[3]
B ht bi ht nhn ca mnh
O)
hoc polyetylen (
) . Nhng khng cho php l gii s to thnh mt s vt rn t
nhng phn t trung ha nh nc polyme
Trong nhiu phn t c lin kt ng ha tr , do s khc nhau v tnh m in ca
cc nguyn t , trng tm in tch dng v in tch m khng trng nhau, ngu cc
in s to thnh , phn t b phn cc . Lin kt van der waals l lin kt do hiu ng ht
nhau gia cc nguyn t hoc phn t b phn cc trng thi rn . Lin kt ny l loi
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
tnh d hng, tc l s khc nhau v tnh cht (c, l , ha tnh ) theo cc hng khc
nhau ca tinh th. minh ha munyoung ( E) ca ng ( Cu) bng 67 GPa v 192 GPa
tng ng theo cc hng cnh v ng cho khng gian ca c s .
Cui cng mun lu rng s sp xp cc nguyn t trong vt rn theo mng tinh
th ph thuc vo nhiu yu t nh : lin kt gia cc nguyn t s lng cc nguyn t
gn nht hoc l s sp xp m mi nguyn t c th chp nhn.
1.2.3 Cht lng, vt rn vi tinh th v v nh hnh.
Mt cch gn ng, th tch ca mt khi lng cht lng l i lng khng i .
Ging nh trong vt rn cc nguyn t c xu th tip xc vi nhau v chim mt khng
gian hnh cu kch thc khong 0.25 nm . Nn cht long khng c tnh chu nn.
S khc nhau gia cht lng v vt rn th hin nh sau :
Cc nguyn t lun lun chuyn ng do ba ng nhit, v vy v tr ca chng
khng c xc nh. trn hnh 1.8a biu din s m t v tr cc nguyn t ca mt
cht lng ti mt thi im trong khn gian hai chiu. Nhn thy rng, trong mt vng
khng gian nh (c kch thc nguyn t), mt s nguyn t sp xp c trt t ( gii hn
bi ng t on trn hnh 1.8a), nhng khng n nh lun lun b ph v do ba ng
nhit. Nh vy cht lng c trt t gn. c im trt t gn c th hin trn ng
cong xc sut P(d) ph thuc vo khong cch d : P(d) =1 ti im ng vi khong cch
trung bnh gia cc nguyn t trong vng trt t gn xa hn na, gi tr xc sut P(d)
lun bng 1, tc ging nh trong cht kh. Ngc vi tnh d hng trong cht rn ca vt
rn, cht lng c tnh ng hng v trong cht lng s lng nguyn t, phn t trung
bnh trn mt n v chiu di v lc lin kt gia chng nh nhau. Theo mt hng trong
khng gian :
sp xp cht (t l gia th tch do cc nguyn t chim ch trn tng th tch)
ca cht lng km hn so vi vt rn (qu trnh kt tinh hoc ng rn thng km theo s
gim th tch.
Mt cch gn ng c th minh ha cht khi, cht lng, cht rn bng hnh nh
tng ng : hi trng ha nhc trt khan gi khi ci bo ng (kh ) khi kt thc bui ha
nhc (lng) v hang ng b i chun b duyt binh trn mt qung trng (rn ).
Hy lm quen vi m c trng na ca cht lng l tnh linh ng ca cc nguyn
t (phn t), nh gi bng st. Cht lng c st thp nn tnh chy (kh nng in
y th tch cha n) cao. Thc nghim chng minh,trong chuyn bin pha lng - rn
( nhit nng chy ) st khng thay i.
i vi mt s cht,trng thi lng c st cao,cc nguyn t (phn t) khng
linh hot sp xp li theo trt t xa khi chuyn pha lng - rn : vt rn to thnh
khng c cu trc tinh th v c gi l vt rn v nh hnh.V d,thu tinh c cu to
[9]
bi cc phn t
nh l cc ion
[10]
Graphit
Sn
Polyme
SiO2
Mica
Van der
waals
Fe, Ni,
Co
Cr
Kim loi
(Cu, Na,
Ag
CsCl
Ion
[11]
ion
Kim
loi
Van
der
waals
NaCl (3,3)
Na (1,1)
cu (3,5)
Ti (4,8)
H2 (0,01)
CH4
Cl2
Cho
(hoc
nhn) in t
ho tr
Lc ht, y
tnh in
Mng
ca
cc ion trong
khng gian
in t t do
chung
Tnh
do
Cao
Cao
Thp
Cao
Thp
Cao
Cao
Thp
Cao
Thp
trung
bnh
trung
bnh
trung
bnh
trung
bnh
Cao
Cao
Cao
Thp
Thp
Cao
Lc ht ngu
Thp
cc
Cao
trung
bnh
a3
a3
b3
b1
a1
b1
a1
a2
b3
a2
b2
[13]
,b=
,c=
tun hon (chu k tnh tin) ca mng tinh th theo ba chiu tng ng.Cc gc to bi 3
vect
, gia
,
v
( l gc gia
gia
Thy rng trong cng mng tinh th c th chn c nhiu kiu c s khc
nhau (hnh 1.12a).Tuy nhin,v c s l n v tun hon nh nht ca mng tinh th cho
nn vic la chn phi tha mn nguyn tc sao cho n i din y cho tnh cht v
cu trc ca ton b tinh th .Cc nguyn tc l:
-Tnh i xng ca c s phi l Tnh i xng ca tinh th (v hnh dng bn
ngoi v cc tnh cht);
-S cnh bng nhau v s gc (gia cc cnh) bng nhau ca phi nhiu nht;
-Nu c cc gc vung gia cc cnh th s gc phi nhiu nht;
-C th tch nh nht hoc cc cnh bn ngn nht.
c s c th tch nh nht v ch c tm nguyn t (ion,phn t) nm nh (nt
mng) gi l c s n gin (hnh 1.12b).
Ph thuc v tng quan gia ba vect
;ba gc
H
th
Ba
nghing
a # b #c
# #
# 90
Mt
Nghing
a # b #c
= =
90 #
Trc
thoi
a # b #c
==
= 90
Ba
Phng
(thoi)
a=b=c
==
# 90
Su
Phng
a=b#c
= =
90 = =
120
Bn
Phng
a=b#c
==
= 90
a = b =c
==
= 90
Lp
Phng
Tm Khi
Tm mt
ca c s,nt O l gc ta (hnh
(1.28)
z1 = z0 + n3c
trong n1 ,n2 ,n3 - cc s nguyn
Ta cn c th biu din di dng vect :
=
+ n1
+ n2
+ n3
(1.29)
[16]
[17]
(1.32)
[18]
L, v, s
L, S,V
th.
[19]
Hnh 1.16 l v d cch tnh Ml, Ms, Mv cho mt tinh th lp phng tm mt (bng
1.4). Coi cc nt mng l nguyn t hnh cu, bn knh r, c s kch thc , kh :
Mt xp theo phng [010]:
Mt xp theo mt (100):
Mt xp theo mt (111):
[20]
[21]
Dng l hng
Khi 4 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 4 mt
[22]
S lng l hng
trong c s
8
4
12
S lng l hng
trn mt nguyn t
2
1
2
Lp phng tm khi
Lp phng n gin
Khi 8 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 4 mt
Khi lp phng
6
12
6
1
1
6
3
1
.8 + 1
nguyn t
v [
]].
[23]
, suy ra r =
(1.41)
[24]
[25]
Hnh 1.22 Mng tinh th ca kim cng a,b v lin kt trong tinh th c
[26]
Hnh 1.23. Cu trc mng ca grafit (a), si cacbon (b) v fullerene (c).
1.4.2.3. Cu trc si cacbon v fullerene
Si cacbon v fullerene l hai dng th hnh na ca cacbon. Thnh tu mi ca
cc cng trnh nghin cu trong lnh vc vt lieu trong nhng nm gn y.
Si cacbon c s dng lm ct trong vt liu compozit vi nu l nhng vt
liu khc (xem mc 12.4). Cu trc s cacbon c th tng tng nh nhng lp v
nguyn t cacbon, sp sp theo hnh lc gic, c lien kt ng ha tr mnh (ging nh lp
y c s mng graphit). Cun xung trc si (hnh 1.23b). Nng lng lin kt ng ha
tr mnh trn cc lp v ca si cho pho to c nhng vt liu compozit c bn gp
ba ln nhng nh hn bn ln so vi tho.
Phn t cacbon C60, gi l fullerene, do hai nh bc hc ngi Anh H. Kroto v
M R.Smalley tng hp c ln u tin vo nm 1985. tuy nhin gi thit v s tn taih
cu trc l ca phn t cacbon c cc nh vy l thin vn xng khi nghin cu
cu trc v thanh phn cc vt th v tr t nhng nm by mi ca th k ny.
Cu trc phn t fullerene (C60) trnh by trn hnh 1.23c : 60 nguyn t cacbon
sp xp trn mt mt cu theo nh ca 12 ng gic u v 20 lc gic u cc ng gic
lien kt nhau qua lc gic. Mt phn t fuuleren c hnh dng ging nh qu bong
[27]
nhiu mi. Lin keeys gia cc nguyn t cacbon trong fullerene lun lun l ng ha tr
thun ty.
Cu trc i xng trn, cng cao ca nhng qu bng mini fullerene ang l
ti nguyn cu hp dn ca cc nh vt liu hc khng nhng trong nghin cu c bn
m c nhng lnh vc ng dingj trong k thut v cng ngh.
1.4.2.4. Cc cu trc mng tinh th lien kt ng ha tr khc
Ging trng hp kim cng cu trc mng tinh th ca cc hp cht c lin kt
ng ha tr mnh ph thuc vo gc gia cc lin kt, V d, mng tinh th ca SiO2c
cu to bi nhng kh t din tam gic u (hnh 1.9)b trong mi mt ion Si4+ c bao
quanh bng bn ion O2- . m bo trung ha in, mi inon O2- l nh chung ca hai
khi t din.
Ph thuc iu kin to thnh, cch xp xp cc khi t din. SiO2 c th cho tinh
th thch anh vi cu trc su phng hoc -cristobalit vi cu trc lp phng (hnh
1.24). Trong iu kin ngui nhanh s nhn c thy tinh (cu trc v inh hnh) (xem
mc 1.2.3, hnh 1,9b).
Hnh 1.24 Sp xp khi t din (SiO4) trong thch anh (a), cristobalit (b).
Cu trc khi t din c m t trn lun lun l c s ca cc mng tinh th
silicat. Tuy nhin. Ph thuc vo thnh phn ha hc v iu kin to thnh, khng phi
lc no cc khi t din cng lin kt vi nhau bng mt nh chung nh tinh th SiO 2 . V
d, trong tinh th forsterit, Mg2SiO4, khi t din (SiO4)4- khng lin kt bng nh ching
m bng ion Mg2+ lm trung gian (hnh 1.24c)
Slicat l u vo quang trng trong cng ngh ch to vt liu gm (ceramic) nh
s trnh by chng 9.
1.4.3. MANH TINH TH CA VT RN C LIN KT ION
Cu trc tinh th ca vt rn (hp cht) kin kt ion ph thuc vo hai yu t:
t s ca s lng ion m (anion) trn s lng ion dng (cation) : t s
ny c nh i vi tng hp cht, ph thuc vo s lng in t tham gia lin kt, m
bo tnh trung ha v in ca h thng;
[28]
Tng quan kich thc gia anion v cation ; lin kt ion l loi khng inh
hng (xem mc 1.1.4.3) v vy trong mng tinh th, cc ion lun c xu hng sp xp
t xp cht v tnh i xng cao nht.
Sau y nu mt s kiu mng in hnh.
1.4.3.1. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX
Xt mng tinh th ca NaCL v CsCL (hnh 1.25). Mng tinh th NaCL ( kiu B1)
to nn trn c s mng lptm ca anion Cl- v ngc li. T s cc ion Cl- trn s ion Na+
lun lun bng 1. Khc vi mang NaCl, mng tinh th ca CsCl(kiu B2) c to nn
trn c s mng lp phng n gin ca ion CL- , ion Cs+ nm l hng khi lp phng
( tm khi lp phng)(hnh 1.25b), t s lng ion Cl- trn ion Cs+ lun l 1 nhng trong
mng NaCl. Mi ion Cs+ bao quanh bng tm ion Cl- v ngc li.
Cl
Cs
[29]
Mng tinh th cuprit Cu2O (kiu C3) : cc ion O2- to mng lptk, bn ion Cu+
chim v tr ging nh bn nguyn t bn trong c s kim cng (hnh 1.26b). no2 = 2nCu+
= 4; KCu-O = 4, t s 2:1 lun lun tha mn;
-
[30]
ion O2- gn nht bao quanh ( KO-Ti = 6), cn mi ion O2- c bao quanh bi 3 ion Ti4+ .T
s 1:2 tha mn.
1.4.3.3. Mng tinh th hp cht dng Mm Nn Xp
Mng tinh th mt s vt liu gm (ceramic) cng c th c tao thnh trn c s
mng tinh th ca hai hay nhiu li cation (M , N). Bari titanat c c hai loi cation Ba 2+ v
Ti4+. Hp cht c cu trc mng lp phng 120C. (hnh 1.26d).
Nh vy , c th hnh dung mng tinh th hp cht ion c to thnh trn c s
c s ca anion, cc cation chim mt phn hoc ton b l hng ca mng anion .Bng
1.7 l c trng cu trc ca mt s hp cht ion in hnh
Mng tinh
Dng l hng
th
ca
do cation chim
anion
lptm
Khi 4 mt
spxc
Khi 4 mt
lptm
MX
MX2
M2X
M2X3
MNX3
MN2X4
T l s l
hng
b Hp cht in hnh
chim
1/2
ZnS, SiC, ZnO, CdS
1/2
ZnS, ZnO
NaCl, MgO, CaO, MnS,
1
TiC
1
NiAs, FeS
Khi 8 mt
spxc
Khi 8 mt
lp
n Khi
lp
1
gin
phng
lptm
Khi 8 mt
1/2
lp
n Khi
lp
1/2
gin
phng
lptm
Khi 4 mt
1
spxc
Khi 4 mt
2/3
lptm
lptm
-
CsCl
TiO, CdCl2
CaF2, ZnO2
Na2O, Li2O
Al2O3, Fe2O3, Cr2O3
BatiO3, SrZnO3
MgAl2O4, FeAl2O4
Lin kt theo (1.44) cho phn t polyetylen mch kn. Nu lin kt kp gia hai
nguyn t C m sang hai pha: Lc c th s c v hn cc phn t (1.45) lin kt vi
nhau, cho mt mch h dng:
Mch polymer to thnh theo (1.46) gi l mch thng. Tuy nhin, khi nim
thng ch l tng i bi v gc to bi gia cc lin kt ca nguyn t cacbon l
109,5 ging nh trong kiem cng (hnh 1.27a v 1.27b).
Cu lu rng, khng phi lc no mch polymer cng thng, gi tr n trong cng
thc phn t y t 103 n 106, v vy c nhng mch di n 10m.
Lin kt gia cc mnh trong polymer thc hin bng lc van der Waals.Thng
thng polymer l vt liu v nh hnh (hnh 1.27b), tuy nhin khi cc mch sp xp theo
mt t xc nh s c polymer tinh th (hnh 1.27d). Qu trnhkt tinh ca polymer
ph thuc vo tng iu kin c th v cu trc ca cc mch thnh phn (xem mc
11.2.4).
Trong thc t, khng c c polymer hon ton trt t (tinh th). Gia cc vng
trt t bao gi cng tn ti nhng vng khng trt t ( v nh hnh). l polyme bn
tinh th(hnh 1.27c). vng sp xp trt t trong polymer cng cu to t cc c s (hnh
1.27d).
1.4.5 DNG TH HNH
l s tn ti hai hay nhiu cu trc mng tinh th khc nhau ca cng mt
nguyn t hoc mt hp cht ha hc. Qu trnh thay i cu trc mng t dng th hnh
ny sang dng th hnh khc gi l chuyn bin hnh. Cc dng th hnh thng c k
hiu bng cc ch ci Hy Lp nh : , , ,
Cacbon l mt trong nhng nguyn t c nhiu dng th hnh rt nhiu dng th
hnh rt khc nhai, khng nhng v cu trc mng m cn tnh cht: b hng (v nh
hnh), graphit (mng A9), kim cng (mng A4), s cacbon ( cu trc lp cun), fullere
(cu trc cu C60, C100,)(xem mc 1.4.2)
[32]
[33]
T _ Nhit tuyt i.
Nh vy nng nt trng ph thuc vo nhit theo hm m,tng nhanh theo
nhit v c gi tr ln nht kim loi lng.
Nt trng c nh hng ln n c ch v tc khuch tn ca kim loi (hp
kim) trng thi rn .V vy c ngha quan trng thc t,v d,khi ng u ha thnh
phn hp kim sau khi nu luyn hoc khi ha gi dung rn qu bo ha (xem 3.3 ,
3.4).Ngoi ra n cng nh hng n chuyn ng (leo)ca lch trong qu trnh bin dng
do nhit cao (hin tng do nhit cao,xem mc 4.5.4).
1.5.1.2.Nguyn t tp cht.
Trong thc t khng th c vt liu hoc kim loi sch tuyt i.Cc cng ngh nu
luyn hin i nht trong phng th nghim cng ch cho php t c sch khong
99,999% hoc cao hn mt cht .Ph thuc vo kch thc cc nguyn t tp cht c th
thay th nguyn t nn nt mng (hnh 1.28d) hoc xen k gia cc nt (hnh 1.28c)
(xen k ca nguyn t tp cht khc so vi cc nguyn t t xen k mc 1.5.1.1).y
cng l sai lch im v lun km theo trng ng sut hnh cu xung quanh.
Nguyn t xen k d khuch tn hn so vi nguyn t thay th v khng cn nt
trng lm trung gian (xem mc 3.4).
Cc nguyn t tp cht,trong iu kin xc nh c th tng tc v cn tr chuyn
ng ca lch,v chng c nh hng n c ch,hnh thi qu trnh bin dng do,ha bn
(xem mc 4.2 v mc 1.5.2).
Trong tinh th ng ha tr,nguyn t tp cht nh hng n tnh cht in.V
d,trong mng Ge,bn in t ha tr to lin kt gia cc nt,nu nguyn t tp cht As
(nm in t ha tr) thay th nguyn t Ge,in t ha tr th nm (tha)ca As s c
t do chuyn ng di tc dng in trng ngoi.Ngc li nu nguyn t tp cht l
Ga (ba in t ha tr) th s thiu mt in t cho lin kt, chnh l c s ch to cc
cht bn dn (dng p hoc n) t Ge hoc hay Si.
Sai lch im trong mng ion lun mang tnh phc hp.Cu trc mng ion lun
phi m bo trung ha in tch,v vy mt nt trng cation lun tn ti song somg vi
mt nt trng anion bn cnh, l sai lch im Schottky (hnh 1.28e)hay mt cation xen
k s cnh mt nt trng cation (hnh 1.28f): sai lch im Frenkel.
Nng sai lch im trong mng ion nh hng n dn in ca vt rn ion.
Cui cng cn ni thm rng,trong thc t th rt t khi s dng kim loi tinh khit
m thng ch to hp kim bng cch ha tan mt nguyn t khc (tp cht c ) vo
kim loi nn.Nguyn t ca nguyn t hp kim s sp xp theo cch xen k hoc thay th
nh trn trong mng tinh th,to dung dch rn xen k hoc thay th (xem mc 2.2).
[35]
[36]
Lch xon phi c k hiu ,nu ng xon c nguyn t xung quanh trc lch
theo chiu kim ng h,ngc li s c lch tri.Mt ABCD mt trt ca lch xon.Xung
quanh lch xon cng tn ti trng ng sut n hi.C th c so snh v tr cc mt
phng tinh th trong mng l tng,cha lch bin.v lch xon trn hnh 1.31.
c)Lch hn hp
Trong thc t rt nhiu trng hp mt lch c c trng ca c lch bin v lch
xon, l lch hn hp.Hnh 1.32 biu din cch to lch hn hp bng trt p.ng
AC l trc lch ,cc thnh phn bin (CC)v xon (AA)cng nh m hnh sp xp
nguyn t xung quanh trc lch c biu din trn hnh 1.32b.
Mt lch,k hiu p,l tng chiu di trc lch trong mt n v th tch ca tinh
th,th nguyn .Bng 1.8 cho gi tri mt lch trong mt s kim loi v tinh th ion.
1.5.2.2.Nng lng v chuyn ng ca lch
a) Nng lng ca lch (F)
Nng lng ca lch l phn gia tng nng lng t do ca mng do trng bin
dng n hi xut hin xung quanh lch,c tnh bng :
Trong a h s c gi tr t 0,5 n 1:
G _ mdun trt,c trng lin kt (kh nng chng li trt) ca mng tinh
th
b _ gi tr ca vecto Bugers
L _ chiu di lch.
T ( 1.49) c nhn xt :
lch vi:
[39]
hoc
b) Chuyn ng ca lch
Mt khc bit gia lch v khuyt tt im l lch cn bng v nhit ng
km hn. V vy n lun c xu hng chuyn ng.
Gi s c mt lch bin (hnh 1.34a) trong tinh th, di tc dng ng sut
ngoi t,lch s chuyn ng theo c ch trt trn mt trt P. Lc na mt phng tha
(A trn hnh 1.35a.d) s ln lt i ch cho nhng na mt khc ng trc n pha
trn mt P, theo c ch tip sc (hnh 1.34b,e,f) cho n khi ra n mt ngoi, to mt
bc bin dng bng gi tr b (hnh 1.34c.g)
Ngoi trt nh trn, lch cn c th leo khi n thay i mt phng cha n
(mt trt). Chuyn ng leo c ch xy ra vi lch bin.
Gi s trong tinh th ch c lch, chng tn ti c lp, khng nh hng ln
nhau v khng c cc khuyt tt khc th lc tc dng ti thiu (fth) cn cho lch chuyn
ng (tinh th bt u bin dng do) l :
fth fp =
exp (9--
. )
( 1.51)
[40]
t gi
tr max, fp l min, lch chuyn ng d dng nht, tinh th d bin dng nht (xem mc
4.2).
T nhng ni dung trnh by,c th rt ra rng tc bin dng do () ph
thuc vo chuyn ng ca lch. Theo Orowan, quan h nh sau :
= .b.
(1.52)
trong : - mt lch
b gi tr vect Burgers
- tc chuyn ng ca lch.
Nhng khi nim c bn v lch va m t l c s ca l thuyt bn, cho php
gii thch nhng tnh cht nh do, bn, ph hu, dos c cp t m chng
4.
1.5.3 SAI LCH MT
Sai lch mt l loi sai lch c kch thc ln theo hai chiu v nh theo chiu th
ba. Trong tinh th, sai lch mt ch yu l bin gii ht, bin gii siu ht, sai lch xp,
mt i tinh v mt ngoi tinh th.
1.5.3.1. Bin gii ht v siu ht
a) Bin gii ht
Bin gii ht l vng tip gip gia cc ht trong a tinh th ( xem mc 1.6). Cc
nguyn t bin gii ht khng sp xp theo trt t mng v c th coi l vng cu trc v
nh hnh. Sc cng b mt bin gii ht () c trng phn gia tng nng lng t do
vng bin gii so vi cc vng pha trong duy tr s cn bng nguyn t b mt. Hnh
1.35 l m hnh sp xp nguyn t trn bin gii ht (hnh 1.25a.b) v nh chp t vi bin
giiht trong vt liu a tinh th (hnh 1.35c)
[41]
Mt khc khi tng, tng tc gia lch vi nhau v vi cc sai lch khc
tng mnh, lm gim ng k, mun duy tr = const, cn tng ng sut bn ngoi mt
i lng d, chnh l hiu ng ho bn bin dng s c xt mc 4.2.3. H s ho
-
bn bin dng
[45]
[46]
Chng 4
TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
4.1. TNH CHT IN
4.1.1. S DN IN
4.1.1.1. dn in
Mt trong nhng c tnh in quan trng nht ca vt liu rn l kh nng dn
in ca n. Hnh 5.1 nu s b tr th nghim o dn in. Theo nh lut Ohm,
cng dng in I lin h vi in p ( hiu s in th ) U theo biu thc:
U= I R ,( 5.1)
Trong R- in tr ca mu vt li m dng in chy qua. Gi tr ca R ph
thuc vo hnh dng mu o v i vi nhiu loi vt liu, khng ph thuc vo cng
dng in
in tr sut
biu thc:
( 5.2)
l nghch o ca in tr sut:
(5.3)
l: (
)-1
J=
( 5.4)
cng in trng.
E=
(5.5)
)-1 . Cc vt
)-1), c gi l nhng
). Trong mi lp
vng k nhau c th tn ti nhng khe nng lng ( hay cn gi l nhng vng cm):
bnh thng th cc in t khng c php chim lnh nhng mc nng lng nm trong
cc khe ny. Cch thc thng thng biu din cu trc vng nng lng in t trong
vt rn ch nh trn hnh 5.2a.
S cc trng thi nng lng in t ( hay l s mc nng lng in t) trong mi
vng s bng tng s tt c nhng trng thi do N nguyn t ng gp.
Chng hn vng s s chim N trng thi, cn vng p cha 3N trng thi , mi mt
trng thi nng lng in t c th cha c hai in t, chng phi c spin i song.
Khi xp tt c cc cc in t vo mc nng lng s xut hn cc vng cn trng v
cng c th xut hin nhng vng ch b lp y mt phn.
Cc tnh cht in ca vt rn ph thuc vo cu trc vng nng lng in t ca
n, c th l vo s sp xp cc vng ngoi cng v cch thc lp y chng bi cc in
t . Theo quan im ny, vng cha cc in t c nng lng cao nht ( hay cc in t
ho tr ) c gi l vng ho tr . Cn vng dn s l vng c nng lng cao hn k trn
m trong a s cc trng hp, v c bn l b trng. nhit 0K, c th c bn kiu
cu trc vng khc nhau. loi th nht ( hnh 5.3a ). Vng ho tr ch mi b lp y mt
phn . Nng lng ng vi mc cao nht b chim 0K c gi l nng lng Fermi
EF. y l cu trc vng in hnh cho cc kim loi, c bit l cc in t kim loi c mt
ho tr s ng n l ( v d ng ). Mi nguyn t Cu c mt in t 4s . Vng 4s c kh
nng cha ti 2N in t. Nh vy ch mi c mt na s mc nng lng c trong vng
ho tr 4s l b lp y.
loi cu trc vng th hai, cng tm thy trong cc kim loi ( hnh 5.3b. ) vng
ho tr b lp y cn ph ln c vng dn: vng ny nu nh khng b ph th hon ton
cn trng. Magi c cu trc vng kiu ny. Mi nguyn t Mg c hai in t ho tr 3s
nhng khi to thnh vt rn th cc vng 3s v 3p ph ln nhau. Trong trng hp ny
0K, nng lng Fermi c chp nhn m mc di c N nguyn t, N trng thi b
chim, c hai in t cha mt trng thi.
Hai cu trc vng cui cng tng t nh nhau: mi cu trc tt c cc trng thi
trong vng ho tr u b in t chim ht. Tuy nhin y khng c s dn ph vi
vng cn trng; iu ny to ra mt khe nng lng xen gia. i vi cc kim loi rt
tinh khit, cc in t khng th c nng lng trong khe ny. S khc nhau gia hai cu
trc vng l ln ca khe nng lng. i vi vt liu cch in, khe vng tng i
rng ( hnh 5.3.c ). Nng lng Fermi i vi hai cu trc vng ny nm chnh gia khe.
4.1.1.3. Tnh cht dn in lin quan vi m hnh vng v lin kt nguyn t .
Ch c nhng in t no c nng lng ln hn mc Fermi th mi chu tc dng
v c gia tc khi c mt in trng. y l nhng in t tham gia vo qa trnh dn
[49]
[50]
( 5.6 )
( 5.7 ).
[51]
dn in (.m)-1
Bc
6,8.107
ng
6,0.107
Vng
4,3.107
Nhm
3,8.107
St
1,0.107
1,6.107
Thp ccbon tm
0,6.107
Thp khng g
0,2.107
( 5.8 )
( 5.9 )
[52]
(5.11)
[53]
e + p
(5.12)
(5.13)
=n
e+ b) = p
(e + b)
(5.14)
Khe
nng dn in, linh ng linh ng l
lng eV
in t, m2/V.s
trng m2/V.s
(.m)-1
1,11
0,67
4x10-4
2,2
0,14
0,38
0,05
0,18
2,25
1,42
0,17
10-5
2x104
0,05
0,85
7,7
0,002
0,45
0,07
2,40
2,26
0,03
0,03
0,01
4.1.2.2. Bn dn tp cht
Thc ra cc cht bn dn thng mi u l bn dn tp cht. Khi c mt tp cht
ngay c vi nng thp cng to ra in t hoc l d tha. Chng hn, mt nng tp
cht 10-12 (tc mt nguyn t tp cht trong 1012nguyn t) cng lm cho silic tr
thnh bn dn tp cht nhit phng.
Bn dn tp cht kim loi n
minh ho tnh bn dn tp cht hnh thnh nh th no, ta li xt bn dn
nguyn t silic. Mt nguyn t silic c bn in t vng ngoi, mi mt in t ny lin
kt ng ho tr vi mt in t ca bn nguyn t silic ln cn. By gi gi s mt
[55]
(5.15)
[56]
Cng c th dng m hnh vng nng lng din t cc kch thch tp cht to ra
l trng. Mi mt nguyn t tp cht a vo khe cm mt mc nng lng nm rt st
pha trn nh ca vng ho tr (hnh 5.13a). Mt l trng s c to ra trong vng ho tr
khi kch thch nhit do mt in t chuyn t vng ho tr ln trng thi in t tp cht
ny nh biu th trn hnh (5.13b).
Vi mt chuyn di nh th ch c mt ht ti (mt l trng) c sinh ra trong
cng ho tr m khng c mt in t t do no c to ra hoc mc tp cht hoc
trong vng dn. Tp cht loi ny c gi l acxept (tp cht nhn, bi v n c kh
nng nhn in t t vng ho tr v li mt l trng sau ny gi mc nng
lng trong khe cm do loi tp cht ny dy ra l trng thi (mc) acxept.
i vi bn dn tp cht loi ny, l trng c mt vi nng cao hn nhiu so vi
in t (tc l p>>n), v trong trng hp vt liu c gi l cht bn dn loi p bi
v tnh dn in ch yu do cc ht tch in dng m nhim. tt nhin, cc l trng l
ht ti a s cn in t ch xut hin nng thiu s. iu lm cho s hng th hai
trong v phi ca phng trnh (5.12) chim u th, tc l:
(5.16)
C-
(5.17)
C -
(5.18)
= -2k
(5.19)
[58]
[59]
(5.20)
[60]
chng nh vy, in tr sut cao li l iu mong mun. Khi nng cao nhit dn ca
cc vt liu cch in c th ln hn ca cc cht bn dn.
Bng 5.3. dn in tiu biu nhit phng ca mt s vt liu phi kim loi
dn in ( . m)-1
105
10-10 - 10-12
10-10 - 10-12
<10-10
10-10 - 10-15
Vt liu
Graphit
Gm:
Nhm Oxyt
S
Thu tinh Na Ca
Mica
Polyme
Phenolformaldehyt
Nylon6.6
Polymetylmetacrylat
Polyetylen
Polystyren
polytetrafloetylen
10-9 - 10-10
10-9 - 10-12
<10-12
10-13- 10-17
<10-14
<10-16
( 5.21 )
(5.22 )
[63]
( 5.23 )
[64]
( 5.24 )
-12
8.85.10 F/m.
Nu mt vt liu in mi lp y vng gia hai tm ( hnh 5.24b ) th
C= -
( 5.25 )
( 5.26 )
Hng s in mi l mt tnh cht vt liu c xem xt trc tin thit kt t in. Gi tri
r
Hng s in mi
60Hz
1MHz
6.9
6.0
4.0
15 10000
5.4 5.7
5.5 7.5
5.3
4.0
2.6
2.3
2.1
[65]
bn in mi
200 1 180
3940 7 875
790 1 380
(5.27)
Trong q - ln ca mi in tch;
d: khong cch gia chng .
Mmen lng cc l mt vect hng t in tch m ti in tch dng. Khi c
mt in trng E, mt ngu lc tc dng ln lng cc in lm n xp theo hng in
trng nh hnh minh ho trn hnh 5.26. Qu trnh xp lng cc nh vy goi nl s
phn cc.
Tr li vi t in, mt in tch mt D, tc l in lng trn mt n v in
tch ca tm t in ( C/m2 ), s t l vi in trng. Khi c chn khng th :
D=
E.
0.
( 5.28 )
( 5.29 )
i khi D cn c gi l dch in mi
S tng in dung, tc tng hng s in mi. C th gii thch bng m hnh n
gin ho v s phn cc trong vt liu in mi. Hy xt t in trn hnh 5.27a. Trng
hp chn khng, tm trn c tch in + Q0 v tm di - Q0 khi a mt in mi vo t
in t ln mt in trng, ton b cht rn gia hai tm t in tr thnh in mi
b phn cc ( hnh 5.27c ). Kt qu l c mt s tch t thun in m Q b mt in
mi gn tm tch in dng, v cng bng cch tng t, mt in tch + Q xut hin
b mt gn tm m. Nh vy, nu xem mi tm cng vi b mt in mi gn n nh
mt vt th, c th cho rng in tch cm ng bi in mi( +Q v -Q) kh bt mt phn
in tch vn tn ti trn tm khi c chn khng ( +Q0 hoc-Q0 ) . in p gia hai tm
c gi gi tr nh khi chn khng bng cch tng in tch tm c gi gi tr
nh chn khng bng cch tng in tch tm m mt lng -Q v mt tm dng +Q .
in t chy t tm m sang tm dng bi ngun in ngoi sao cho in p ring c
khi phc li. V nh vy in tch trn mi tm by gi l Q0 +Q, tc tng ln mt lng
Q.Khi c mt in mi, mt in tch mt trn cc tm t in cng c th biu th
bng :
D=
E +P ( 5.30 )
( r -1 ) E
Trong trng hp
( 5.31 )
r
(5.32 )
( hnh 5.33)
[67]
[68]
ln trc khi cho ra loa.Cc vt liu p in gm bari titanat, bari v ch ziconat (PbZrO3),
amoni ihydrophotphat (NH4H2PO4) v thch anh. Tnh cht ny l c trng ca cc vt
liu c cu trc tinh th phc tp vi i xng thp. Tnh cht p in ca mu cht a tinh
th c ci thin bng cch nung nng ln trn nhit Curie ca n v sau lm ngui
xung nhit phng trong mt in trng mnh.
(5.34)
[70]
(5.35)
( 6 cal/mol.K ). Bng 5.5 gii thiu nhit rung ring thc nghim ca mt s vt liu.
Bng 5.5. Tnh cht nhit ca mt s vt liu
Vt liu
Cp
J/kg(1)
10-60C-1
K
W/m.K(2)
L
. W/(K)2.106
Kim loi:
Nhm
ng
Vng
St
Niken
Bc
Volfram
Thp 1025
Thp khng g 316
Brng ( 70Cu 30 Zn)
Gm:
Nhm Oxyt (Al2O3)
Berili oxyt (BeO)
Magioxyt ( MgO)
Spilen ( Mg Al2O3)
Silic ioxyt (SiO2)
Thu tinh Na
Polyme:
Polyetylen
Polyprotylen
90
386
130
448
443
235
142
486
502
375
23.6
16.5
13.8
11.8
13.3
19.0
4.5
12.5
16.0
20.0
247
398
315
80.4
89.9
428
178
51.9
16.3 (3)
120
2.24
2.27
2.52
2.66
2.10
2.32
3.21
-
775
1050(3)
940
790
740
840
8.8
9.0(4)
13.5(3)
7.6(3)
0.5(3)
9.0(3)
60- 220
80- 100
50- 85
30.1
220(4)
37.7(4)
15.0(4)
2.0(4)
1.7(4)
0.38
0.12
0.13
2100
1880
[71]
Polystyren
Polytetrafloetylen (teflon)
Phenolphomaldehyt (bakelit)
Ninon 6.6
Polyizopren
1360
1050
1650
1670
135150
68
80- 90
220
0.25
0.15
0.24
0.14
1 000 0C
(5.36a)
Hay l
= 1
(5.36b)
[72]
gn
ng bng 3
T gc cu trc, s gin n nhit c phn nh bi s tng khong cch trung
bnh gia cc nguyn t. Hin tng ny c th gii thch d nht bng cch xt ng
cong thay i th nng theo khong cch gia cc nguyn t trong vt liu rn (hnh 5.34).
ng cong c dng mt h th nng, v khong cch nguyn t cn bng r o OK tng
ng vi cc tiu ca h. Nung nng tng dn nhit ln (T1, T2, T3,) s lm tng
nng lng dao ng t E1 ln E2, E3, Bin dao ng trung bnh ca mt nguyn t
tng ng b rng ca h th nng tng nhit v khong cch trung bnh gia cc
nguyn t c biu th bi v tr trung bnh, khong cch ny tng ln theo nhit r o n
r1, r2, r3,
Thc ra, gin n nhit lien quan vi dng ng cong bt i xng ca h th nng
hn l vi cc bin dao ng dng nguyn t c tng ln. Nu ng cong th nng
l i xng (hnh 5.34b) th s khng c s thay i no v khong cch trung bnh gia
cc nguyn t, v h qu s khng c gin n nhit.
Hnh 5.34. S gin thch s gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng khng i
xng (a) v khng gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng i xng (b)
i vi mi loi vt liu (kim loi, gm v polymer), nng lng lien kt nguyn t
cng ln th h th nng ny cng su v cng hp hn; kt qa l vi mc tng nhit
cho, tng khong cch nguyn t s t hn, gy nn gi tr l nh hn. Bng 5.5 lit
k h s gin n nhit di ca mt s vt liu. Ch n s ph thuc nhit , ln ca
h s gin n tng theo nhit c bit nhanh khu vc gn OK. Cn cc gi tr cho trn
bng 5.5 l nhit phng, nu nh khng c ghi ch g khc.
Kim loi
Nh ghi bng 5.5 h s gin n nhit di ca mt s kim loi ph thng nm
trong khong t 5.10-6 n 25.10-6(oC)-1. Trong nhiu ng dng, n nh kch thc cao
khi nhit thng ging l rt quan trng. iu ny t c nh pht trin mt h hp
kim st niken v st coban c tr s l vo c 10-6(oC)-1. Mt hp kim nh th c
[73]
(5.38)
[74]
khng thay i theo thi gian. Du tr trong biu thc ch dng nhit truyn t ch nng
n ch lnh, tc l theo hng gim graien nhit .
Phng trnh (5.38) c dng tng t vi nh lut Fick I ca hin tng khuch
tn nguyn t (chng 3), k tng t h s khuch tn D v graient nhit c vai tr
ca graient nng dC/dx.
Cc c ch dn nhit
Trong cc vt liu rn, nhit c truyn bi c song dao ng mng (phonon) v
in t t do. dn nhit ton phn l tng ca hai thnh phn theo hai c ch :
k = k1 + ke
(5.39)
(5.40)
Trong : - dn in:
T - nhit tuyt i
L - hng s. Gi tr l thuyt ca L l 2,44.10-8.W/(K)2, khng ph thuc nhit
v nh nhau i vi tt c mi kim loi nu nng lng nhit c vn chuyn hon ton
[75]
nhng l xp nh, thng c to ra bng cch khuy bt trong khi polymer ho.
Polystyren to bt (Styrofoam) c dng ph bin lm cc ung v hp cch nhit.
4.2.4. ng sut nhit.
ng sut nhit l ng sut c gy ra trong vt th do s thay i nhit . Tm
hiu ngun gc v bn cht ca ng sut nhit l rt quan trng v nhng ng sut ny c
th dn ti s nt v hoc bin dng do khng mong mun.
ng sut do s gin v co b hn ch
Ta hy xt mt thanh c ng cht v ng hng b nung nng hoc lm lnh
ng u, ngha l khng c gradient nhit . Khi gin hoc co t do, thanh s khng chu
ng sut. Tuy nhin, nu nh chuyn ng dc trc ca thanh b gii hn bi cc gi cng
chn hai u th s c ng sut nhit. ln ca ng sut gy bi bin thin nhit
t To n Tr l:
= Er(To- Tr)
(5.41)
Trong E mun n hi
1- h s gin n nhit di
Khi nung nng (Tr > To) ng sut s l nn ( < 0), v s gin n ca thanh b
gi li. ng nhin, khi ithanh b lm lnh (Tr < To) th s c ng sut ko (( > 0). Cng
vy, ng sut theo biu thc (5.41) cng l ng sut cn thit nn (hoc ko) n hi
thanh mu tr v di ban u sau khi n chu gin n do bin i nhit To Tr.
ng sut gy bi graient nhit .
Khi mt vt rn b nung hoc lm ngui, s phn b nhit bn trong s ph
thuc vo kch thc v hnh dng ca n, vo dn nhit ca vt liu v ch s bin i
nhit . ng sut nhit c th hnh thnh do graient nhit gy ra bi s nung nng
hoc lm ngui nhanh v lm cho phn ngoi thay i nhit nhanh hn phn pha trong.
Cc bin i kch thc b phn c tc dng hn ch s gin hoc co ca nhng phn th
tch xung quanh. Chng hn khi nung nng, phn ngoi ca mu s nng hn, v do s
gin mnh hn cc vng trong. Nh vy ng sut b mt v ng sut nn, xut hin v b
cn bng bi cc ng sut ko bn trong. Mi tng quan ng sut trong ngoi s o
li khi lm ngui nhanh lm cho b mt chu ng sut ko.
Sc nhit ca vt liu gin.
i vi cc kim loi v polymer d un, ng sut nhit sinh ra c th c gim
nh nh c bin dng n hi. Tuy nhin, i vi a s vt liu gm, tnh kh un s lm
tng kh nng ph hu gin do ng sut nhit. Ngui nhanh s gy ra sc nhit hn l
[77]
nung nng, v ng sut nhit sinh ra l ng sut ko. S to thnh vt nt v s lan truyn
cc vt nt t b mt xy ra d hn khi c ng sut ko.
Kh nng ca vt liu chng li loi ph hu ny c gi l bn xung nhit.
i vi gm b lm ngui nhanh, bn xung nhit ph thuc khng nhng vo ln
ca s thay i nhit m cn vo tnh cht c v nhit ca vt liu. bn xung nhit
tt nht cc gm c bn nt r cao v dn nhit cao, cng nh mun n hi v
h s gin n nhit thp. bn ca nhiu vt liu chng li loi ph hu ny c th c
tnh bng thng s khng sc nhit TSR (ting Anh Temperature Shock Resistance).
TSR
(5.42)
[78]
(5.43)
B = H
(5.44)
BO = O H
(5.45)
(5.46)
B = 0 H + 0 M
(5.47)
tng cng n bng chnh t trng ring ca chng. S hng 0 M trong (5.47) chnh l
thnh phn ng gp .
ln ca M t l vi trng t vo l :
M = mH
(5.48)
(5.49)
Cm ng B
t (mt
t
thng)
Cng
t trng H
n v SI
Dn xut
n v
Gc
Tesla(Wb/m2)
Kg/s.C
Ampe.vng/m C/m.s
[80]
CGS- EMU
gauss
oersted
Chuyn i
1Wb/m2 = 104
gauss
1ampe.vng/m
=4 .10-4
ersted
Vector t M
ha (T ( SI )
)
Maxwell/cm2
Ampe.vng/m C/m.s
I
(CGS EMU )
thm
t
ca
0
chn
khng
r
thm
t tng (SI)
i
4 .10-7
henry/m = 1
Khng n v emu
Henry/m
Khng n v
r =
Kg.m/C
(CGS EMU)
m
t ha
( h s t (SI)
ha)
1ampe.vng/m
=
10-3
maxwell/cm2
Khng n v
Khng n v
Khng
n v
m = 4 m
(CGS EMU)
Ch :
n v Weber (Wb) L volt .second (V.s)
n v henry (H) l weber/ampe (Wb/A)
4.3.1.3.Ngun gc ca momen t
Cc tnh cht t v m ca vt liu u l h qu ca cc momen t gn vi tng
in t. Khi nim ny kh phc tp v da trn cc nguyn l c hc lng t nn vt
qu phm vi ca sch ny . Di y trnh by mt s c n gin ha. Mi in t
trong mt nguyn t u c cc momen t vi hai ngun gc. Mt lin quan n qu o
ca n chuyn ng quanh ht nhn. L mt in tch chuyn dng. Mi in t c th
xem nh mt dng in vng nh, sinh ra mt t trng rt yu . Do c mt momen t
hng dc theo hng qu o ca n, nh minh ha trn hnh 5.39a
[81]
[82]
H=0
a)
H=0
St t
Thun t
Chn khng
Nghch t
Cng t trng H
[83]
H s t ha m
(th tch,n v SI)
-1.81.10-5
-0.96.10-5
-3.44.10-5
-2.85.10-5
-0.41.10-5
-2.38.10-5
-1.41.10-5
-1.56.10-5
Thun T
Vt liu
Nhm xyt
ng
Vng
Thy ngn
Silic
Bc
Natri clorua
Km
H s t ha m
(th tch,n v SI)
2.07.10-5
3.13.10-5
1.51.10-5
3.70.10-5
1.19.10-5
8.48.10-5
1.81.10-5
1.09.10-5
(5.50)
Mn2+
O2-
T trong vt liu st t
phn st t
liu phn st t . l mt vt liu gm mang c trng ion, c c hai ion Mn2+ v O2khng c mmen t ring bi c mmen spin v mmen qu o u trit tiu hon ton.
Tuy nhin, cc mmen Mn2+ li c mmen t ring vi ngun gc spin chim u th .
Trong cu trc tinh th, nhng ion Mn2+ ln cneeps mmen t phn song song nhau ( hnh
5.43). Hin nhin l cc mmen t s trit tiu ln nhau v hu qu l ton b cht rn
s khng c mmen t ring
4.3.4.2. Feri t
Mt s vt liu gm cng th hin tnh t ha vnh cu gi l feri t. Cc c trng
t v m ca cc cht st t v feri t tng t nhau ngun gc ca cc mmen t.
Nguyn l ca feri t c minh ha bi nhng feri lp phng . Nhng vt liu ion ny
c th c iu din bng cng thc ha hc MFe2O4. Trong M l mt hay nhiu
nguyn t kim loi . Ferit in hnh Fe3O4 (manhetit khong).
Cng thc ca Fe3O4 c th vit thnh Fe2+O2- - (Fe3+)2(O2)3 trong cc ion st tn
ti c hai trng thi ha tr +2 v +3 vi t s 1:2. Mi Ion Fe2+ v Fe3+ c mt mmen t
spin ring tng ng bng 4 v 5 magneton Bohr. Ngoi ra cc ion O2- l trung ha v t .
Gia cc ion st c s ghp cc ion t spin phn song song tng t nh phn st t .
Tuy nhin mmen t spin li do s trit tiu khng hon ton ca cc mmen t spin.
Ferit lp phng c cu trc tinh th spinen o . Cu trc spinen c th xem nh
c to ra t cc mt phng xp cht ca cc ion O 2-. Ngoi ra, c hai loi v tr c th b
cc ion Fe c bao quanh bi 4 ion oxy gn nht. i vi loi kia, s phi tr bng 6.
Vi cu trc spinen o ny mt na s ion Fe3+ nm cc v tr tm mt , cn na kia
nm cc v tr 4 mt,cc ion Fe2+ u nm cc v tr tm mt .
Cation
Nt
tm mt
mng
Nt mng 4
mt
Fe3+
Moomen t
ring
Trit
hon ton
tiu
Fe2+
Ghi ch:Mi mi tn biu din inh hng ca mt cation
S sp xp cc mmen t spin c biu din trong bng 5.8. Mmen t spin ca
tt c ion Fe3+ kh ln nhau v do khng c s ng gp no vo s t ha ca cht
rn . Cn cc momen Fe2+ vi momen spin sp xp theo cng chiu hng s c momen
tng m bo s t ha. Nh vy bo ha ca cht rn Feri t c th tnh bng tch ca
cc momen spin ring ca mi ion Fe2+ vi s ion Fe2+ tng ng.
[86]
Momen
t
ring (magneton Bohr)
Fe3+
Fe2+
Mn2+
Co2+
Ni2+
Cu2+
[87]
[89]
Vt liu
thm
Thnh phn
t
tng
%
trng i
lng
ban
u i
in
Tn hao t sut
Mt t
tr
trong
m
thng bo
mt
chu
ha, Tesla
trnh , J/m3 (
(Gauss)
erg/ cm3)
St thi thng mi
99,95 Fe
2.14
150
[90]
270
1.0.10-7
tr
( 2700)
45 permalloy
97 Fe, 3Si
55 Fe, 45 Ni
1400
2500
(21 400)
40
2.01
(400)
(20 100)
120
1.60
(1200)
4.7.10-7
4.5.10-7
(16 600)
Supermalloy
79 Ni, 15 Fe
75000
5Mo, 0,5 Mn
Ferrox cube A
48 Mn Fe2O4
1400
52 ZnFe2O4
Ferrox cube B
36 NiFe2O4
650
64 ZnFe2O4
6.0.10-7
0.80
(8 000)
40
0.33
(400)
(3 300)
35
0.36
(350)
2 000
107
(3 600)
mt pha khng t tnh. Cc hp kim cha t him (Sm, Nd, Pr,) c v khng c coban
loi tinh th v vi tinh th c trin vng s dng ln nh cc c trng t cng rt cao ca
chng. Cc feri t c dng lm nam chm u l ferit su phng. Bng 5.11 gii thiu
tnh cht ca mt s loi vt liu t cng.
Bng 5.11. Gii thiu cc tnh cht tiu biu ca vt liu t cng
Vt liu
Trng kh
thnh phn t d
t
Hc
%
trng Br tesla
Ampe.vong/m
lng
(Gauss)
(oersted)
Thp cacbon
Mactenxit
Thp volfram
98,1 Fe
0,9 C1Mn
92,8Fe6W
0,5 Cr
Cunife
20Fe20Ni
60Cu
Cunico
29Co21Ni
50Cu
Alnico 8 thiu 34Fe7Al
kt
14Ni35Co
4Co5Ti
Ferrox dur
( nh hng)
0,95
(9 500)
0,95
(9 500)
0,54
(5 400)
0,34
(3 400)
0,76
(7 600)
0,32
(3 200)
400
(50)
5 900
(74)
44 000
( 550)
54 000
(650)
123 000
( 1 550)
240 000
(3 000)
(BH)max
Nhit in tr
J/m3
curie
(Gauss
sut
0
m
Tc C
Oersted)
1 600
(0,2.106)
2 600
(0.33.106)
12 000
(1,5.106)
6 400
(0,8.106)
36 000
(4,5.106)
20 000
(2,5.106)
760
3,0.10-7
410
1,8.10-7
860
2,4.10-7
860
450
104
BaO6Fe2O3
4.3.9.LU TR T
Trong nhng nm qua vt liu t ngy cng quan trng trong lnh vc lu tr
thng tin, v d, i vi my tnh. Trong khi cc linh kin bn dn ch dng ln b nh s
cp, th cc a v bng t li c kh nng lu tr nhng lng thng tin ln v vi gi
thnh thp hn. Ngy nay ngnh cng nghip ghi m v truyn hnh ang hy vng nhiu
vo bng t lu tr v ci to cc chng trnh audio (nghe) v video (nhn).
Cc d liu my tnh, m thanh hoc hnh nh di dng cc tn hiu in t u
c chuyn np ri lu gi li trong cc khu vc rt nh ca mi trng lu tr t. Vic
np thng tin v ly ra t bng hoc a c thc hin nh mt u t. l mt cun
dy qun xung quanh mt li (vt liu t) c x mt khe. D liu c a vo (hay
ghi) bng tn hiu in qua cun dy lm li t sinh mt t trng i qua khe. T trng
[92]
ny s t ha mt khu vc rt nh trn a hoc bng (nm trc tip bn trong u t). Khi
ngt trng, s t ha vn cn lu li v tn hiu c lu tr. Cng chnh u t
c dng ti hin (tc l c) thng tin lu tr. Khi bng hoc a i qua khe ca
u t, mi mt bin i ca t trng bng (a) s sinh ra mt in p cm ng trong
cun dy u t. in p ny c khuch i ri chuyn v dng (hoc c trng)
nguyn gc. a s cc t mi u gm nhng ht rt nh dng hnh kim hoc que ca ferit
Fe 2O3 hay cc hp kim pha tp ca n. Khi ch to nhng ht ny c sp xp sao
cho trc di ca chng song song vi hng chuyn ng qua u t (hnh 5.52).
Mi ht l mt n men, ch c th b t ha sao cho momen t ca n nm dc
theo trc . C th c hai trng thi t, tng ng vi vecto t ha bo ha theo hng
trc v hng ngc li. Hai trng thi ny c th lu tr thng tin dng s ( s 1 v s 0
). Trong mt h thng, s 1 c biu din bng mt php i li hng t trng, t mt
khu vc nh trong mi trng lu tr sang mt khu vc khc, khi c nhiu ht hnh kim
ca mi mt khu vc nh vy i qua u t. Thiu php i hng gia cc khu vc ln
cn s c biu th bi s 0.
Vng t tr cho mi trng lu tr t phi tng i hp v ch nht. Yu cu ny
bo m cho s lu tr c vnh cu v s o chiu t ha ch xy ra trong mt khong
hp ca cng t trng t vo. Thng thng mt t thng bo ha nm t 0,4 v
0.6 Tesla.
4.3.10. SIU DN (IN)
Siu dn v c bn l mt hin tng in : Tuy nhin c nhng vn phc tp
lin quan n trng thi siu dn v ngoi ra cc vt liu siu dn c ng dng trc tin
trong cc nam chm c kh nng to ra nhng t trng cao.
a s cc kim loi khi c lm lnh xung n nhit gn OK th in tr gim
xung t t , t ti mt gi tr nht nh, l c tnh ca ring kim loi. Tuy nhin c
mt s t vt liu, khi nhit rt thp, in tr gim t ngt t mt gi tr xc nh
xung ti khng v vn gi nh vy khi tip tc lm lnh na. l hin tng siu dn
(in). Cc vt liu c gi l cc cht siu dn. Cn nhit ti t ti trng thi
siu dn c goi l nhit gii hn Tc. Hnh 5.53 cho bit c trng in tr - nhit
ca cc vt liu siu dn va khng siu dn. Nhit ti hn thay i ty theo tnh cht
siu dn nhng ch trong khong t di 1K cho n 20K i vi kim loi v hp kim.
Mi y ngi ta pht hin mt s gm oxyt phc hp c nhit ti hn ti 100K
hoc cao hn (siu dn nhit cao).
nhng nhit di Tc trng thi siu dn s mt i khi t vo mt t trng
mnh, gi l t trng ti hn Hc, Hc ph thuc vo nhit v gim khi nhit tng.
Tng t c mt mt dng in ti hn Jc thp hn n vt liu vn l siu dn . Hnh
5.54 l s khng gian nhit - t trng mt dng in . Phn chia cc trng thi
[93]
dn thng v siu dn. V tr ca bin gii phn chia ng nhin ph thuc tng vt
liu. vng nhit , t trng v mt dng in nm trong khong gia gc ta
v bin gii ny, vt liu s l siu dn; Ngoi bin gii vt liu dn in bnh thng.
Hin tng siu dn c gii thch bng mt l thuyt kh phc tp. V bn cht,
trng thi siu dn c c l do tng tc gia cp in t dn . Chuyn ng ca nhng
in t ghp cp ny hu nh khng b tn x bi dao ng nhit v cc nguyn t tp
cht. Nh vy, in tr vn t l vi cng tn x in t s bng khng.
Cn c vo hnh vi t cc cht vt liu siu dn, cc vt liu siu dn c th phn
chia thanh loi I v loi II. Vt liu loi I, khi ang trng thi siu dn l hon ton
nghch t tc l mi t trng t vo u b vt siu dn y ra ( hnh 5.54a). Cn khi tr
li trng thi dn in bnh thng th t trng li i qua ( hnh 5.54b). Hin tng ny
c tn gi hiu ng Mcissner ( hnh 5.55). Khi tng H , vt liu vn l nghch t cho n t
trng ti hn Hc. Ti im ny tnh dn in tr li bnh thng v t thng xm nhp
ton b vt liu. Nhiu kim loi nh nhm, ch ,thic thuc loi I.
Cc cht siu dn loi II nghch t hon ton khi t trng t vo thp v y ton
b t trng ra ngoi. Tuy nhin, s chuyn bin trng thi siu dn sang trng thi dn
thng din ra t t, gia t trng ti hn di v t trng ti hn trn, k hiu tng
ng l Hc1 v Hc2. Ti Hc1 cc ng t thng bt u xm nhp vo vt liu v qu trnh s
kt thc ti Hc2. Ti t trng ca Hc1 v Hc2, vt liu tn ti trong trng thi hn hp gm
nhng vng dn thng v vng siu dn.
Cc cht siu dn loi II u im hn siu dn loi I do nhit v t trng ti
hn ca chng cao. Hin nay, ba cht siu dn c s dng ph bin l hp kim niobi ziconi ( Nb Sn), niobi titan (Nb Ti) v hp cht lin kim loi niobi thic (Nb 3Sn).
Bng 5.12 cho bit mt s cht siu dn loi I v loi II cng vi mt v t thng ti
hn ca chng.
Rt gn y (1986-1987), mt loi vt liu gm cha ng oxyt, bnh thng l
cht cch in, c pht hin l cc cht siu dn c nhit ti hn cao mt cch
khc thng. Nghin cu u tin tp chung vo hp cht YBa2Co3O7 Vi cu trc tinh th
phc tp kiu perovski v nhit ti hn khong 95K. Cc vt liu gm siu dn mi c
nhit ti hn cao hn cng v ang c pht trin. V d, H Bi- Ca- Cu- O c T c
115K. H TI Ba Ca- Cu- O c Tc = 125K v h Hg- Ba- Cu- O c Tc= 130K. Cc vt
liu ny thuc nhm vt liu siu dn c nhit cao. Bn cht v c ch siu dn ca
chng hin nay cha hon ton sng t.
Trin vng ng dng ca nhng vt liu ny kh ln, v nhit ti hn ca chng
trn 77K, tc cho php dng nit lng, mt cht lm lnh r so vi hydro lng v heli
lng. Tuy nhin, vt liu gm siu dn mi cng c nhiu nhc im. Trc ht l tnh
gin ca chng, hn ch kh nng ch to siu dn dng dy si.
[94]
Nhit ti Mt t Vt liu
Nhit Mt t
hn Tc, K
thng
ti
ti
hn thng
ti
c
c
Tc, K
hn
hn
(1
(1)
tesla )
tesla
Cc nguyn t
Cc hp cht v hp kim
Nhm
1.18
0.0105
Hp kim Nb- Ti 10.2
12
Ch
7.19
0.0803
Hp kim Nb- Zr 10.8
11
Thy ngn
4.15
0.0411
Nb3Sn
18.3
22
Thic
3.72
0.0305
Nb3Al
18.9
32
Titan
0.40
0.0056
Nb3Ge
23.0
30
Vofram
0.02
0.0001
V3Ga
16.5
22
Niobi (Nb) 9.26
Pb6Mo6O8
14.0
45
Ghi ch: 1) Mt t thng ti hn ( 0 H c ) ca cc nguyn t c o 0K. i
vi cc hp cht v hp kim ly l 0 H C 2 bng tesla o 0K.
Hin tng siu dn c nhng ng dng thc t a dng. Cc nam chm siu dn
c kh nng to ra nhng t trng mnh c cng sut tiu th thp hn hin ang c
s dng trong cc thit b th nghim v nghin cu khoa hc. Chng cng ang c ng
dng trong lnh vc cng hng t (MR) v chp nh cng hng t (MRI). Trong y hc
nh mt cng c chun on . Nhng bt thng trong cc m v c quan ni tng c th
c pht hin nu to c nhng nh ct cho. C th phn tch ha sinh cc m c th
nh ph cng hng t( MRS).
Vt liu siu dn cn c nhng ng dng quan trng khc . Cc lnh vc ang c
khai thc bao gm: 1) Truyn ti in nng bng vt liu siu dn vi tn hao cng sut
thp v trang thit b s c vn hnh in p thp; 2) Nam chm cho cc my ht nng
lng cao; 3) truyn tn hiu v chuyn mch tc cao hn cho my tnh; 4) tu m t
cao tc vi m nng nh lc y ca t trng
Tr ngi ln nht p dng cc vt liu siu dn l kh khn trong vic t v lm
ch nhit rt thp. Hy vng l cc kh khn ny s c khc phc cng vi s pht
trin cc th h mi ca cc cht siu dn c nhit ti hn cao hp l.
v bc sng
ca bc x in t u l hm s ca tc C
C=
hv=
Trong
trng cn lu :
-Th nht ,cc trng thi ca nguyn t l gin on nn ch tn ti nhng khong
cch
tng ng vi nhng
.Hn na ,trong mi ln kch thch .phi l tt c (ch khng th mt phn ) nng lng
photon c hp th
-Th hai:in t ny khng th lu li v thi hn trng thi kch thch :sau mt
thi gian ngn ,n li nhy tr v trng thi c bn ca mnh hoc mt mc nng lng
thp hn v pht x in t (thut ng bc x gi l s th pht ).c th c nhiu con
ng nhy tr v ,nhng trong bt c trng hp no cng phi c s bo ton nng
lng cho cc chuyn di in t hp th v pht x .
Nh s trnh by sau ,cc c tnh quang hc ca vt rn lin quan n hp th v
pht x in t u c gii thch nh cu trc vng nng lng in t ca vt liu v
cc nguyn l lin quan n s chuyn di in t nh nu trn .
4.4.2.CC TNH CHT CA QUANG HC CA KIM LOI
Hy kho st s vng nng lng in t kim loi minh ha trn hnh 5.3a v
5.3b:trong c hai trng hp u c mt vng nng lng cao ch mi b cc in t
chim mt phn .Bc x nh sng ti s kch thch cc in t chuyn ln trng thi nng
lng cha b chim nm trn mc Fermi,nh cc biu th trn hnh 5.58a kt qu l nh
sng ti b hp th ph hp vi biu thc (5.56).Chnh v vy m kim loi l c.S hp
th hon ton ch xy ra trong mt lp mt ngoi rt mng thng thng nh hn
0,1m:nh vy ch c nhng mng kim loi mng hn 0,1m mi c kh nng truyn nh
sng nhn thy .
Kim loi hp th c mi tn s ca nh sng nhn thy bi v lin tc c nhng
trng thi in t cn trng ,chng cho php chuyn ri cc in t nh ch trn hnh 5.59a
.Thc ra cc kim loi u c i vi tt c cc bc x in t vng tn s thp ca ph
t sng v tuyn in ,qua hng ngoi ,nh sng nhn thy cho n khong gia bc x t
ngoi .cc kim loi u trong sut i vi tt c cc bc x c tn s cao(Tia Rnghen v
tia gamma).
Phn ln bc x b hp th s c th pht b mt di dng nh sng nhn thy
c cng bc sng,ta c nh sng phn x .S chuyn ri in t c trn hnh
5.59b. phn x cu phn ln cc kim loi nm gia 0,90 v 0,95 ,mt phn nh nng
lng ca qu trnh ny nhy xung ca in t b chuyn thnh nhit .
[98]
do :
5.60
Chit sut
trung bnh
1.458
1.51
1.47
1.65
1.76
1.74
1.55
1.72
Vt liu
Chit sut
trung bnh
Polyme
Polytetrafloetylen
Polyetylen
Polystyren
Polymetylmetacrylat
Polypropylen
1.35
1.51
1.60
1.49
1.49
4.4.3.2 Phn x
Khi bc x nh sng i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc ,mt phn nh
sng b bc x trn mt phn cch gia hai mi trng. Ngay c khi mi trng u v
trong sut. phn x R biu th phn nh sng b phn x mt phn cch tc l :
R=IR/I0
Trong I0 v IR cng ca chm ti v chm phn x
Nu nh sng ti vung gc vi mt phng gii hn th:
[100]
v ngn nht
[101]
( 5.66a)
( 5.66b)
v bc sng
ca bc x in t u l hm s ca tc C
theo h thc:
C=
[102]
[103]
4.4.1.3.Tng tc nguyn t v in t
Cc hin tng quang hc xy ra bn trong vt rn u c lin quan n nhng
tng tc gia bc x in t v nguyn t ,ion v in t.Hai hin tng quan trng nht
trong nhng tng tc ny l s phn cc in t v s chuyn ri nng lng in t.
Phn cc in t
Mt trong hai thnh phn ca song in t l in trng bin thin nhanh . phm
vi tn s thy c in trng ny tng tc vi am my in t bao quanh trng
nguyn t v gy ra s phn cc in t .C mi ln thnh phn in trng thay i
hng l mt ln lm lnh m my in t so vi ht nhn nguyn t ,nh biu th trn
hnh 5.28a .Hai h qu ca s phn cc ny l 1)mt phn nng lng bc x b hp th v
2) sng nh sng b chm li khi i qua mi trng .H qu th hai biu hin s khc x s
tho lun trong mc 5.4.3a
Chuyn di in t
S hp th v pht x in t c th gy nn s chuyn di cc in t t trng thi
ny sang trnh thi nng lng khc . d tho lun ta xt ring mt nguyn t , th
nng lng nguyn t ca n c biu din trn hnh 5.58.Mt in t c th b kch
thch chuyn t mt trng thi chim mc nng lng E2 ln mt trng thi nm
mc nng lng cao hn ,E4 chng hn bng ch hp th mt photon nng lng :
hv=
Trong
trng cn lu :
-Th nht ,cc trng thi ca nguyn t l gin on nn ch tn ti nhng khong
cch
tng ng vi nhng
.Hn na ,trong mi ln kch thch .phi l tt c (ch khng th mt phn ) nng lng
photon c hp th
-Th hai:in t ny khng th lu li v thi hn trng thi kch thch :sau mt
thi gian ngn ,n li nhy tr v trng thi c bn ca mnh hoc mt mc nng lng
thp hn v pht x in t (thut ng bc x gi l s th pht ).c th c nhiu con
ng nhy tr v ,nhng trong bt c trng hp no cng phi c s bo ton nng
lng cho cc chuyn di in t hp th v pht x .
Nh s trnh by sau ,cc c tnh quang hc ca vt rn lin quan n hp th v
pht x in t u c gii thch nh cu trc vng nng lng in t ca vt liu v
cc nguyn l lin quan n s chuyn di in t nh nu trn .
[104]
do :
5.60
Chit sut
trung bnh
Vt liu
[106]
Chit sut
trung bnh
Gm
Thy tinh SiO2
Thy tinh Na-Ca
Thy tinh Pyrex
Thy tinh Flint nn
Corunng (Al2O3)
Periclaz (MgO)
Thch anh (SiO2)
Spinen(MgAl2O4)
1.458
1.51
1.47
1.65
1.76
1.74
1.55
1.72
Polyme
Polytetrafloetylen
Polyetylen
Polystyren
Polymetylmetacrylat
Polypropylen
1.35
1.51
1.60
1.49
1.49
4.4.3.2 Phn x
Khi bc x nh sng i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc ,mt phn nh
sng b bc x trn mt phn cch gia hai mi trng. Ngay c khi mi trng u v
trong sut. phn x R biu th phn nh sng b phn x mt phn cch tc l :
R=IR/I0
Trong I0 v IR cng ca chm ti v chm phn x
Nu nh sng ti vung gc vi mt phng gii hn th:
v ngn nht
( 5.66a)
( 5.66b)
phi c tiu tn bng mt phng thc no theo nhiu c ch khc nhau.V d, bng
s ti hp trc tip in t v l trng thep phn ng (hnh 5.60b):
C th xy ra nhng chuyn di in t nhiu bc nh c cc mc tp cht nm
trong khe vng .Hnh 5.61b cho thy kh nng pht x hai photon bng s ging in t t
mt trng thi trong vng dn xung mt mc tp cht ,ri li t nhy v vng ha
tr .Hoc l mt trong cc bc chuyn di c th sn sinh mt photon (hnh 5,61c), y
phn nng lng tng ng c tiu tn di dng nhit
4.4.3.4 .Truyn qua
Xt trng hp nh sng i qua mt vt rn trong sut(hnh 5.62). i vi mt
chm tia c cng I0 chiu vo mt nc ca mu cht c dy l v h s hp th
,cng c truyn qua ti mt sau ca mu l:
IT=I0(1-R)2e-t
Trong R- phn x v gi thit rng c cng mt mi trng tn ti pha
ngoi c mt trc v mt sau ca mu.
Nh vy thnh phn ca tia ti truyn qua vt liu trong sut ph thuc vo nhng
tn hao do hp th v phn x. Hn na, cc thng s nh phn x, hp th v
truyn qua u ph thuc vo bc sng nh sng v phi tha mn biu thc(5.55). Hnh
5.63 th hin cc mi quan h ny i vi thy tinh xanh. V d, vi nh sng c bc
sng 0.4m th t phn truyn qua,hp th v phn x ln lt vo khong 0.90;0.05 v
0.05. Tuy nhin vi bc sng 0.55m th cc t phn ny c cc gi tr tng ng khong
0.5;0.48 v 0.02.
4.4.3.5 .Mu sc
Cc vt liu trong sut hin mu l do c nhng di bc sng nh sng b hp th
chn lc, mu sc cm nhn c l kt qu t hp ca nhng bc sng c truyn qua.
Nu s hp th xy ra ng u vi tt c cc bc sng thy c th vt liu hin ra
khng mu, v d nh cc loi thy tinh v c tinh khit cao, kim cng v saphia n
tinh th tinh khit cao.
Thng thng, hp th chn lc l bng kch thch in t. Chng hn nh trng
hp cc cht bn dn c khe vng trng vi di nng lng photon nh sng nhn
thy(1.8eV n 3.1eV). phn nh sng nhn thy c nng lng ln hn E b hp th chn
lc bi cc chuyn di in t t vng ha tr ln vng dn. ng nhin, mt s bc x
b hp th ny li th pht khi cc in t kch thch nhy tr v nhng trng thi nng
lng thp ban u ca chng. S th pht ny xy ra khng nht thit cng tn s nh
khi hp th m trong trng hp chuyn ri bc x nhiu bc(hnh 5.61b) hoc khng
bc x (hnh 5.61c) th li l nh hn. Kt qu l mu sc ph thuc vo s phn b tn
s ca c chm sng truyn qua v chm sng th pht.
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4.4.5.2.Quang dn
Tnh dn in ca cc cht bn dn ph thuc vo s in t t do trong vng dn
v s lng l trng trong vng ha tr theo biu thc 5.12. Nng lng nhit gn vi cc
dao ng mng c th thc y cc kch thch in t trong in t t do v l trng
c to thnh nh trnh by trong mc 5.1.1.3. C th sn sinh cc ht ti b sung
thm nh cc chuyn ri in t c kch thch bi photon: dn in tng. Hin tng
ny gi l quang dn. Nh vy khi mt vt liu quang dn c chiu sng dn in s
tng ln.
Quang dn c ng dng trong my o nh sng chp nh. Dng in do nh sng
kch thch ra c o, v ln ca n l mt hm s trc tip ca cng bc x nh
sng ti. Cacmi sulfit l vt liu c dng ph bin trong cc my o nh sng.
nh sng mt tri c th chuyn i trc tip thnh nng lng in trong cc pin
mt tri, chng cng s dng cc cht bn dn. Hot ng ca cc linh kin ny theo mt
ngha no l ngc li vi diode pht quang. Mt tip xc P-N c s dng sao cho
trong cc in t v cc l trng c kch thch bi nh sng u b ko ra khi tip
xc theo nhng hng ngc nhau v to ra dng in ngoi.
4.4.5.3.LAZE
Tt c cc chuyn di in t bc x trnh by cc phn trn u kaf t pht ,
c ngha l mt in t tt t mt trng thi nng lng cao xung mt trng thi nng
lng thp hn m khng c mt kch thch bn ngoi no. Nhng ln chuyn di c lp
vi nhau v ti nhng thi im ngu nhin, to ra bc x khng kt hp, ngha l cc
sng nh sng khng trng pha vi nhau. Nhng vi tia Laze, nh sng kt hp c sn
sinh bi cc chuyn di in t khi u t mt tc nhn kch thch bn ngoi.
Tuy c nhiu kiu Laze khc nhau nguyn l hot ng ca chng u c gii
thch bng Lazer cht rn rubi. Rubi n gin l n tinh th Al2O3(saphia) c pha thm
0.05% ion Cr+3. Nh gii thch trn (mc 5.4.3.5), nhng ion ny lm cho rubi c mu
c trng, quan trng hn l chng to ra cc trng thi in t quyt nh hot ng
ca Laze. Rubi c dng thanh vi hai u phng song song v c mi nhn bng. C hai
u c m bc sao cho mt phn c ton phn cn u kia truyn qua mt phn.
Thanh rubi c chiu sng bng mt n sng xenon(5.65). Do tc dng ny tt c
cc ion Cr+3 u trng thi c bn ca chng, ngha l cc in t chim nhng mc
nng lng thp nht nh biu din trn s hnh 5.66. Cc photon c bc sng 0,56
m do n xenon pht s kch thch cc in t ca Cr+3 chuyn ln cc trng thi nng
lng cao hn. Nhng in t ny c th tt v trng thi c bn ca chng bng 2 cch
khc nhau. Mt s in t ri trc tip tr v, photon pht ra khng nm trong vng tia
lase. Cc in t khc tt xung mt trng thi trung gian siu bn( con ng EM trn
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hnh 5.67), chng c th lu li ti 3ms trc khi pht x t pht ( con ng MG).
Trong cc qu trnh in t 3ms l mt thi gian tng i di, iu ny cho thy mt s
ln cc trng thi siu bn c th b chim. Tnh hnh ny c ch r trn hnh 5.68b.
S pht x photon t pht khi u ca mt vi trong s in t l kch thch, m
ra c mt thc l dn dp nhng pht x t cc in t ang cn trng thi siu bn( hnh
5.68c). Trong nhng photon hng song song theo nhng trc di ca thanh Rubi, c mt
s c truyn qua phn m bc mt phn, nhng photon khc i ti u m bc ton
phn s b phn x tr li.
Cn nhng photon khng c pht x theo hng trc ny th s b tht lac. Chm
nh sng i ti i lui lp li dc theo chiu di thanh Rubi, cng ca n tng ln do c
nhiu pht x hn c kch thch( Hnh 5.68d). Cui cng mt chm sng lase cng
cao, kt hp v tp trung cao trong mt thi gian ngn c truyn qua u m bc mt
phn ca thanh Rubi (Hnh 5.67e). Chm sng n sc ny c bc sng 0,6943m.
Mt lot cc cht c th dng cho lase, trong c mt cht kh v thy tinh cng
nh cc it tip xc bn dn. Lase c nhiu ng dng khc nhau. Do cc chm tia lase c
th hi t to ra s lm nng cc b, chng c dng trong cc qu trnh phu thut v
ct gt, gia cng kim loi. Lase cng c dng lm cc ngun nh sng cho cc h thng
tin quang hc. Xa hn na, v cc chm tia lase l cc chm tia kt hp cao , chng c
th c dng trong cc php o khong cch rt chnh xc.
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Bi 2: Xc nh ch s Miller ca cc mt A, B sau:
Bi 4: Xc nh ch s Miller -
Bravais ca mt sau:
II. Cu hi n tp chng 2
Cu 1: Th no l gin ph v ng dng ca gin pha
Cu 2: Th no l dung dch rn. Gin pha ca dung dch rn
Cu 3: Gin pha ca cc cu t khng ho tan ln nhau
Cu 4: Tnh cht pha ca cc pha thnh phn
Cu 5: Gin pha Fe-C
Cu 6: Gin pha vi c chuyn bin th hinh
Cu 7: Th no l gin pha vi phn ng bao tinh
Cu 8: Th no l gin pha n nh
Cu 9:Tnh cht ca hn hp cc pha
Cu 10: quang h gia gia ca gin pha v tnh cht ca vt liu
Cu 11:M t tng tc gia Fe v C trong hn hp
Cu 12: Phn loi gang v thp, c im ca giang v thp
III. Cu hi n tp chng 3
Cu 1: Cc bn hy trnh by cc giai on ca bin dng n hi
[115]
IV. Cu hi n tp chng4
Cu 1: Nu cu trc vng nng lng ca vt liu
Cu 2: Nu c tnh dn in ca kim loi, gm v polyme
Cu 3: Cc yu t nh hng n nhit dung ca vt liu
Cu 4: Th no l cht st t, phn st t, feri t
Cu 5: ng dng ca vt liu t trong thc t
Cu 6: Gii thch ng cong t tr thng qua khi nim domen t
Cu 7: Phn bit t cng l g, t mn l g. Nu ng dng?
Cu 8: Nu c im ca siu dn, ng dng ca siu dn
Cu 9: Laser l g, ng dng ca laser
Cu 10: Nu tnh cht quang hc ca vt liu phi kim loi
Cu 11: Nu tnh cht quang hc ca kim loi, gii thch
Cu 12: Nu cc ng dng ca cc hin tng quang hc
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Chng I..................................................................................................................... 1
CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU.............................................................................1
1.1 CU TO V LIN KT NGUYN T........................................................................1
1.1.1 KHI NIM C BN V CU TO NGUYN T..................................................1
1.1.2 CC DNG LIN KT NGUYN T TRONG CHT RN......................................3
1.1.2.1. Lin kt ng ho tr................................................................................3
1.1.2.2 Lin kt ion..............................................................................................4
1.1.2.3 Lin kt kim loi.......................................................................................4
1.1.2.4 Lin kt hn hp......................................................................................4
1.1.2.5 Lin kt yu ( lin kt Van der Waals)......................................................4
1.2. SP XP NGUYN T TRONG VT RN.................................................................8
1.2.1 Khng trt t hon ton, cht kh ..................................................................8
1.2.2 Trt t l tng vt rn tinh th......................................................................8
1.2.3 Cht lng, vt rn vi tinh th v v nh hnh.................................................9
1.2.4. QUAN H GIA CU TRC V TNH CHT....................................................11
T nhng trnh by cc phn trn v s c lm r thm cc chng tip
theo,c th thy rng yu t quyt nh tnh cht ca vt liu l cc dng lin
kt v cu trc ca n .......................................................................................11
1.3 KHI NIM V MNG TINH TH ..........................................................................12
1.3.1.TNH I XNG CA TINH TH....................................................................12
1.3.2. C S, H TINH TH................................................................................14
1.3.3. PHNG V MT TINH TH..........................................................................16
1.3.3.1 Ch s ca nt mng ..............................................................................16
1.3.3.2. Ch s ca phng tinh th....................................................................16
1.3.3.3. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th.................................................................17
1.3.3.4. Ch s Miller-Bravais trong h su phng.............................................18
1.3.4. MT NGUYN T TRONG MNG TINH TH H S XP CHT..................19
1.3.4.1. Mt xp.............................................................................................19
1.3.4.2. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong mng tinh th, s xp cht....................21
1.3.5. L HNG TRONG MNG TINH TH...............................................................21
1.4 MT S CU TRC TINH TH IN HNH CA VT RN......................................23
1.4.1. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT RN VI LIN KT KIM LOI..........................23
1.4.1.1. Mng tinh th lp phng tm khi(......................................................23
1.4.1.2 Mng lp phng tm mt (A1: lptm).....................................................25
1.4.1.3 Mng tinh th su phng xp cht........................................................26
1.4.2 Mng tinh th ca vt rn c lin kt ng ho tr........................................26
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