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Industrial Analog Sensors
Industrial Control Systems
Fall 2006
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Analog Sensors
Are used to measure continuous variables
Temperature
Liquid level
Force
Pressure
Flow
Position
etc.
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Analog Sensors
Provide much more information about a
process than digital sensors do
Transducers:
A transducer converts one physical parameter into
another
Example: A fuel level sensing unit in an
automobile fuel tank. Essentially a thick film
hybrid circuit variable resistor, it converts a liquid
level to a variable voltage or current through the
movement of the wiper.
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Analog Sensor Properties
Range
The upper and lower limits of measurement
Accuracy
The agreement between the actual and measured
value.
Resolution
The smallest difference the sensor will respond to.
Repeatability
Does the sensor give the same reading for the
same measurement value?
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Analog Sensor Types
Temperature
Thermocouples
Resistance temperature device (RTD)
Thermistor
Semiconductor (Diodes, Transistors
Integrated circuit) temperature sensors
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Analog Sensors Types
Strain gauges
Measure strain to determine force, stress, pressure
Linear Variable Displacement Transformer (LVDT)
Linear displacement
Resolvers
Rotation angle
Variable Resistors
Linear Displacement
Magnetostrictive
Linear Displacement
Pressure Sensors
Use strain gauges or LVDT
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Thermocouples
2 wires composed of dissimilar metals
are joined at one end
When heated current will flow through
the circuit a thermoelectric current
(Thomas Seebeck, 1821)
Measurement
Circuitry
Measurement
Point
Symbol
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Thermocouples Contd
Current implies a differential voltage
which can be measured as a function of
temperature (linearly proportional)
Voltage is linearly proportional to
temperature V= T
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Consider the following scenario:
Thermocouples Contd
Measurement
Circuitry
Measurement
Point
Copper
Terminals
Copper
Constantan
'T' Thermocouple
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Thermocouples Contd
Measurement
Circuitry
Measurement
Point
Copper
Terminals
Copper
Constantan
'T' Thermocouple
The addition of the copper terminals introduces another voltage in opposition to the voltage
measured at the measuring point.
This additional voltage is compensated for through the addition of compensating circuitry that
senses the ambient temperature, and will add a voltage in opposition to V2 to cancel it out.
This is called the "cold junction compensation technique".
V1
V2
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Thermocouples Contd
Thermocouples are color-coded for
polarity and for type
The negative terminal is RED
The positive terminal is a different color
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Thermocouples Contd
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Thermocouples Contd
750
Temp. (C)
Seebeck
Voltage (mV)
0
40
The Seebeck voltage can be non-linear
with certain thermocouples.
In order to obtain the temperature vs. voltage
relationship, look-up tables, or polynomial fitting
are used.
e.g., T = A
0
+ A
1
V +A
2
V
2
+....+A
n
V
n
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Thermocouples Wiring
It is not possible to connect a
thermocouple directly to a PLC analog
module because Seebeck voltage is too
low (less than 50 millivolts)
Electronic devices are used to amplify,
condition, and linearize the
thermocouple output.
Most manufacturers offer thermocouple
input modules for direct connection
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Resolution of Thermocouples
The resolution is determined by the
device that takes the output from the
thermocouple
When using an analog PLC module with
12-bit resolution and measuring a range
of 1200, the resolution would be:
1200/4096 = 0.29296875 degrees/bit
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Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Self Powered (does
not require a current
or voltage source)
Rugged
Inexpensive
Simple
Disadvantages:
Extremely Low
Voltage output (mV)
Not very stable in
presence of EMI
Needs a reference
point
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Thermocouples Improving Operation
Use the largest possible wire that will not sink
heat away from the measurement area.
Avoid mechanical stress and vibration that
could cause the wires to break.
Use shielded wire to shield the wire from
stray EM fields.
Avoid steep temperature gradients (thermal
time constant).
Use thermocouples well within the
temperature rating.
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Resistance Temperature Device (RTD)
All metals exhibit a positive resistance
temperature coefficient if we can
measure resistance we can measure
temperature
An RTD is a precision resistor whose
resistance changes with temperature
RTDs are made form a pure wire-wound
metal.
Symbol
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Resistance Temperature Device (RTD)
Typical metals include copper, nickel,
and Platinum
The most commonly used metal in
RTDs is platinum which can withstand
higher temperatures
Platinum has a temperature coefficient
of = + 0.00385
100 RTD means 100 @ 0C
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RTD Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Stable
Very accurate
Change in resistance
is linear
Disadvantages:
Expensive
Current source
required
Small change in
resistance
Self heating
Less rugged than
thermocouples.
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Thermistor
Same principle as RTD
except it uses a
semiconductor instead
of a metal
A thermistor can have a
negative or positive
temperature coefficient
Greater change in
resistance with
temperature more
sensitive
Symbol
T
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Thermistor Contd
Excellent for temperatures near room
temp useless for temps above 50C
Not linear resistance decreases
exponentially with temperature increase
Temp. (C)
Resistance
0
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Thermistor Advantages and
Disadvantages
Advantages:
Very sensitive (has
the largest output
change from input
temperature)
Quick response
More accurate than
RTD and
Thermocouples
Disadvantages:
Output is a non-
linear function
Limited temperature
range.
Self heating
Fragile
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Semiconductors
Forward voltage of a diode can be used
to measure temperature (NTC ~ 4.0
mv/K)
Transistors can be used to measure
temperature in the same manner.
Dedicated IC can also be used
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Strain Gauges
The resistance of a metal wire is given
by:
As the wire is stretched, L increases
and A decreases.
As a result, R increases.
These effects are exploited in strain
gauges
A
L
R

=
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Strain Gages
When applying force (stress), the
material undergoes temporarily
deformation (strain)
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Strain Gages
Thin wires change
resistance when
stretched
This can be used to
obtain a measurement
proportional to strain
Strain is related to
stress
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Strain Gauges
Typical conditioning circuit
+
V+
V
O
R
R
R
R(1+x)
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Linear Variable Displacement Transformer
(LVDT)
An LVDT is a
transformer with a
moveable core
As the position
(displacement) of
the core varies, the
output voltage
varies
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LVDT
www.macrosensors.com
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LVDT
Moveable Iron Core
V
O
V
O
Larger Displacement
Smaller Displacement
Time
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LVDT
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When to use an LVDT
High accuracy
Linear operation
Harsh environment
Analog position control
Embedding (in cylinder for example)
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Resolvers
A resolver is a transformer with two
fixed and one rotating winding
The output voltage varies with the
rotation angle of the rotor
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Resolvers
In a resolver, a sine wave is applied to one stationary
coil. A cosine wave is applied to the other winding.
Frequency is typically 2 kHz.
The rotor contains the third winding. This winding
produces the output.
The rotor winding has one half the turns of the stator
windings.
If the stator windings produce 12 V, the rotor will
have a 6 V peak voltage appearing at its terminals.
Depending on the rotor position, the phase of the
rotor voltage will vary with the position of the rotor.
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Resolvers
12 V, 0deg
12 V, 90deg
6 V, 225 deg
Rotor Angle = 45 deg
The phase difference between the stator and rotor voltages is used
to measure displacement
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Magnetostrictive Sensor
In some applications, linear displacement
must be measured to a high degree of
accuracy (10ths of a mm).
In these applications, a linear variable resistor
is not desired due to drift and issues with
linearity over temperature.
In these applications, a magetorestrictive
sensor should be used.
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Magnetostrictive Sensor
Sensor operates based on 2 principles
i) If a current is passed through a conductor in a magnetic field, a
torque is produced.
ii) The speed of sound travels through a solid material at a defined
speed.
Control
Electronics
Waveguide
Housing
Waveguide
Toroidal Magnet
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Magnetostrictive Sensor
An interrogation pulse is applied to the waveguide (1-3 s).
The magnetic field produced by the waveguide interacts with that of
the magnet.
A short mechanical pulse is produced on the waveguide.
The control electronics measure the torsional motion of the waveguide
and converts it to an electric pulse. The time is measured between the
interrogation pulse and the mechanical pulse.
The time is converted to a voltage between 0 and 10 V corresponding
to a distance of 0 to the length of the tube.
Applications Include
Clamp control for injection molding machines.
Hydraulic cylinder positioning.
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Flow Sensors
Some of the more widely used ones
include:
Paddle wheel flow sensors
Turbine flow sensors
These two sensors use a proximity sensor to sense the speed
of the impeller blades.
Pitot tubes
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Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors are used to measure
and control fluids
Some operate through:
A change in resistance
A change in capacitance
A change in inductance
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Pressure Sensors
Pressure can be
measured several
ways:
Using strain gauges to
measure stress or force
related to pressure
Using an LVDT to
measure displacement
caused by pressure
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Bellows-style Pressure Sensors
Any change in pressure affects the
bellows and moves the core in the
LVDT
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Installation Considerations
Electrical
Sensor must be wired properly so that
allowable load current is not exceeded
If high-voltage wiring is run close proximity
to sensor cable, the cable should be run
through a metal conduit
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Installation Considerations
Mechanical
Mount horizontally so that sensor doesnt
collect chips and debris
Be sure sensor doesnt sense its own
mount
Dont damage the sensor when mounting
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Choosing Sensors
Size of object
Material of object
Environmental conditions (dust, heat,
fluid, etc.)
Required accuracy
Available space
Etc.
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Temperature and Flow Application
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Fill Level Sensing
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Seven Inductive Sensors Being used to
Identify Pallet Types
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Pressure and Level Control
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Small Parts Sensing
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Pressure Sensing