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9: Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

Inductors Series and Parallel Capacitors
Current/Voltage Continuity Average Current/Voltage Buck Converter Power and Energy Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)
Capacitors and Inductors: 9 1 / 12
Capacitors

A capacitor is formed from two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating layer. If a current i ows, positive change, q , will accumulate on the upper plate. To preserve charge neutrality, a balancing negative charge will be present on the lower plate.
Capacitors

There will be a potential energy difference (or voltage v ) between the plates proportional to q . d v=A q where A is the area of the plates, d is their separation and is the permittivity of the insulating layer ( 0 = 8.85 pF/m for a vacuum).
Capacitors

There will be a potential energy difference (or voltage v ) between the plates proportional to q . d v=A q where A is the area of the plates, d is their separation and is the permittivity of the insulating layer ( 0 = 8.85 pF/m for a vacuum). The quantity C = A d is the capacitance and is measured in Farads (F), hence q = Cv .
Capacitors

There will be a potential energy difference (or voltage v ) between the plates proportional to q . d v=A q where A is the area of the plates, d is their separation and is the permittivity of the insulating layer ( 0 = 8.85 pF/m for a vacuum). The quantity C = A d is the capacitance and is measured in Farads (F), hence q = Cv . The current, i, is the rate of charge ow, hence the capacitor equation: dv i = dq = C qt dt .
Types of Capacitor

Capacitor symbol represents the two separated plates. Capacitor types are distinguished by the material used as the insulator.
Types of Capacitor

Capacitor symbol represents the two separated plates. Capacitor types are distinguished by the material used as the insulator. Polystyrene: Two sheets of foil separated by a thin plastic lm and rolled up to save space. Values: 10 pF to 1 nF.
Types of Capacitor

Capacitor symbol represents the two separated plates. Capacitor types are distinguished by the material used as the insulator. Polystyrene: Two sheets of foil separated by a thin plastic lm and rolled up to save space. Values: 10 pF to 1 nF. Ceramic: Alternate layers of metal and ceramic (a few m thick). Values: 1 nF to 1 F.
Types of Capacitor

Capacitor symbol represents the two separated plates. Capacitor types are distinguished by the material used as the insulator. Polystyrene: Two sheets of foil separated by a thin plastic lm and rolled up to save space. Values: 10 pF to 1 nF. Ceramic: Alternate layers of metal and ceramic (a few m thick). Values: 1 nF to 1 F. Electrolytic: Two sheets of aluminium foil separated by paper soaked in conducting electrolyte. The insulator is a thin oxide layer on one of the foils. Values: 1 F to 10 mF.
Types of Capacitor

Capacitor symbol represents the two separated plates. Capacitor types are distinguished by the material used as the insulator. Polystyrene: Two sheets of foil separated by a thin plastic lm and rolled up to save space. Values: 10 pF to 1 nF. Ceramic: Alternate layers of metal and ceramic (a few m thick). Values: 1 nF to 1 F. Electrolytic: Two sheets of aluminium foil separated by paper soaked in conducting electrolyte. The insulator is a thin oxide layer on one of the foils. Values: 1 F to 10 mF. Electrolytic capacitors are polarised: the foil with the oxide layer must always be at a positive voltage relative to the other (else explosion). Negative terminal indicated by a curved plate in symbol.
Inductors

Inductors are formed from coils of wire, often around a steel or ferrite core.
Inductors

The magnetic ux within the coil is = l i where N is the number of turns, A is the cross-sectional area of the coil and l is the length of the coil (around the toroid).
N A
is a property of the material that the core is made from and is called its permeability . For free space (or air): 0 = 4 107 = 1.26 H/m, For steel, 40000 = 5 mH/m.
Inductors

N A
From Faradays law, v = N d dt = N 2 A di l dt di = L dt .
Inductors

N A
From Faradays law, v = N d dt = N 2 A di l dt N 2 A , l di = L dt .
We measure the inductance, L =
in Henrys (H).
Passive Components

We can describe all three types of passive component by the relationship between V and I using, in each case, the passive sign convention.
Passive Components

We can describe all three types of passive component by the relationship between V and I using, in each case, the passive sign convention. Resistor: v = Ri
Passive Components

di Inductor: v = L dt
Passive Components

Capacitor: i = C dv dt
Passive Components

Note: There are no minus signs anywhere whatever you were taught at school.
Series and Parallel Inductors


v = v1 + v2


di di + L2 dt v = v1 + v2 = L1 dt


di di + L2 dt v = v1 + v2 = L1 dt di = (L1 + L2 ) dt


Same equation as a single inductor of value L1 + L2


dI dt
d(i1 +i2 ) dt


dI dt
d(i1 +i2 ) di1 = dt dt
di2 dt


dI dt
d(i1 +i2 ) di1 di2 = + dt dt dt v 1 1 v L1 + L2 = v L1 + L2


dI dt
= v=
d(i1 +i2 ) di1 di2 = + dt dt dt v 1 1 v L1 + L2 = v L1 + L2 di 1 1/L +1/L dt 1 2


dI dt
= v=
1 Same as a single inductor of value 1/L + 1/L 1 2


dI dt
= v=
1 Same as a single inductor of value 1/L + 1/L 1 2
Inductors combine just like resistors.
Series and Parallel Capacitors


i = i1 + i2


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt
Same equation as a single capacitor of value C1 + C2


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt

dv dt
d(v1 +v2 ) dt


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt

dv dt
d(v1 +v2 ) dv1 = dt dt
dv2 dt


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt

dv dt
dv2 dt
i C1
i C2
=i
1 C1
1 C2


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt

dv dt
dv2 dt
= i=
i C1
1/C
i C2
=i
1 C1
1 C2
dv 1 1/C dt + 1 2


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt

dv dt
dv2 dt
= i=
i C1
1/C
i C2
=i
1 C1
1 C2
dv 1 1/C dt + 1 2
1 Same as a single capacitor of value 1/C + 1/C 1 2


dv i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv dt + C2 dt
= (C1 + C2 ) dv dt

dv dt
dv2 dt
= i=
i C1
1/C
i C2
=i
1 C1
1 C2
dv 1 1/C dt + 1 2
1 Same as a single capacitor of value 1/C + 1/C 1 2
Capacitors combine just like conductances (i.e. parallel capacitors add).
Current/Voltage Continuity


Capacitor: i = C dv dt For the voltage to change abruptly

dv dt
= i = .


dv dt
= i = .
This never happens so ...


dv dt
= i = .
This never happens so ... The voltage across a capacitor never changes instantaneously.


dv dt
= i = .
This never happens so ... The voltage across a capacitor never changes instantaneously. Informal version: A capacitor tries to keep its voltage constant.


dv dt
= i = .


dv dt
= i = .
For the current to change abruptly

di dt
= v = .


dv dt
= i = .

di dt
= v = .
This never happens so ...


dv dt
= i = .

di dt
= v = .
This never happens so ... The current through an inductor never changes instantaneously.


dv dt
= i = .

di dt
= v = .
This never happens so ... The current through an inductor never changes instantaneously. Informal version: An inductor tries to keep its current constant.
Average Current/Voltage

For a capacitor i = C dv dt .

For a capacitor i = C dv dt . Take the average of both sides:

1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )
v (t )


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )=
v (t )
C t2 t1
(v (t2 ) v (t1 ))


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )=
v (t )
C t2 t1
(v (t2 ) v (t1 ))
(1) If v (t1 ) = v (t2 ) then the average current exactly equals zero.


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )=
v (t )
C t2 t1
(v (t2 ) v (t1 ))
(1) If v (t1 ) = v (t2 ) then the average current exactly equals zero. (2) If v is bounded then the average current 0 as (t2 t1 ) .


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )=
v (t )
C t2 t1
(v (t2 ) v (t1 ))
(1) If v (t1 ) = v (t2 ) then the average current exactly equals zero. (2) If v is bounded then the average current 0 as (t2 t1 ) . The average current through a capacitor is zero


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )=
v (t )
C t2 t1
(v (t2 ) v (t1 ))
(1) If v (t1 ) = v (t2 ) then the average current exactly equals zero. (2) If v is bounded then the average current 0 as (t2 t1 ) . The average current through a capacitor is zero and, likewise, the average voltage across an inductor is zero.


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )=
v (t )
C t2 t1
(v (t2 ) v (t1 ))
(1) If v (t1 ) = v (t2 ) then the average current exactly equals zero. (2) If v is bounded then the average current 0 as (t2 t1 ) . The average current through a capacitor is zero and, likewise, the average voltage across an inductor is zero. The circuit symbols remind you of this.


1 t2 t1 t2 t1
idt =
1 t2 t1
t2 t1
C dv dt dt=
C t2 t1
v (t2 ) v (t1 )
dv
C t2 t1
2 [v ]v(t1 )=
v (t )
C t2 t1
(v (t2 ) v (t1 ))
(1) If v (t1 ) = v (t2 ) then the average current exactly equals zero. (2) If v is bounded then the average current 0 as (t2 t1 ) . The average current through a capacitor is zero and, likewise, the average voltage across an inductor is zero. The circuit symbols remind you of this. Average can either be over an exact number of periods of a repetitive waveform or else the long-term average (provided v and i remain bounded). v is bounded means |v | always stays less than a predened maximum value.
Buck Converter

A buck converter converts a high voltage, V , into a lower one, Y . The switch, S , closes for a fraction a of the time. a is the duty cycle and is 1 3 in this example.
Buck Converter

A buck converter converts a high voltage, V , into a lower one, Y . The switch, S , closes for a fraction a of the time. a is the duty cycle and is 1 3 in this example. When S is closed, x = v , and a current iL ows.
Buck Converter

A buck converter converts a high voltage, V , into a lower one, Y . The switch, S , closes for a fraction a of the time. a is the duty cycle and is 1 3 in this example. When S is closed, x = v , and a current iL ows. When S opens, the current iL cannot change instantly and so it must ow throught the diode (we assume the diode forward voltage is zero).
Buck Converter

A buck converter converts a high voltage, V , into a lower one, Y . The switch, S , closes for a fraction a of the time. a is the duty cycle and is 1 3 in this example. When S is closed, x = v , and a current iL ows. When S opens, the current iL cannot change instantly and so it must ow throught the diode (we assume the diode forward voltage is zero). The average value of x is aV , so the average value of y must also be aV .
Buck Converter

A buck converter converts a high voltage, V , into a lower one, Y . The switch, S , closes for a fraction a of the time. a is the duty cycle and is 1 3 in this example. When S is closed, x = v , and a current iL ows. When S opens, the current iL cannot change instantly and so it must ow throught the diode (we assume the diode forward voltage is zero). The average value of x is aV , so the average value of y must also be aV . The average current through R is aV R so, since the average current through
C must be zero, the average current iL must also be
aV R
Buck Converter

A buck converter converts a high voltage, V , into a lower one, Y . The switch, S , closes for a fraction a of the time. a is the duty cycle and is 1 3 in this example. When S is closed, x = v , and a current iL ows. When S opens, the current iL cannot change instantly and so it must ow throught the diode (we assume the diode forward voltage is zero). The average value of x is aV , so the average value of y must also be aV .
C must be zero, the average current iL must also be aV R . C dy dt = iL iR : if C is large, then the variations in y will be very small.
The average current through R is aV R so, since the average current through
Power and Energy


Electrical power absorbed by any component at the instant t is v (t) i(t).
Power and Energy


Electrical power absorbed by any component at the instant t is v (t) i(t). So total energy absorbed between times t1 and t2 is W = t=t vi dt. 1
t2
Power and Energy


Electrical power absorbed by any component at the instant t is v (t) i(t). So total energy absorbed between times t1 and t2 is W = t=t vi dt. 1 For a capacitor i = C dv dt , so
t2
W =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt
Power and Energy


t2
W =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt= C
v (t2 ) v =v (t1 )
vdv
Power and Energy


t2
W =C =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt= C
v (t2 ) v =v (t1 )
vdv
1 2 v (t2 ) 2 v v (t1 )
Power and Energy


t2
W =C =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt= C
v (t2 ) v =v (t1 )
vdv
1 2 v (t2 ) 1 = v 2 2C v (t1 )
v 2 ( t2 ) v 2 ( t1 )
Power and Energy


t2
W =C =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt= C
v (t2 ) v =v (t1 )
vdv
1 2 v (t2 ) 1 = v 2 2C v (t1 )
v 2 ( t2 ) v 2 ( t1 )
If v (t1 ) = v (t2 ) then there has been no nett energy absorbed: all the energy absorbed when the voltage rises is returned to the circuit when it falls.
Power and Energy


t2
W =C =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt= C
v (t2 ) v =v (t1 )
vdv
1 2 v (t2 ) 1 = v 2 2C v (t1 )
v 2 ( t2 ) v 2 ( t1 )
1 Cv 2 The energy stored in a capacitor is 2
Power and Energy


t2
W =C =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt= C
v (t2 ) v =v (t1 )
vdv
1 2 v (t2 ) 1 = v 2 2C v (t1 )
v 2 ( t2 ) v 2 ( t1 )
1 2 Cv 2 and likewise in an inductor 1 Li . The energy stored in a capacitor is 2 2
Power and Energy


t2
W =C =C
t2 t=t1
v dv dt dt= C
v (t2 ) v =v (t1 )
vdv
1 2 v (t2 ) 1 = v 2 2C v (t1 )
v 2 ( t2 ) v 2 ( t1 )
1 2 Cv 2 and likewise in an inductor 1 Li . The energy stored in a capacitor is 2 2
If v and i remain bounded, then the average power absorbed by a capacitor or inductor is always zero.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502) Capacitors and Inductors: 9 11 / 12
Summary

Capacitor:
i = C dv dt
parallel capacitors add in value average i is zero, v never changes instantaneously. average power absorbed is zero
Inductor:
di v = L dt
series inductors add in value (like resistors) average v is zero, i never changes instantaneously. average power absorbed is zero
See Irwin & Nelms Chapter 6

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9: Capacitors and Inductors

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

9: Capacitors and Inductors

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 1 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 2 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 2 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 2 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 2 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 3 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 3 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 3 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 3 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 3 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 4 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 4 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 4 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

We measure the inductance, L =

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 4 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 5 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 5 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 5 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 5 / 12

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)

Capacitors and Inductors: 9 5 / 12

Series and Parallel Inductors

Capacitors Types of Capacitor Inductors Passive Components Series and Parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2012-2502)