c..

= l\J

In Support Definition
1~lIcll

of a Functional of Interaction
D. Wagner

1scu!i1iil,n!\ of il11eraClion do not dislingui~h If il11erUclion found in Conlemp()r,lry of media. di!i(:u!i!i

'1Clwccn Ihe two culcgoric!i pruclicc: inlcr;I(:lillI\!;

ill!ilruclionul

tlul are thc propel1y vhi(:h urc Ihe properly When

Almlrucl A l'."IIIlI1"' 1111:1111: ill Ihc lIi~I;IIlCC CIII,Cllli",1 lill:f"IUI~ r(lr rc.l1.lilll\! illlCnlclivily Allhllu!!h i~ Ihalllclivcry will im",nyc Iccil. OOlh lilc

( Ical11ing evcl11!\ und dclivcry illlel1lCliol\. Iwo-way

!iy!iICm iIIlCrUCli(I1\!\, focus i!i (III

dislance

educatof!i

01icn Ihcir cxchullgc

he altribute!i i(,II. llIlercst )pporlunilies

IIrnl ()UICOmes of reu'-timc, in lechnologie!i for inleructivc do oflen !\hoUld

(II' inli,l11\u10 cxp.ll1d wilh

f()(:u1i (m Ihi!i ubi'ity howcver. Ihc hrl'rnlcr

1"'lllyic~ wi'h Ihc (1I1lrll'illl

(:()mmlll\i(:ulion; !illrcf!iedc!\

fu!i(:inuli(HI

ill1ilJ!1: ;,"d i1r:lclice Ilr lIi~li"II:C

1:IIucnlil)lI.

Ihefe nplICur~ I.. bc n

"h:,1 Ihc Icchl\ologies

i1i!iuC (II' le.l(:hing t!clillilil1l\N u vicw ()n of

!-,ml\'il1y nl"l.epllml:1: Ilf II I:"u~al fci;lli()n"hi/1 helwcclI ~y,lcl11 ii"CrIlclivily ;lItd ii,'ilm\:lil\n;11 inlCrnl:li()l1. I1rilher I"rn)("ci11hn~ bl:1:11 clcurly I)r fuIICli()rnll. Iy ('clincll. .Il)i" ilniclc Ili",'I1~~l.~ ~CYCflll "y~lcm~ m(Klcl." IIn(1 rcl;"c" in"lruclilln:11 c,I.,"li"h Il1cl11 I() llIc 1:IIIIICXI, .,r in~lr11\:lilIlIIII (Iclivcry. Ih(..,ry. :llId I,,:lmil,!:! Ihcllry jn IIn :lIICnlplll' li,r I"L. rll"'.'i ..r ;.., ,"..i,y. dc~ign. ill~lruc'iullur C(IlI\:cplIInl p:lfIln)CICr"

lI\d 'ellrnillg dynamic!i. Educalors hllvc hlld difficulty which 10 hll!\e empirical inleruclion as a c()nlimlou...ly ils uli'ily evide"cc Ihc Coll!ilruct SpeC\II:lli"g

in developing emertlil\g

()pcrlllil1m,1

a!ise!\!\mcnl!\

()r iIIlCruclioll. illlcruclio" it. ll1c

Whilc cmcucy

proccNN may provi(lc cmriricul

II N\:I\SC of iN limil. vari:,blc ()r dij;ci. or IInd mc.\jnc.Jj~criminl1 ~pc()irit: cu'crunc. ~yslcm~. Mo()rc Icarncrof Ih.11 U.'i!iC!i!iI"C"1

vision u"d dircctjol\, ~d Wilho\11 empirical needed 10 eslllh'iNh req\lin:!i rlilled inter.lclion inquiry.

for improving I() !iuppol1 or il11cructioll Uho\11 lhc

A~ ill~lrlIClion.11 allilru;lhlc.

lel:l1ll(II(I~ic:;

f1avc bccome

morc

powcrrul.

perva~ive. Ihilllf1c:;c ill educ,,illlcrc:;1 in Ilnd inl1ovacducm(1r!l (liffllor

a!\ :In cIpcrali(llla' impucl.

ll!lCr fricrnlly.

anll udapluhlc.

llie hopc:; 6f edllculor!l

Il1c dcliberulion

and objcclivily

li,Ullc.J i" Ihc mclh(ld!i role, workillg Ilypolhcscs h()y()l,d

Icl.f1I1(II(lgie!l will Ilclr \() hring "b()lll dr"m"lic itnprIlvCmenl!l I iOlI"1 pr"clice hilVC bel.()I11C 1II()rc per.o;i~lenl. The currenl llislunl:c C(lIll:miol1 i~ lf1e m()~1 reccl11 mul1irC~luliol1 al'\ivity Ihat h,,!; !;llrrllllll(lcu cvery m"jor cducutionullccllll(llugy Ijllll ,illt:e Ihe tllrl1 ()f Ihc I:cl11ury (Suclllcr 1990). Di~lunce l.()nICnd lf1m (ml: :;i~nificul11 l.lllll.i'li()n;11 \iOII el'lilrl.,: cnlcrprjse:; thcir c;lp.ll.ily mlriblltc !lcl!I 111l:111 :lr;lrl f()r rcal-Iime from previ()u!l

und crfccl

is rur ca~ier Ih.ln is c!\t.lhli!\hing

of the intcresl

Nuring the ertecl on sllldel\l Ir di!iC\lssion~ rcgurding nlll() gorie!; lion!\ ( 19!!9) jn!llrucl(\r learning con!iidcf!i pragmatic Muxwell IIprljcalion!i of in~lru(:lional functions pilrliculilrly end, di!il.lnt:c

IIchicvcmcl\l. inlcruclion urc 10 cxlcncl Ilcri,,\:(1 Icrm educulors

u poorly Wagncr

I()wurd

of Ihc lechl1(1l()gic:; ll!led in Clln'enl lechl1oll)gy Cllrrent illlcrllclivily. tl1inking

muy nccd 10 I1pCrIlli(,nIllil.C il\stru~liol\, whilc im\:ruclivily delivery te(..hnol()gjc~. ,lJc:lrl\Cr-C()I\ICI11.

or il11eri\Clion. UNun allrib\lle Iho!\c Ihat Ihrcc il!i Ull 1IIIrihulc de!;cribe~

( 19H9) hll!l ~ugl:!c!ilcd in!\lr1tcli(mal

Ih,,1 il\tCraCliun

of clTc~livc of conlcmporary Iype!i pupcr

~li~gC!iI~ 111,,1.U.'i u rc!lllll il'I(I"I.

or Il1c Icchn010gicully inlcrlll:lilm hclwcen

enuhJcd

cxl:hal\gc 10 en!lllc.

'~XI. illld vic.lc(). grcnlcr

Icuchcr:; und !lluc.lCI11!i. of il11CrUCli(111

u~c Iclct:l11llmuniculion~ of inter.lction Ihill pre~enl!\ mlrr\)w

am()n!:! ~ll1lJCIII:\. uI1(1hclWCcl1 !lllldel11!; nnd col11el11 i!i likcly Olle ()r lf1c mn.jor difficllllil::; mId i,llcrut:livity l.Jc.lrly ~mllp!i illlcr.II:I")11 illlt:r;,l'\iol1. ()r rllllcti(lrnllly bc viewcd llcfilll:(I. :;llrrollnding while di!ICu!l:;ioll!i widely i'i thnl Ihe!;c lerm!i.

ul1d leurl1er-Ieumer) evel11N. Thi!l runcli()l1.l1 outcome!\

Ihc rOCU!\ ()r dj!iCll!ij;i(m r()r dij;c\INNion Thc plannin~ a!\ a mc.\1\!i of ill\pmving Ihc(l1"clical-l()(W;'gl\cr

lI!\ed. hnvc no1 bccl1 ilnd vuricly pr(J-

a rrumework

.<;imp~ol1 ulld Galbc) ( 1')K6) !llIggc~1 1f1;,1 in whicf1 individllul!i U!I llIl:y llt:!lcribe

or in!iII'lIClilll'

U!i "II Iypcs of behllvior

thc probabilily

or h.lving

Icu1'11i"g CVC"IN occlIr. ror clIniI:IJ!lIl" 19K7) providc!i rcsc.lr(;" rcl.llC dc!iigl\. l"c~Nul,:e dc~igl\

.Ict lll)()1I Cilt:1I ollll:r. ..i!i rel:iprocily vcrhal

Thc e!isel11iul cf1urucleri!llic.

CUI\Ii1luum or con~lructs IIJH6) und ror improving ( Wilgncr bclwcen u"d Retldy illlcrilction in!llrtlcli()n.11

and Iclc-

ill uC\ion!l ill1(l rc!ipol1!;C!i in un inlil1ile und 1lC)I1-vcrbul. col1!iciou!i emcrging tl)ul

ror inlcrllClivc 1~,,(;IIl".lr~s

of reluliol1~llip:;:

ul1(l nun-col1!1ciou!i.

confercncing rel.lliu,,~hirN Re~e;lrch uddres!ied i,,~truclionul

l'or Ihe prilClicc. i~~uc~

t'l1(lllril1g und Cil~uui. 1I11crucl"),) i!i ~cen a!i a continually I:~~~. 11!1 l'(lmmllnicillion IlJK6. JK ). Herrillg ( '9K7). 011 Ihe olher hul1d. nolc!I

leurning

und il\strucliul\ul Ihc~c. 1\'1). call

in ils m()~1 il1c1usivl: :;CII.~C..(Si1np!iol1 und Gu'bo .l!enernl

i!i.'iue!\ ilffccting deliverv.

10 mul1y or Ihc !lil'nl: in.'ilructiol1al

in Ihc!\c previous

di!icu!\~ion!i:

hc rcl.ltctllo 111\:(l1"y.a"d

(\

P"l!C II)

is used here 11:1 Ihc bilNis for a discussion are reviewed.

ill which

funclionill

lltiliziitioll

~traregie~ 1ha1 empha~ize

1echllIlh,gi\:lIlly of interaction of illlcrllc1ion

mediatcd ru}lcd

in~trllction hy Herring for dclcnnillwherc

1111ribulC:llIf inleraclion

u~ a ~ubsti1ute for "the real thing." Operiitionlliizing thc two cutegorie~ ( 1987) would philo1iophical !lerve 10 move di!lcll!i!lion to improve learning

Deliniliuns

or Inleraction
are reciprocal evellts Ihlll require al leasl llIlcraclions occur when Ihesc ohjccls and All il1Nlructional interaction is all H Icllrner IInd the Icamer's cnvironmenl, interaclion purposes: instructionul the is to

out of the arena of

deb lIte and into OIlC thu1 may be more uneful outcomell and o1her lechnult)gicll

Simply slaled, inlerucliulls Iwo ohjccl!i IInd Iwo ..cliolls. events muluulJy cvc/lI il1nucnce Ihitt lakes pla~e between

ing !i1rategiell illg will require a philo!iuphicl1l, interaction of interaction con~ideration

in cnvironmentll

tclccUlTImunica1ion!i

are being ulled. Thill rcl'()Cun-

one IInother.

thal interaction be viewed from ii funetiomll, ruthcr than per~pcctive. Variuble!i "~~IK:iuted wilh the con~lrucl of c1(8mined in order to iI!I~C:;~ thc impu\:l conte1(t!l. Thi~ c1(l11nillatioll Icarnillg ntylc!;, mediu muy or may rellccl a :;clcC1iOll, per ne, but !;hould ill ~pccjfic of teuchil1g upplied ~tylcs,

II~ purpose is 10 rcspond Ilcr behilvior elTective ior low;lrd cllallgc nlem.

10 Ihe learner in II way inlended goal, An illslruclional re!irl)nsc toward imerucliol1:; the crfcct this change

10 change his or behav-

nced to he empiri\:lIlly

10ward all Clluclllional thaI go!\l, llIsIrllctional may ulso Iluve 1Iithollgh thull ralher

when thc environmenlal Ic.lrners and 10 move thcln

changes Ihe learncr's havc two of altering an ;lclion

not bc a~~ociated wi1h 1echnology

ch.lru\:teri!;tic!l, !;ilualionre~ource!l,

slntc of golll altain-

{Interucliolls itsclf

and silllutil)nally specific performance C1(IX:Crutioll!;. Well delligned instruction (wllich tllkc~ into accounr !;pecilie ul variablcs !illclJ a~ lIudience, .Ivuilable fin.mciullcljuipmcnt

illlcrvenliol1s jllslru~liun

Ihemselvl::\,

tentls lo emphasize

il1NlruCliull

lIS a meal1s 10 Ihe end of belween sYsil1tercan be for

learning.) Thc growing lem il1lcrlll:tivily

inrendcd outcome of in!itruction, tla:vcl(lpmcllt time, port. etc.) is more iik~ly In hring abour u de!;ircd learning tcclmology cncing, Im(1 perfOlmnnce used. Two-wuy Iwo-way audiogrllphic than is technoltlgy, il1lcructive video, !;utcllirc

devclopmcnl !lIIPchlllJge in human of the typc~ of vidco telc\:lll\ferurc all nctwOl.k~

.'I()lk"

IICl:l:rlance

of II causal rellltiol1ship il1lcrHClion has placed

rcgilrdle~!;

arnl instruction;ll

nIl ul1rcalislic

CXPCcI!\liOI1 011 illll:rill:livc fOUlld in Ollgll"lg di~lal1t delivery. ~tudelll~ villcll IlC lilIlitCll dcb:lles SlloUld

technologies regarding lIi:\lance gradllale

to ell~urc Ihllt instruclional of this phel1omcnon experiencc:; full motion. exrcricnces the .'I1C:\I" Icchl1o10gy

teleconferencing,

and cllmpllter

:lctiollS do occur. 'rhc most tyril:111 cxample learning ed~cution

capable of handling

trull~pnl1 of uudio, te1(t, and video inlilrlllaIwo-way uhOll1 illter-

systems

rur elcmemary two-way really vidcu be pro-

tion. Thc~e techl1ologie!;, while cupable or prllYidill~ intemctivity, 1Itill depend on u!ICr skill t(1 !luecen~rully bring action in an in!;tructiun:ll cmltc1(t. On thi1l p<lint, Livengood ( 1987) h.l!; IlotCJ lllat .

to syslem!i

emplllying

il1lerilCliQI1'! Clln quilJily cOl1lerellcillg'! 1Iic mc"ns liOllill slubbornly ul:lrly refOrlll

hy meiln.o; uf pril11 of inslructiol1!\1 guide per:;ist

ill1d u:\ynchrol1ou!i 1II:Iivcry is les!i critical 1iClcclion Imdilional K-12

computer-lncdillted ( 1983, 1989) that educator:; experiences i!i parliceduc31iol1 prc,,!iUrc to 19N9; AAAS Ihc I:lIpilcity limits for on In!;lea(l, hc ha!; argued Ihat ill~trllclionul procc!;n: inlcrllctivity .'it mcullll ill lIl:tive giving le~lmer It bcgill:; lecturcpurticiparion some conlrol with the initiul lion during in lhc il1!;tructionlll analy!;ill the icllrncr .intcracrivily RARI. .inlcractivily .intcru\:tivity i1l nor Ihc number of lime~ II :;Iudclll prc1l~C!I ISPACE than arc Ihe instrucdecisions. education

In o;rilc of evidence

presel1tcd hy Clark

IICNigl1s Ihllt

teclll1Qlogy in replicutillg

ill rcJllicIIting clfllcaturs

ruce-to-fuce in bolh

il1:;trucliunlll IIl1d higher (NCTM

i~ 11m1 1( number of key!llrokc~ pcr lllillute. i!; not !limply .I~king u 4Ue!;tiOlI or two after prc!ienting belwcen twn

viillcl:llll\llC.Igy, irol1ic ellvil'lllll11cnts 11)90, WICIIE leclll1ology recitali<m mollc

This imcrest in thut

certain amollnt uf illf()m1ution. .inlcral:tivity i~ not jU!it the commllflicalil}1\ (alrhough interaction

m;lchiIJe!;

have been IInd COltlillul: syslcms that 1992. APA/MI:REI. 10 do things mu kc:; nnc wonder educalors

to be under enonnous

1111IOIll! !;y!ilcm componcnls

dllC:; IK:Cllr).

currellll:dlll:llliol1UI

"nd prilclicc~

1993). liurthermore, why educators more typically

tire imro"sihlc

in a Iraditionul arc placing conform

over the PQCC and !leqllcncc of Ihc Icarner~

m thc in!ltruction.

thcir IIWI1 horizons.

Rulher thiln u~illg Icchnology

as a means tu fllcilitate to tcchl1ology

and is de!lignc<l

illto Ihc ill!;lruC(Livengood

al1d ellhul1ce creillivily.

thc early

!itage!l of the dcvelopmclll

procc!l!i.'

19R7). '1

c.c ~

(0 ~

i
W"gllcr ( 199();1) has sugge~lclf Ihal rUlure conNirlcmlions or inlerllclioll (l11d inteructivil)' ~h()lild druw UI)()II Ihc rcsulls or l-e~ea'ch from the fnlluwiJll! .le.,mi"g caJ!;lcily .i"~lrllclil)lmllhc()ry. mcnl illlervC"liOlI~ .jll~lrlll:lii)Il;'1 .ill~II'lICIion:11 dc!iigll. dclivcry. uliollUI c()l11ill~c,lcie!i 1(1 cncollrugc !iy~lcm:; Ihe gclIcrU\ion lu achicvc or slrnlegies r()r ll~ing illlCral:livc li()llal ~clling~ Di~!.lnce al'livily lowing educat(lr!; 10 dclermine delivcry ime,1Icli()n jn jnslruc. ()n which I() ha~e gener;IJ perf()l1n:lnce inlervellliOlI:; improved()mail1~: a"ll Icarning Ihcory. 10 hcllcr lindcrNlund hum:ln learning i i ~ I
.~.,. :g: ,: .. , .. .= .eD 2,~ :$ ~.O G . ...~ ~ ~ ,..;; ;.. " .. ~ .. -.Q ,,~ cC\ 0== \J ~ ~ ~
..~ ~ ~ =.,. -~

ill orucr I() lailor

Ihi'l uddress .~ilu.

m:ly

bc wcll

!;ervcd

hy cxamining

thclic

Ilrenus

of

h()w i"lcrnction

hus bcell 1'\:l:OmmOdaled. I() the activity

The f()lI) by

dj~l:I1!;!;i()n el"h<)fIIles

()II c:Il:h ()f thcsc urellu:; (scc Figure

rrl:,lillg l"Clcvl\nt 1\:!;l:;lrch ()n inter"ctiOlI willlill Ih,,1 :11"Pn:.

being cmph,,!;izcd

I.rllrllill~

Thcory

C'"I.ljlrllC:ls

Thllt

Afl.cct

Inleracllon

vf'e u ~ -.. !i ~ -e.

= n .. =

Gnglle ( 11)1!4) "1'~ ,Ic.~l'ribcd ICilmillg UN ;1 change in all il1dividllllllhal i.'i Il:m~mhcred al1d Ihal makl:N r<)N!iiblc tl CorreNpl"ldil1g change in hi!; ()r ltcr l)thavi()r ill a partic:lil:lr rcurner!; !iilll:llim1. ure cxrcctcd Reccnl il1ve~liguli,)n.~ of hum..11 ..I>chavIhul 10 il. Il:amil1g have lel1ded 1'1 r(IClI~ 011 wh.11 invC!iligalOnt ior ill .'iilllclli()n": l.m1~ider Ihe cxll:mal !;iIUali()n m1d Ihc hchavior h:lve lenned

" ';;~ = 0 ..-=

-0 \J ~ .~ 41 ..V -v; = -t: .-0 .. 0U

10 de.11 wilh

NI1Ci:ificalion!;

Ih.11 Corre!ipondN

(JCI!:!IIC ( J9H4 ) obNervcN 111C'1 il i~ a welcomc ill!! ~ch.}()lr,)om wh:ll mighl challgc !;illl;llioll!i 10 filld il1veNligIllorN wilh or human leuminl:t clm()~-

~~
CljC C C .aU ..~ ~-= 41..:Q Q~ "' ~ ~ -~ c.U E~ ~ 41 ,.. .0 IAJ =
.-..

for Ic"mjns

or ut le.I!i1 !iiIU.llil)n!;

Ihal h:lve Ihe j.~

hc c:"llc,1 ..face v:llidily..

la!;k!i el1COlll1lered by sluUS C:()l1lr:l!;led wilh drum.

dcl1l~. Thc ~1'C:lICr diver!;ily

of NIIl:h !iiIU:lliol1s.

ll:lrrowly dcfil1cd Icamil1g or paircd il \\.clc()me chal1J!c. (DD. 177-7KI

a~~{ICiale~ ()n a memory .

~ .. ..~ ~ .:: 00fZ~

...

Jti
II

-..1

--1--1

Hlim,,1) rcrronn"nce oUlcomc.'i. ()rc"p"bililic~ .Imellecluul .Vcrh,,1 ubilily .C()!:!nilivc efrel'livc .Molor .1\llillldcs.

C,," be cl,,~~ified (G;lgf\C It)R4):

inlo five cillcg()ric~

ur Icurl1il1g

more eftective conceptleilming. III con!\idering

rhilll does .'feedbilck thc runclion feedback

ii~ rCil1rllrl:Cmcl1t" :I di!itinclion

in re~pon~e ilnd !ihould be made From a bchavi1i il1lcllllcd which

of feedbllck,

~kill~ (pr()ccdural (declurulive (~Irulcgic ~()Ivcr include

knowledge).

which

includc

col1cepls. Ihe

between 10 correct elicit

beh:lviori~tic alld direct

ilnd cognitivi"lic provide:; bchavillr1i. Fccdback

pllint1i Ilf vicw.

rule!i. :'I)d pr()ccdurc~ il1rOrmUliol1 )ilr"lcgic!; prl)blem .'ikills. which which knowledgc), which include!; 10 !iIUle fuct~. rllle!i. "nd princi[llc~ kJ1owJcdge), which include ""ll Ihe ability III hc nIl crclllivcly.

ioral perspective, performance

for reinforcemcnt.

take!i Ihc fom1 of cue", which or t'cc;lIhul:k 1;1111 il1"u<.:o~nirivi!;l!; 10 tell believe learncr!; Il1cmllry. or whal 10 inl:orrect al)(llIllhe corl-ccll1e1i!; or !;hapil1g.

al appropriale

rime!;. Freque,ll:y

C;I1CC; lhc rule arnl crticiency that reedback a response. whether faulty they provide~ Thi:;

or behilvior

I() m"J1"ge ol1e.~ OWI1 JearJ1ing. 10 Ihil1k Ihc .lbilily

lellll1er1i wilh illfllll1lUlill" Iwo wrong confirm!i them

information'serve!; before ellcoding

fUIlCtioll1i: in th:ll

10 perrorm

phy~icallil!;k!i opil1iol1s. ilnd

their iln1iWer!l arc righrllr responses fccdbitck

Imd 10 allow what

Icamcr1i III correct krn)w

iJ1cllldc Ihe dell:rl1lil1"lillll

or rcclil1gs.

1()llg-lc;rm le:lrncr!i fl:c(lh:lck procc.'i!i.

;1 "y~Il:111of VUItIC~ ii"d elhic~ Lc:lrner~ cmploy mclhotls of rl:cllhack. (Gagl1c clahoraljol1. leamer conlrol.

KI\(lwlcdgc-llf-rc1i\llr!i do not know. rc!iponse!l allows Ihcy Ilerring's ilrc actions, innllence le"rner!l 10 sellted

Shen ( IIJIJ I) sugge!il!l Ihan feedback pllrticiputl: Ihllr inlhc

is more essential

to correct Icaming at lell~t

rC!iponSC!; IJCl:ausc it (!lpccifil:ally. Ihal

sl:lf-rl:glIulljOlI. of l!1c:;c: Ic:lfned ,lllempl:;

ru1d molivalion cap,'bililic:;

when e~periencing

a change

in IIny onc di:;cu~~ion as .\ a~ a fullc-

~tudent!i to actively rcl;iprlll;lIl and thnl events

19R4 ). T!1t: following of internction

( 1987) conceptu:llizatioll Ihey occur whcn

of intcrllctioll~ two

10 relate Ihc~c IltCI!1otl~ wil!1 Ihe c0I1~lruct ror thc operation:llization

of inleraclion

require

ob.iel;t~ ulld two ml1ll1ally pr-cof tcedbuck

rir~1 ~Icr ill ar~liin~

Iltc~c 011j1;CI1iarnl evcnl~ teedblll;k, il1leruclive wilh

tional in:;lrl\~tiom\1 ,,"ribllle. F ('("'h{ll.~.. Fcctlhl\ck rcl'cr~ 10 "ny inlorm111ion thaI pennits jlltlgl: llIe qll"lily of Ihcir perform:,nl..e. (.'untliliull1i include~ I,f fccdhuck: il11l11edi;"c rl:l:llhack. ilem-by-ilem. :Lnd graphic rcedb3ck. delayed The ]itcrnlllre 10 llIe following .limillg.

one anolher)

can ea~ily be tied 10 the concept Km)wlcdgt:-I"-rc1illll~ for ~eneralil1g rcgardilll! the funclion, pcr!ipcclivc. more Icllrncr~ Queslion!i de:;cribing implic(/lion~

ill tlli~ di1icus~ion. 1"111 prlIVidc infonnalion. the lilernlure

in parriculilr, ill.o;lrllclicll1or corrcclive

c()lItail1~ rcrcrcncc~

appears 10 have direct al srralegie!; confinnative qulllily izing liming

IInd leIlC"er.'I

ml1ouI11 of illlt:racliun, 11c.ldrc1;scd hy gcllerullypC~, ~chc(luling. and

which

feedback.

end-

of inlcrucrion, from of feedback.

erc. may be mo.'il effeclively

or -~c~~i1.1nfcclllmck ..o;l.Jledllle. which inclLIde~

!lCtJUCIlCC. alld delayed feedb"ck fecdback. :'Ild knowledge-or-re!iull~

~cliLlcllce recdbat:k .flml1"l. illclLldil1g Icxl feedb"ck .rc~LIII~-b:l!ieIJ illf1.1rm"livc fcedh"ck feedh"ck. rcl:db"ck. correclive

ElahIJralit)//. increase!i facilitale~ ing it in recall

From a cognilivc

clahurmion mellllingful. hy addilional recall

of informmi0l1 Elahorutioll II II c.1 can be II r()ule~ 1!1 rhc i!i propath.'i for cncodinrt:rt:lll;t:

and mtlke.'i informution IInd by for permitlillg II specific thur incrcu~c

wJlil:JI illcludc~ 1991)

error.conlillgenl

recall (If inlilm1111i1)n hy provkling memory Memory

(Alcs!ii

and Trollop

rt:con~lrul:lion. improved vicw fccdhack U!i a me"I1~ of feedbilck i,lICOlearncr pcrrorms,

piece

or inrom1:11ion rctrievul

by milnipul:lrion~

Ihc III I1IIU111111" clahllralicll1 or alrernlllive ro lellrn

Sllell ( I ~91 ) oh1;er\le1; l\1al bch"viori!ils reinforcing ,1!i!iOCiali(11'~ bclWl:CI1 1;lill\uli

Ihu~ providing note~ thai of viewing

redundant inlenrion is rhe wIly illrcrllclilln

al1d respon~e~:

for I'CCil\l. Anderson cessed. The ( 1985) vulue provi~ion, dil'Cclly i1; irr~lcvllnl ul11ount Icllmcll. information Mo~1 rclcvllnl ill whit."h infonnuti()n 111ia wily 011 fceuhack.

m.llil:,llly clicil1; l\1e cc)n.ecC rc1;pon1;c wilhoul Ihe 1;lllC.lelll bl:illg ucli\lcly uw,lre Ihul leurning is luking pl:Il:C. 111 c()1)lra~C. cflgnilivi!iC!i mainluin Ihul feedh:lck fccdb;,l:k ~ervc!i II~ illf(lnlluliOl) lilerat\lre irnlicalC!; 10 Ihe leamer: genenltt: Ihl\t ..feedhack l\1e learner aclively inlt:r. of 1!1"CI!i Il1c il1fomlUlion nnd U~C!i ilIO re~plm!iC!i. ShCll'!i review 1\!\ il1formulion'.

uf en",lncing The clahorativc

confirmalion,

and corrcclion

can hc ulldcrslood

lend!\ to be

by generlllizing

from Ihc litcrlllurt:

(0 U1

I~

1'\

L..

c.c 0'")
Idei' of providing "roug" :"codin1! Ll.tlmt.'. ill~'ruclio"i11 medi;, l'onlrol l:ncc. lei\ming crfcclivc implics exi!iling liml!ily Lc;lrner iZ;I'ioll ml.nl alterni'tivc :lcmlln~lrIllcN redundunt i1nd ulternative ilml potentiul vulue Kinzic provide covcred. routes ror inronnation viu il11craclinll improving for recllll furlhcr in~tructional neous. cullivalcd acljvitie~ us a valued railll) motivllted frl)m Ilrw Ilpl)l1 Ihe energ;e~ Ihal !iU!ilairl !ip()1llaleamil1g; crn\lilluing education di!ilanl muliv"liun pcr!;pcclivc !iludel1l!i tr~\liilionill i~ rilrcly could oulcome. II lli!;lance col1lribulirnlll) Ihal !;ucce!;!;rul (A!; I1n a!;ide. irlvc!;ligali(m~ Ihc pr(lfc!;~ionallileralllrc. ilrc murc counterquelitiull~ rcilcrltlinl1 inlrinsicully

i"lcrllctio".!\

information

in!;trucliol1al

i1nd rctrievi1l. Cmll'.('II.S('Ij~Rl'.I:"'(llim,. desigl1s l)OtenIially f()r prCNcnlillicm. Ihal Ihe educulional ili IIn impt}r'anl. liug~elilN thinking ( 1990) !ltutC!i Ihut i111eructive le:lrner!\ number with control over Ihe and Iypc of 1IIicrnulivc Merrill experiglobal \1(: mclrc itself with obtajned provided byexel"Ci.'iing lei'ming with (which

or continuing given IIclive

molivl1lion

m:1ke a unique Ilnd melll1il1gful Il1e growing in Iheir perceplion

:Ieplh or ~Iudy. ri1nge of content .'iclcclccl III)HO) bclieve~ Current

learl1il1g e~periel1l:c~

111nlIre Iheir

and till1e !lpel11 on leurning. expericnce alhcil Ihi\1 leilmer!\ or leurning inciclcnlal.

over le"rning !itri\legie~ a higll

parl!i.) Spol1laneou!\ IInd jntricl1iiclllly muliv.lled le.lrnillg i!\ linkcd 10 faclor!; !;\lCh a!; 1ielf-efficacy. Ihe perceplion or per1iI!llill l:lInlrol. Ihe perccplion of relcvallcc, conlrol. which .ll1d Ihe 1ilim\llalion il1dicale!i of curio!;ily III which 199(). (Keller II)H]). LI,l:u!i Ilr Ih:ll 111;11 Ihe degrec il1di.vidu:,I!; Kinzic helicve !\uggc~l!i

for u~e in iI varicly

NilUIl\ion.o; will

Ijrclcl11g Icufllcrli. k,1owledge. m(Jniloring c()nlroltend!i Ilr i"~lrucliOl' organiling le:lrl1i"g.

Self-rcgullltioll engagemenl. upprollchcli incllldil1g

of Icarning m3king Ic) Icilflli"g rehearsal

eVCIII1i l\1\ll o\llc()mes !iure or col1lil1uing 1iI\ldent~ wilh

lIre Ihe rc!;UII1i of \l1cjr OWI1 bcl1uviurs, llI(}livali(111 (Kil1lie of colllml :lrc \I\(!1"c il1lrin~iclllly ..re expcclcd

i~ 4'"C mc. ml)liv.ll-

level or cognitive

conllectionN

tu!\kli. CI"d conlinal1d self-checking) fccdbuck. variables or Clc.lvi~efcedbuck slritlein Ihe th3n Ihe il1dividual-

an il1lemallocu!i

cd to leam. 111 !iil\lliun1i degree of rc:ipon!iibiljly II~ is Ihe ca!ie conlrol in mllny impol1ul11 to empirjcully ..:i an indicutor Iraining slul1t:III~ wilh !ielf-elTicucious

jn wl1jcl1 !iI\ldclll:i for mallugirlg di!iIOInCe i.lclcmlillc of sludenl in cugl1ilive learning

10 a,,;:iUmc i\ l1igl1 cxpcriel1ce:i\I\..y hc uf lut;u~ uf di~lnl:e lu cl1cuurugc

appcurs 10 be ticd 10 informalional 10 be mediil\cd (11y which per!;on:ll

and knowledge-or-result!; by !iuch raCI\lr!\il!i intere!\t!\). :;Iudent!\ cun ti1ilor contextual Ihe provi!iilm und a corrective inslruction"1

Ihcjr (Iwn Ic..rning IIpplil:aliull:i-il

Ihe uver.111 ~igl1iril::ll1cc acl1ievemelll ~Irulegy l1evell,pmenl

of instruclion (which ml:l:llani~m). al1xiely. \Vhic"

10 suit Iheir rlll1clil)n~ I"e ahilily

UI\(I lu rrl)vi(lc

"~ IIII inromlutionlll 10 generil\e

!ielr-m;lni1ging rurliciralive

behuvior:l.

!!ie!i. und Ihe abilily Kil1zic

1\1cng:'ge :It highcr col1trol with !itudy over

le~el!i with reduced by Ilansen wilhin in anxicly Ihroughoutthe provided with practice al1d reedincre"lied wilh !ielfwhclher necessary

( 19t)( \lc~criIJC~ i\ 11)74 study the receipl grcaler ~ignilica111ly reedback. (Arm!itrong ~Iralegies. Ihc!ic

conducted redllction provided

'I'11cory Constructs Thullnnuence

Inslructiollal improvc learning g<:llcrnl1ilrdl<:gi<:s instruclional Whcrca!o Iheorie!i muximize Icurning inslructionul 'Inc Icuming IIICOric1i pr()Vi(\c arc derived. for improving directly Iheories pO1illll;lte~ from

InlerllClifIn
which provillc prC1iCrirlion.'i 10

~tudeI11!i given experienced providetl

of rcedhack

il1struclio,1 h"l:k Iraini"!! bilck

I"cl~l: r()ulincly continued

Students

with ntl rccc.l-

'I'11ese prcscripliolls the likelihood whal

111<: hll~<:S f(lr by arranging 10 learn. ahilily

10 exhibit

11igh Icvcl~

or unxiety

or Icarning

iI1~tl"llctio1l. In IIrnltllcr ()ppOrllInitic.'i !ilrategie!l

19H9). !;tudents lIS wclI u~ wilh

experiences

1iUilCd I() thc I<:urncr's people

in sclr.n1unagemenl

de!icribe

can do, il1slructional to IICcomm(><1Hle and it play1i in Ihc variable in inlenlc.' ( 11}71}) und

for u~ing encOl'rllgcd corl.ccI

~trnlegie~. their fllcilily

demonlilrated in working ubout

dc~cril>e how

in1itructi(111 t:Hn hc lI(\aplcd hlls bccn the context de:;crilx:ti fculllrcd

Icvcls nr lielf.reJiaI1cc. mi\n:lged Ihcy hIlIIIJl}tail)cd bl:l!in :I~king M(I'iI.t(li(m. by inleruction vatio".

furlhcnnorc. thcm

learned capabilitie!i. procc1i~, illlcrilcli<lfl theory. Within

HeCall1iC of Ihe imrorlallCc

to NtOp worryil1g

"" II critic:ll el'licucy.

un~wer~. ali they had in the firlit informll\ion.gulhcrirlg !itrulegie!;. Con!\truc! mo.~1 likcly concerned

~elision!i, ui"1

of ill~lrlIcti<}l\alll)<:(l/i<:~, by Gilgnc "nd Brigg~

Ihc pllrpoNCrlll.

quC!\tions

ti()1I is mo,;t frcq\lenlly rcilcraled vi~ion Theory by Gugne,

de1icribcd Briggs, abuul (Rcigelulh

in lerm1i or reedbuck

(0 c.levi!ie new ma""gcmcl11 i!i continlling

Evcm~ of Instruction of il\forlnaliOlI (" In~truclion

l11e motivationaJ motivlllion

lu hc innuenced moliwith edllclltion.

und Wuger ( II)!!!!) cmpht\.'iil.C pcrfonnimcc ulld Slein expectlllion!i Rcigclulh'1i

b()llt 111<: pmand fcecJback Eluhc)ration

mulivIlliOlI

(Kinzic

J990). Continuing

thc intrin~ic

mo!il directly

opponunilie1i

for confirntaliol1

und corrcction.

ret1cct!i an intlivitlu:ll.!i

willingne!l!i

10 Je"rn. lJnrorlul1atcly.

!\Cho01-based

IIJHJ) i~ ba!iCd, ill largc pun,

l.t

I~

--1

on Ihc clilborulion !ilruClure evel1lual Cl1tlldil1g and Brigg':\ Ihc provision .tiol1:11 desigl1, Ihrllugll which

theory

uf Incmory.

with

ils emphll:\i:\ Ihal

011 providing

II the

and in!ilruction. illleracli(\n ration, Cllouglt inleraclion dcvclup oblained. 1ilralcgic!i di!iCll!i!iion!i locu!i

Through or conlrol,

Ihe!ie di!icu!i!iion!i, and I1Inlivuliml 10 bretlk duwn llf !ipecific Siluali(ln.11

Ihe rclllljon!ihir

t}CtWCCII Clilbo. Ihc!ie

for Ihe prc~cl1lalion und relrievul Di~rluy

of informaliol1 Tlleory (Merrill

accommodalc~ in IIpplicIlliol1 (manifested

anll ~lich Icltminl!/in~lruclionnl are no1 able wilhin mcllningrlll "ce

C()n!ilrUcl!i U!i fecdbuck, Ilrc t:luriricll. Ihe ..big !ilrulegie!i !irccifit:ily However, riclure'.

uf 1IIII1 information of Inlilruction

con-

le~I:\, The Componenl Evel1ts llf In:\truction), Merrill's

1979; 19H3). like Gilgl1C il1 Iheir and on forms inform:lReigelulh.~ the mc~ming-

c(}nccm!i I()

Priorili'1.ulion of feedbllck to reitcrutc

Theory

10 illllIW

llcvc:ll)pmenl instruclion.

for encour!\ging i!i "ct:c!i,'i.lry (;all I)C Thc

is based ill large part on issllcs Ilf praclice opporlunities concern critical fi,r 1111 u compol1enl allernalive presentulion feedback) Wllcreus fllr cl1huncing

of an inslruc-

slrl\legic~o; by which vuriahlc1i ," in!ilructj(lI1.11

u mcu!iurc

of inlcru(;lion

!iiluuli()l1al

II!IVC ht:t:n illcl1lificd. jnlcr.lcli(ln dcsign fucililalc

rca1i(lnllble Ihc llcvclor.

il1folmation

(thu.'1 providing

for improving

C"11 hc dcvclclrl:d.

tiol1 and. in somc rel;llcd directly 11Ieury provides fulncs~ hcliristic rilles

cuses, knowledge-ur-rc~ults F.luhoralion framework Theory. riclUre"

can ul~o be

I1Iclh(),t!i al\,1 Ict:ltl1i4ut:!i

in1ilrllcti()nul inlcractiOlI

10 Rcigellllh's a .'hig

menl or !ilralegic1i for rcaliling

ill "l1itructilll\"I1\cttillg1i.

or information. the CUlllr()nent Display Tllcllry provide~ procedllres fur Ilcvcloping course-Icvcl illstruction thaI inCOIl'OiI!i a llcliign-dependenl illformaliornll culI:liderution. Thi1l thcllry feedbllck. ul:lo as and correclive confirmuliOllul

The Innucncc or Instructi()nul

I>c.'iigll 01\ llll~rUl1itlll il1~lrl1l.li()nalllcsign pre:;crirli<I".'i ()f unulysis, MC cmrl\lycd as a ~)'slcmalI() fil dcvclop. ill whicl, .I.w() di~h:l~ desig",

media

Wi1SI\Cr al\\1 R\:d(l)' ( 1987) describc ic melhod 1;pccilic !ipecific of llIiloring IhCOrC(jcul uppljclI(ion conlingencie!; conlexl!i.

ellcollrugc1;

ror il\.'ilrllcli()"

wt:11 il~ opporlllnilie!i

for rcIlears~11 und practicc;

il i:l inlended eluboralivc

to enhal1l.:c und mulTheof for

Techl1iquc!i

Ihc meilnillgfllll1C1;1; IIf inlomlulion liple prc~cl1tatiol1 fornls. Kcllcr's ARCS (AtICIItiol1. ory ( 191!3) lIf il1~lrucliOltui kltuwlcuge illcorporaling Ihallearllcr !ilrllCled infomlation Icaming in:;trllcliul1 II slllllcnt liUllal dc:;il!ning cognitive deric:icllcics cmpha~il.ed illg learners and skills performance to caplUrc \(1 lIe learned. molivulionul

by ~mpllusizing

mel1l. implemcnlalj()l1. dcfjciellCie!i crele Icvels \:vulvcll. upprouch in~truclio"ul 10 vjew

ul1ll cvallla\illlI encollntcrcd de!iign prol)lelll

I() acc()mm()dUle

jl1 u varicly al1J !ikjll!i design ~()Ivjt'g.

()f cI1Vir(>llm~lll~

Relev:lnce, loward

COIltidcnce. ~l !iylilcmalic

Sulisfactilm) framework

in hul11un kl1owlcJl!c of jnslrucliollal

:lrc 10 bc rcduccd. is viewed (j1l~"C 10 llcal Icvcl Thcy

de~ign 1(l()k~ beyond slratcgieli is cnllunced

the spccilic Kcllcr the

concerns

hilVC emcrgc<l

a~ Ihc <li~ci(1lirlc .Iml Mcrril' Wilh

ilC4lliliitiol1

On ()ne h;l11d, in~lrllclilmul 10 pcrformunce ()hjcclivc:; il1 looking

u~ ;1 s)':;lel11i1lic ( I\)\)(I) mulliplc m"y nccd

ill instruclion.

lIa1; suggested of the the

when inslruclilllllll Icurl1er conlilJence perrurmallce Keller motive!;, Kcller's Murtin dUOlUill; from

design:l are conrelevancc wilh as well Ihe infoml~las wilh 1lluI relaling motivalc view!; or IIII motiva011 Ihe

have l1uled thul de!iigner:;. human perfol1nunce

for wily!i rcul world

ullelltion, 10 builu

to empha~i7.e

"CC()I11P"I\)'ill~

il1s(r"cliun.

ul a ~omcwhul dc~ign i"!ilructio"al

highcr mlldcl!i.

or ub~lruction havc prop()!icd lI1ay 11CIICIlcr uclivily i"fclmla. hy Ihcir ()~

liOll. UI", III promote expericncc tlircclly to perfornl instroclion tlllm~lill

1;lIli1;rUclion wilh il1;elf. speciriclllly.

Ihun i~ u!iual i" m()sl i,,:;lrucliul11 Ihal Ihc inlegruljol1 vicwcd lion, lhul muy dcpe"d inlclleclllal il1volvcmcnt or mulliple ;11;.1 comprehen!iive !ikill!i. uctivily

has shown per!;peclivc

obje(;livc!i

10 importanllleeds, ml""e elTeclively, de:lign fllr diffcr1; tltc uffcctive

arnl values will anI! Rrigg's Keller

or ..cntcrpri~e..: m verhul !;lrulcgie~,

u purpo~ive (dcclaralivc) all rclalcd

on !;omc combi"alio" an(1 cognilivc

instrllclionnl

focu!;c!i

in Ihe commOlI allJ aclivilics (Wugncr

g()..I. Thc 1I11\:malivl: vil:w prc"criplivc .(, lIl:hievc. spcciljc IIJIJ I). in terminology. outcomc!i The Dick

\If il1~tnlcliunal ..rral1gi"g :md dcNired

und de~lls wilh

Iic1Iigns to uddres!; !;kills and knowledge v:llues or IItliludes motivalionul by allowt() !iui\ their domuin

de~ign conceplllalize" c1i1icl1li..1 cvclll~ leurner outcomes Regllrdle!i~ mo!it instructio""1 de!iigner

the proce!i!i t'!i a direcl, UI1c.1 Chute

ruthcr lltan wit Ii llIe dcsign1l for chal1ging by Mllrlilland on the affective

ohjeclivc~

Brigg1; ( 1986). Nevertheless.thc and rorm of instruction

u!ipecl~ of design have a ~Irong ilnpact 10 ~hapc II le col1texl

or differences

!itylc. al1d gr(Jphic dcpicliOlI. rrom cach or by u Icl\r"cr. c()ndilion~ ( 19CJ(I) mcl(lcl u o( 10 bc to be dcrivcd i"!ilrllClional ul1d Carey

design modcl~ cxhihit of Icuming 19Y().

C()ml11rnl rcllt\lrc~;

needs, inlere~I1;. and vulue!i. Lcarl1ing theories anI! ill~lruclional lheorics provide comprchcn!iive frumcworks thai !;upport ;I view of inlcruction a~ a fllnclion of learning

the single calegorie!; met (Gtlgne

i!i ahlc I() analy/.C IIl\d prc!icribe and Mcrrill

(0 ~

I()

11

(,0 '-"

il1~lrllClionul

dc~igl1 h,,!i OCl:11~l:leCICd for illll!ilrUlive 10 Dick ;l11d l':lrcy. of br(l"d l:"ilr;ll:leri1ilic1i Ihc dc!lignl:r.!I ..nd inslruclionill in1ilrllcli(",111

pllrpo!ie!l ul:livilie1i

(1il:C Figcommen<..e Ihcn

lire 2). Acl:ortlil1~

rhcy !;llgge!;llhal responding mllst hc inlcraclive for optjm;11 in~trllctiol1 o occur; i"lcrUcliol1 lukc~ I>I,ICC w\1CIl \hc Icumcr l1"C~ !i()mc'\1i"g il1 "C.o;pon~eto the leacher, .csplln!ie lu Ihc Icmcr. hul cl11ploy!i .c~pt"l!iivc Schwicr'~ learner recdbllck itCp !;cl of proccdllres il1:\ll'11c(ii"l. :I~ well :I!; whcn Thcy will for Tllc!il: rllrlhcr el1clIllrgc dC!ijglli"g ImICI:Ullrl::\ Ihc (~llch~r dcl~!; M,"IClhjl1g il1 ~11~gc!i1 (lla( rc!;pOlI~jvc ilnd lukl: dcvcl(lping il1.o;ll'11c(i<}11 illlcrl.livc, l'hjl:l:dc~igl1.

will1 Il1c delermil1:1li()1l <..()11si<ler1i .ludiel1l:l: dell:rmilll:~ tlctcrmil1e

goul1i. The de1iigncr

l:";lrllclcri~lic1i. IC1iI!lIO to n:;lch correc-

il1!1II\1Cli()m,1 ob.ieclivc!l. if tho!le ob.ie(.'tivc~ h;lvl: ev;llll;ltiol1. A rcvi~i()n

cJevel()pN l:rilcri,)I1-rcfcrcnced hcel1 mel. selects slrategies of in!ltrtll:ti(",. 1(I(}p provides for ongoing feetlhill:k

iI1!CrIlC(j(}l1, ul1d prop(}~c u fivcil1!ll 1:1"I:\illl:rulilHI i" iI11Cr;ll.livc

thc ()bjc<..livcs. ~l:Il:l:t1i mcdi:l fl". r(}m1illivc li0l1 ulld utlUDtIltioll

;Inti methods

illtd provide~

ives, conlel1!. qllc~lion.o;, boundilric~. ( 1991) di~cll!i~ion hclween wjlh Nhich di!;tinguj~hc!i jnler;lc(iol1 1Iel:lpl"lrl\.. (whcre II pnICeSI\), fullllw~ :ully ()11 de!;igll wllill

rnld cl11ry bchavior. hc calls ..rlldcl1! millcrial~) rc!iI)(")!iC 1IIcIlIhIlr!i'. and ..rhilnla!;l11ill

uf itl1ilrllcti()(1.

bascd on evulllmive

of CllrrCI11 i!i~lic!;

in~lrllclillnill

Ihc Ic:lmcr fUIlClii"l!i a~ ;ll\1cuiUI(lr illlht: ill~lrut:tillllHcrril1g'!i e:lrlicr dil\cu!i~iull. Huwever. S(;hwicr Ihcn or !iclccling il1!crllclivc Icchrn)llIgic!;. !;rccifj!iuch II:\ hclp !i:lVCr!i. rcfrc!;h :;(;rccn!i, ~h)b.11 c:\cl\pe~. rl.'cdbtl(;k

'llCII~C!i on Ihc il11porll\ncc

col1!;iueruljonl\ !icreen

Tucking
Dt.trmln. Goal "" i 15 ~ C
Medlo ..d 8eloel Me1had8 ~ Fo--Uve CGad.ct &..1._.

proccdure!;.

!;cqlICI1CC!i. tlnll

icriplillg. EII~I.III(I ( 19H5) .'ill~gc~l!; lllill illlt:r..clilllll\ll\llilly.,i., norc ll!icfullhtln cx"minil1g Ihe rcl\ult~ ()f iI11CraCli()n. whil:h y a!isc!;!icd hy I1ICtln!i of prc- 1\11(1 pll.'iI-ll:~I!i. hc way il1 which )o!isiblc In iml"111ulll :ver. bccuu!ic (el'Y fcw re!illll!i o look mlc). Icilmcrl\ ralhcr rclulc ii focus on Ihe proce!iscs il1!cr..clion:l1 or Icaming a fllml ~lmlmjllivc vicwed lJeh:IVil)r!i I() Ihc millcrial!i

mjly hc tll'C gcncrul. makc!i

SItC rn}lc:\ Ihm cl11plt;m/.il1g ilnd Ihc mcuillm (iI1 wltil:h iI11Cr.ll:lilln plays (H Icamjnlc!.. Ihlw. cv;llllalil)Jl. (wlli(;h Icllll i/1 I:llrlhcril11er"c-

11!1\11 ~il1\rly I1naly!ii~i!; "rc

011 (hc rrouucl~

or I(mllillivc cv;lllIl\li.lll!i imp()rll\nl.

h;lvc bcl:1I rcpurlcd; il11cracliornll

nl pr()dUCI oUICOmc!i)

"!i morc

-I.'jgure 2. A Conct!pl""II~eprt!.'ienlalil)n ( 1990) de~ign "~ all cnlcrpri!ie prc!icriplion. bcn(.'hmarks i" li!ieflll or us u ()r Ihe Dick IIncl Carey Model

11ore. beCl\ll~e expcclcd

c.11111111 hc ~pIJcificll h"vc I\duplivc uvuidcd

or l"slr"l.(iunaIIJcsign Whelher

)hjcctive fon\1!i. edlIC"li()nul Icchl11)lugy (;irclc!i ional "n"ly!ii!i altogelher (Englilnd IlJH5). J()Jlil~~C"'S ( 19K5) I"XOllulIly of il1!cruclivc, Iccommod:lle!; lal adtlplali()Jl~. Ihrcc dimen!iiol1!i

IC~!iOlI dc!ijgl1~ illlcr. urc

U"C upprtm(.'hc~ il1~lrllctiu"ul " !ipccifi(.' dc!iilc!ll m()dcls provide pr()gre!i~. NcveI1ht:'t:!\~. r()r li~\: i1l \:nlerprise nolcd

()f c()l1ccrn: Icvcl~ ()f inlcruclivily. (If il1!Craclivily

mc:l11!i ()r dcvel()pi"g or ill~lrllctioll;ll dt:vt:h,pI1lc","1 il: inlcrvcnliol1~ oh.icclivl:~ 1111: lii~l:rclc dc~ign

ill!ilrllclional

Ihe hcllri~li(.'!i ror moniloring I11tllliplc Clirrellt

..lId CXICmI\II\1111pll\lil\11~. Hi!i Icvcl~

Ihc demilnds !ichemu~ I\ design

or de5igl1il1g ~Jx:t:irwhich nowchilrt.

Irril"gcd from ~pecific 10 gcncrill. wilh Ihc mosl ~peciric hl'ing Ihc Icam:r.!i perfonn:ml.c while il1!eru(;ling wjlh 1\ Icchl")I1)l!Y ..1111 1;I!ik ti"tlly!ii~ )r Ihc pcrl'orl11uncc requircd hy Ihc inlcr:lcljon 'I.hc ncxl Icvcl (in Ihi!i Cti:\C. .lIl.'ilhcr or il1!Crilclilll) dcul!i wilh llIlllrial. llIc a:;k. Icvcl or Ihc conlcnl flc prlICl.~.o;ing rc4uircll lew inl()rlr..,lioI110 )f in'ernclive ;olving, !iimululion progrum Icvel). 1.IIlI!iiucr!; Ihc Iypc prllbl~mI1rol!rum!i.

;Irt: I() hc ucc()mmodulcd nclivilic!i '.llr (lcvelopil1g 1111(1 Gl:rlllchc

I\re 'clrcil1g de~igl1er~ 10 look beyond inteructive inSlrul:liOlI !lerve u~ good re!ipond-

II~ !\llIgc~ within

hy 1IIc Ic.lmcr bei"g

tl1 ccc~.'i llI.jl)r Ic.lrIli"1cI ;111(1 rcl.llc ;,nd pr..l:lil:c.

heuri!ilic!i

Ihllllllrelldy

hclu. 'I'11c Ihirlllcvcl "!\t:d: dri\l

cx:lmplc~. HIlrpcr-Milril1ick

( 'IJH6) hl\ve noled Ihul uclivc 1:001IIilioll for oDlimal

ur mixed-ini\iulive,

or k"owlcdv.c-bi\!icl.J

il1g i!l u 11t:1:t:~~ilrY.btll l1ot !illfficie",.

in!ilrtlction.

II}

TIIC fill"l

levcl addre!i!ie~ the intelligence ill:itruclionul vi(lcodi:ic~. de:iigns alld

of 1Iic dc!iigll branched. reponed inlcractivc CD.ROM F~rl"ermore, outt:(lml:!I.

illielr;

IhiN level

changes heuri!;lic!;

in learned

cupnbilitics

CI\II uccur. Ihey

Whether pr(1vidc

desiglls ~iluulionally

are uhNtruct ~pecific t(1 hc 11)9()bJ.

refcr~ to whclher Till: illll:r;IClivc

or n1.1llhl: (lc~i!0!" i~ rramed, fur u~e with

or linked. syslems not ~y!;ICmN 10 be

eIllerpriNCN Inlcruction managed Having appears Inleructivc elah()ration.

(Ir concrele

strategies,

in the profess.ion:lllitcr. i"Ntrucliollal syslems Ihey inlcrllclivc and "re uppeur

to attaill dc!;irl:(ll)ulcome~. Nhould be viewe(1 aN u silualiun-Npccific of instruclional that illlcral:!ion learning interactivc !ielectioll desi!!n (whelher melhOlIN colllingcl1cy (WClgncr by mcalls determined 10 jllllucl1cC slralcgy should

ulure huve bcen developed ~ut:11 il~ c()mpulcr!i. .'flccitically gellcrully int:rcilsillgly Irc,ltmelll lilcmsclves oriented IIriclllcd measure)

1OWUrd Ihc rea1-1ime, Iwo.way toward rather

manjrested or colllinucd cfrical:y, I)ylhc

aN rcl:(lb:ll:k, in()ljvali<)fl) :I caNc c:ln bc dc1ljg,ls. antI audineed for of intcrmuNt hc Ihut

u!iet.l for leleconrcrcllcil\g. thall

locus of colllrol.

self-rcgul:lliclll. und instruclioll:ll slr:llcgic1l ShoUld bc guided

prot.1ucl (c.g.. achievement process

score, pre-/po~l. prohably because :ilriltclechnologie!i

madc for integruling

inlo siluation-spccilil: Pir!;l, inslrucliollal the optimal Il1c villllc te!;ts thai rencct of il1lcral:liun.

prOtIL1ct Olllc()me~ 1'rc rar ca~icr I(J quunlify. !iCell1 I() bc drivi"g gics Il1ul ciln be u~ed 10 maximizc sy!;lcm

The itlleractive illtcractivity

gener:11 hcurislic!;

the development

of il1slrllctiunill

that guide all illstructional ence allaly1lis interaclion. HI:I ion nced developed Next,

dcNign aclivities. objcctives

IInd. secondarily,

bc undertilken

10 dclcrmillc

10 efrcl;l Icanlcr flcrrmmilllce. While teleconferencing !iy~lems are inlcractive :;y:;tell1!i. their illteructivity is morc It runl:ti(m (Jr Ihe :;yslell1:; . I'.~(.rs th;,n it i!l of thc ~ysll:l111i 11Icm~lvc!l. hc le~N i",crc~t !ilr:ltegie~ ill dc:;cribing interactive. wilh Itl other word:;, there 1ieems to interpersonuJ !iy~lcm" interactive prlllocol~. design communicilliun~ Ihall in describing in which wilh the Ihc u~cr. at optimal

illNtrul:liorn,1

to be developed. I() detcrmine

Crilcrion-rcrerenced

Ihe erric:lcy

SlralcgicN

for u!iing reu1-1ime Iclccont'erencing rllr wi'rkil'g telcconfercncing ~igniricunl 11,em~elve~ mu~t be programmed (0 mo!it !iy!ilem:; rcl\"ii"C wilh

empluy inleractive meth(1d1l. 1IUI:h U.O; discUNSiol1. queNtiollillg. rrujccls. ulld recr leCIchjng (Weston ul1d Crallt(111 I <)R6). Sh()Llld hc cvalLIUlcd r()r use jn Ihe tllrgcted those thai employ selecled revision. el)tcrrri1le I() a(;l1icve siluCIljun. inleruclive rinully. Ihc medill ohjecli\leN. ~lId rl1clh(ld~. inclLIdjng be ConNidcred ul1tl F(lrm:lti\le c\lillualjon. Icchll(llugie~. should

.C;lr"legieN :tlld dc!iign!i ICt:hlll1hlgic~ Comp:lred :Idaplive l\:v\:I~. I\rc illtleetl lillitllt we dealing Ir o"e

syslems

to in(eract el"t.orlto activity

Ihe computer.based. opernte

Ihe ;n~lrul:liollul cvaluali()n

~nd summativc

of Ihc cftjcacy

or Ihc inNlructi<lrnll

I'nd it!; con51ituent

pUrtN ShoUld th~11 hc underluken.

iII!ilrlll.:limlaJ-!iy~lellls (19R9) antllllalcrial~. of interaction.

or instrllctional CIt" mily "ctivily

illtcrilt:ti(I11.! COllforll1to

UCCepl!i Moore.s !itudem

idea thaI inlcr"l;lirl" Ihctl sy!item!l

fnslruclion:ll de~ign guit'~lines allow inNtruCIiontl1 deNjgl'crN 1(1c~tllbli1lh Ihe parumelers of lellrning el1terpri~cs (!1~ <.Ie~cribcd by Uagnc III1tI Merrill lional 199() l)Cf()rc gctljng contingencies. tlt:~ign inslruclional modcls down 10 the eS!;Cl1tilll~ ()r dcllling hc uccommodaled (Ir Iltrllllgh wilh ~ituil. Ihr(1Ligh wi'h pre!;criplive, crnllcxl~ The!;e colllil1gclll:ic1ll:un and their illlribllte.,\ ~pplicuti()II~. c()mpllri~ol1 desigl1!; dcvcluped

occur betwccn

Ihi!i c(mt:clllllali,.atio" 10 occtlr

Jona~sen.!i ( 1985) slipu. musl tuke pluce systems howuligned inlcr-

11':11 the appe:lrance Silllp!iOII

of Iwo-way

communit:utill"

iJlsIrucli(1l1ltl adaplive

r()r i"leraClion cx:lll1plc!!. cvcr.

fla!i 111~fIhccl1 met in the jnteractive :icJ111clhillg Illore technologically cloNely

f()r liSC in !;pccific

u"t.i Galbo .N ( 1986) description we ure dj~cIIN!iing lIylulmic" thllll wilh

or inll:r"t:li()1l. mediated

!!uglte1it1i Ihill

:;rccific tel:hnologic!\ ror specilic son 191)1 f()r a c()mrrc'lcl1~ivc

(Sce Andrcw~ al1d G()()d. or jl1strul:li(l""1 (Ic~ign milcru-. und 'nicro.lcvcl

will1 c()mmuni\:",i(ln ilt:livjtY. Tlte Impflrta"cc

m(ldel1l Ihal m:ly be u!ieful for NClti(lg t:lllcrrrj1lc. operutional paralnclcrs.) Delivery. di~cu!;!;ion!i contrjbulioll 11)e()ry. Inleruclion,

()f Instructional

Design review in!!trut:liu"al of lellming

Con~ideralilll1s why design con!iit.lcrnli(m!i cnlcrpri:;e:; theury a"empt designs through Instruc(ionul i"tervenlioll~ serve arc a~

1"~lruclitlnal Cllrrent Ihe grealest comc!; ml'"ic~llion1l

and Inlerllclivily tral1NmisPcrh~lr~ illIcrul:ti,lI) c()m.

At thi!i p(liTlt il Tl\lly be li!iefullo 1Iie focus of Ihis di"cu!i!iion. :tholll licc. changes providillg in Icllrnl.:d a mc;I"!I mc(li:lltlr~ belween All

of the tcchl101(1gieN f(lr p(linl.I().r()int conccm~ f()r illlcruclivily. sy~tcm~ wilh to lIi!;cu~~i(ln~ body or litcralurc or delivcry collccrllctl

10 bring prllcwhich

!ijon of voicc,

vi<lco. und data reveul

cuplthililics. of dl:vci(,pi"g

Ihe reulm!i

IIrnl illslrucli()nal

rrrnf\ IIII early

hr()"dcaNI

I',",
:?II

21

CoO

---~

('qll;pm(',,1

(freqllenlly

referred

10 :IS l'uslomer fax machines. Ih:lt rcpr~!\enlllle 'hul 'rull!\r()rn1

Pre1\1j!i~N F.(llIi(lmenl. modems, codcc!;. Ihc electrom:lgne'ic inrllml:tlicln erfeclive

or

CPE) cmlsi~lx er:ls, monilorx, inlo piclllre!;, delivery ulllr

ur Ihe lelephones, alld complllcr!\ Icller!\. :,nd figur~!t

C:lllI. !iignul!;

!;~nl froln il1!1lrucliollUI pllrlicfrom

lhe !\our~c III Ihc rc~civcr. or voice. n~edia/lechnology

In lenn!l or inlCrUclion, employed 10

video, texl. uncJ cJulll Ni!;nIlIN dcpcnd!l Irlll1!1mil

no1 ol1lhe !liglllll~

encoders/tellchcr~ 10 d~cl!dl:r!i/!lllldl:nlN. of iln effective Iwo-way commul1il:lltiol1

bul rather on Ihe c!itilbliNhmclll dyllallli~.

Peopl. & Ideal

Tuminnl Equipm~nt

Nctwor. Faci/itiu

TrOnlport

Nctwo'.' Faci/itir.

7'crminal Equipm~"t

P~nplc &. Jd~Q$

--~

~-.

I,'i~urc S. Thc ""hIlnnon-Schramm by Chutc

Thc commullicUliO" tlctive ml~'ilphor

(:Cllnmllnicution

Model Adapted

m!011WO.O. 6ber optiQ, twl.ted poir blV8d/nOITOw a.tin... ODd equlpm.nt; .wltrnln.. multlpl.Un.

dcvel()pcd

hy .')chrumm ur ,he ~ignals hclwccn S'lldcnl~

and Chule being

can

lr1i~w..'e. IIber epllce, twieud paIr b...d/nomw callin... end ~ulpm.nt; e~ildllnc . multipleUnc

Student Sludent2 Student

hl: '1~1:(llo help dis':\11cc educalor~ 'eICCll11l"lunic11'ion~. il1fi)rmmjol1 needs to Ix: tmllNmilled till: p"r;lmcters

(onceplualize il1terQclively

Ihe ml:cll"nic!)

or in'eru~cd,

Rcgardlc~~

Ihe NOUrce IIlld QIJd N(udcnl~ or, constfuci. 6). coaxilll IrHn!;in u!;e. ~umll\ary Thi!! conle~t!; di!!cus!!ion of lellming (Iclivcry. or intcr:lction dc!!cribing Within hlls IIltemplcd fhc function fo csl;lhlio;l, or infcructi()n ill!;lructi()nul Wifgncr l:ol\l:cptu:,1 wilhil' thc c.J~sigl1.and UI1(1Mil~wcii ..Igure 6. An Inleraclive InrCIrmalion Transport Model.

Ihe ue~li""lill11-belwecn ir OIIC ...lfel(hcN 'I'riln~mi~sill1\ \:..hlc. ll\i~~ion 'wi~lcl.l mil:r()wilvt: hl:IWCl:11 i"fun11mio"

Icacher 11"d Nllldenls,

or Ihe sourcc-desljnation hy u variety optics, transpOrl

to bc leaml:11 "IJd Ihe studcnt.o; (sec Figllrc wifc, fibcr :;atellitc mcdia

is accommodaled copper

or 1'.{fI'.'iP(}'.I; televisio" currently

tran!;mission,

Irl\ll.'imis!;i()",

und broadcast

a"d narrowca!;t ()f .!;witching medium (!;ignal~

rcr>rc.'iC"1 Ihe ml'...1 commo"

The ,'('/I1'(lr~. Ji,(';I;I;('.\" pr()vi<1e a mcillls liOIll11ly dircclc<1 !ii~II,lls (llrried ,Ipplicmion~ el1cc calli rr(lm "e poinl :llld along a singlc to llllIllipoint, Irall!;pOrl bridging

(sigl1l11!\ arc sillla(multiplc uccording to I()gclher conreralong

10 unoIJIcr),

mllltiplexing are !;rlil are brought

rcljIlirCmellls), Nigrnlls \() dircct

purameters il\~lrUl:li\m;l1 cui ultribule!;

r()r I:lcurly

from r>()inl 10 pojllt Il1c 'r..l1~porl

Q!; in the ca~e or H Iclephone informaliol1 dc~linil(ions. curricd il1lcllded

theory. in!;lructiOlIUIII,~\lry. flle~c raramcfcr~.

Ihe clcc.rcllrnlgnelic

I!ne ~:ln liSC tllc 1IIc\lrcli-

!;yslcl11~ I() thcir

The 1(".I/I;,,(JI

idcl1tificc.J willlil1

CUL:11 L:UIl:gfIry il1thc

"-

2,1

25

,...

c ('V
It)K6) COI1ICXIU('1malrix a.'i 11,1:ba!;is ror ongoing :; illlll\: rlllluwinl! cx:lmple1i; .If con<:clT1!i lor inleru<:lic)11 "rl: t;1t;jlr)y focused funClion1i. in which invc!ilig(JIOr!i mlly wltnl Ihc mle and funclion prc~cribed discussiolllllltl sl'ld)'. IdrcWN, D. H.. und L. B. G(XIII~OII. 11)1)1. 111/1/.\"I,.,I("/;(JI/(/1T(,(-J,,/III/,.I1.V: p(/S(. P'.(!.te", (/I/lI FI/II/1,(,. ed. (j. J. Anglin, 133-I.SI. Lilllelol1. CO: Libruric~ rm~lronr.. Ihr(1llgh (.(II;(mlll IKlerson, U",imiled. A. M. 1989. Thc Ihe m(}{lcling l1evelopmc111 or ~elr.rcglll;lliCJn pmgrumming. ~kill~ l:tll/. 2nd

on leedback 10 refer

or cluho()f elabperforrcft;rcnce relates for Ihe Iwo or ~"I while

r;,liull learning .Ir

10 Iheorie~ or mcmory

al1d Nlruclllre

ul' c(1mplllcr

or leedback

or.lliol1 :md reCon!ilnlClio" i"tcraction is being m:,nce. inslrucliomllllll:mic1i rl'illl~ r()r fllrlhcr

havl: h<.:cn cmpirically a~ II \reulmcnl

examined. IU improve

T(!('hl/(II(J.IIY Ill!.~(!(/r("h & /)t'I.I"'/"m(.,11 37(2):69-76. J. R. 19K5. C(J.I.'I/;,il'(, Psy(.h(II(I.I1.V lIl/tlll.~ 11!1"'il.llliiJI/.~.

may be u1ieful as concepluul parlic\llurly moliv1'liOI).

di!icll~~ion.

1I!i ~uch di~cu~sion al'd :.Irjllcgics

ed. San FruIICiNCO: W. H. Freem:ln. hulc. A. G. 19K7. InNIrllclionllll1c1iig" nl the Internaliul1C11 Teleconfercncing Jlloe. Wu~hinglon. D<... lurk, R. E. 19K3. Recon~il1cring '~(!I.;(!Kt (~f F:(",("(,,;m,(('

for lelelraining. Papcr flrcscl'lcd A!iNOcialil!l1 Al11lual Mccling. rrlltll I1Icdiu.

10 Ihc variahlcs

tlr ltlt;U~ of cunlrol.

~t:lr-rt:g\llalion or le(Jmil1g. .In~lrut:liI,I,111 cll:!ii~n t;un!iidera'ion~ It:vt:I1i: one view1i ii"cruc'i(m :.illlations i\dilptive .Il1ter(Jctivi\y illlcr.,l'\ioJ1 while the othcr ill~lnll:liomll may vicw~

re~eurcl1 (111leurning

1ihould I)C "pproached illlcrnctivily

from

R(!.t(!a'.("" 53(4 ):44.'i-.'i'J.

a1i a de1iired oulcomc

in ill.'ilructi()nnl

as a" al\ribll\e ul\rjl}Utc.

'l"rk, R. E. 19K9. J::I.ahl(/';I1,C: D;.~/(/I1("(, L('ll'."ill.1I 'J(.("h,,(II(/.IIY. W;,~hil1gtOI1, DC: U. S. Cl)lIgrc1i!i. Office or Tcchnol(lgy A~Ne~~llle111. ERIC Dl)cllrncl\1 Reproduction Service f.O 32.'i ()1)7. )ick, W., und L. Cllrey. 1990. TI,t' .\'.v.~/('m(/I;(" J)t'.~;.II" iif. ",xt,."(.,i/,,,. ed. Glcnview.II.: Scott Forcsmiln. ~nglunll, E. II)K5. Inter"clil)I1"1 compuler-nided leuming lle~ign "11"ly~iN: Thc miN~il1g 3rll

i"lervc"tion. a~ u muchine "s I'" cl\ltcome or using interaclive

m"y cvelll111llly bc viewed be pcrccivcd ~y~lc,ll~. :II"C looking dctilled.

il1!;lruC\ic)I'(JI (Iclivl~r}' Wht:lht:r Ilcrat:livily I.:lillliled lcir t:ollcClivc I illlcrvenlion!i

J~ c'.crcllcc.o;

rac:ICJr il1

und cvalualilll1.

F.ih,("llti/III(11 "/r(.h,I(I'. P.\".\.-

iI1Ve!;ligalor~ and 1)I!Cr:I'iullally IIIIClllil)n

al inlcrut;liI)n

II~ an oulcome mu~'

or ill

11.0; 1111ri!J",t;. Ihc r()CIl.'i of invc~ligalio"~ tJllcil iIIVC!ilialor~ of lellming illler~lclion ol1lhe outcomes

!Jc t;learly

(1.11.V 25(9):24-2H. lugl1e, R. M. Il)R4. Learning (.h(J/c/.I1;.\"t 39(4):J77-385. Jagnc, R. M., and L. I3rigg!i.

Ilulc:011\e!i and Ihcir cITccl.". A",(.,.i(.(/" 1979. p,.;"(.;,,,('.\" (!/.'Il.~t,.I/("';(m(I'

1're able 10 rocll~ or in'eruclivitv.

ulld Ihl: inslruC\ioll-

J)('.~;.I1".

\ha\ ilre mcalll

Itl Cllt:lmrage

211d ed. New Yurk: 1-1(111, Rinch(,rl und Win~lul1. ::;agne, R. M.. L. Brigg:;. and W. W. Wugcr. II)KH. P'.;m.;,I'('.~ (if 1",\".1/("0 tin"tll Jagne, /)('si.I,"'. 3rd t:li. Ncw York: Hull. R. M.. ullli M. D. Merrill. ~('"(.((I;/,,,((1 T(,(.",I(II(I.I:Y Rinch;arllll111 Will~I()I1. g()~II~ r()r in!ilrllcliCJIl. & ')(.'.(.'(ll'm(."' iltlcrl\clivc. .,r(.h,,(II(I.f,'Y allhc I\nnual 11('s('(lI.(.h Il)H6. 199(). 1lllcg'.lIlive

Alc~~i. .c;. M.. 11l1dS. R. Trollop. M(.(h(!J.f C("J D(.,.('/(!lmIC.,". Amcril.1111 As~()cilllion h(I()" i\mcric.:ull li,r SC.;(,I'(.(..

II)IJI.

C(m",(,I(".

A.\,.\,isl('d I".\,(,."C(;(J/I: Cliff:;: Prentice Hall. 199(). .'i(J/,rc(.EJ,((.(lli(m. Regionul DC:

ul design. 38( 1):23-30. Ilarpcr-Muril1ick, respon!iive

21111 c<l. Englcwood (",d

f()r lhc "dvu"ccmcnl M(llh('m(I'ic.\, DC: AAA.<). Association

of Sl:il:lll:t:. T('chl'()ln.t:Y

M.. und V. S. Ocrlacllc. inslrllt:lirn\:

De!iigning

A NCt ()f proccdurc!i. lil illler4lClioll. Sociely

f:d,I(.lI';,mlll

{()CJ() 1991. Wushil1gl(m. Psycllulugicul Labt)rnt()ry. Eullculio"al

tlnd thc Mid-cl111tiJIcnt

216(11):36-3K. Herrillg. R. 1987. Looking Meeting M"r(.h or Ihc NUlio"ul ~lIn "nlnni(1TX-

Paper rrc~clll~d

11)1)3. 1.(.(I'."(,r.c('IIl"r('d

P.\,.\.ch(Il().c:;(.a{ frill. Washinglon.

r()r rCrr()flIlallt:e

ul1d InNlrllC'i(I".

(.;r{/..).: G,(itl('/ii,(..I' Jilr .5(.h(I(){ R('d('.\"; 1/ ((n(1 R('f(I'."'.

27

',1

Kl:llcr.

J. 19H3. Mulivationul

design

und in:;lrllciion.

In ','.flrl,(.'i(mtll

Th(."ri(..\" "IIJ M,)J('/.\": A,I ()I.(.rl.i('H.

(if ,h('i,. C,,'.r('111 .~lu'll.f. ed. C. M. inleraclive motiv... tech-

Wagner. Allllual Wagner,

E. ().

1989. Inler~lclion: or in!ilrucliullal April,

An allribule Icchn(Jlogy.! Ul\ivcr!iily UT.

or good

in~lructi(Jn

or ~I

charaCleri!\tic Meclillg A!i!iocj~ltion, 10 theory April.

Pa(1cr (1rC!iCfllccl .iI IIIC Conlil\uil\g EdllcUli()1\ pr:ll;lil;c Mccl.

1{~igt:llIlh. Ilill!idalc. NJ: Lawrcnce Erlbuum A!isociutcs. . Killzie. M. B. 19l)(). Rclflliremel1l:; and bencfils of effeclive il1slrllction: Livengo()(l, Leamer control. sclr-rcgul.lti()n Buzzword IInd c(jntimling lilll\. f;(II1,.(I'i(",((1 T(.("hl'()I(I,I,'.\.'('.\"(.tI'.("h & O('\.('I()I}m('I"

of the Nuliol\~1I Sail Lakc Cily, practice. Univer!iity

3R( 1):5-21.

E. 0. 199()u. Inlcruclit)1I 10 jmprove

ill di~lulll;c Conlinuillg

CJUI;;llitln:

Rcl:llirlg Annual

M. D. I C)H7 .!II1l:r"clivily:

or inslruclion..1

A papt:r prc!iclllctl

allhc

l1ilfue.! r(',j()j."'tll'("(' (md "'.\"".,,("'im, (Oclober):28-29. Milrtill. B., illlIl I.. Rri!!g,.'. 1986. J".\,I'.,,(",i()j'ul [)('.\"i.I,"' (/1/,1 ,h" ;1lte(1il'(, D/",,(/il'. Ml.:rrill. Ml.:rrill. EngJcwood Clilf!i. NJ: Euucutillllal Technology PlIblieation!l. learl1ing. C(JlI/M. D. J9!!(). Lcllrner Conlr()1 in compuler-b:l!lcd di!lplt\y theory.

ing or the Nalional

Etlucmiol1

A~!;()l;iali()l1, Colllillgcn. h.\",(..\, i,l Ol\li)rd: Pi'lX:r

Ncw Oflc:lI1~. LA. rur tli~lal\cc I:..,lt,(.uli(ln. ctlucmi(l1l. III C(III/(.m,,(I'.((I..\. 29K-312.

W.'gl1cr. E. (). 1990h. 111!ilrUClional tlc~ign and tlcvcl(JpmcllI: cy mall.lgcml:nl Perg.lmrnl Wugllef, prc!ienled Wilgner. Wagncr, Pre!i!\. Am,.r;c.,,11 Oi.\'f"I'c.,. ed. M. U. M()()rc,

1>"'(.'..\"(/"J E(h,(.(llitJ//4:77-9.~. M. D. IYK.'1. Componcnt A" O,.(.r\.i('I\. N.J: L:lwrel1ce modc!i Hill!idmc, 111111.\"lrll('l;/)/I(1t Th('(I.S.""ll.f. ed. C. M. ()f thl: Ul1ivcrSttlt tll'J ,.i(..\" (II'J M(IJ(1.\": I{~igt:lulh. M(llIrC. NlJCEA (~f Ih('ir Erlhll\,"\ C,lrr('I/' "

E. D., i111dA. G. Cl1ulc. UI Ihe Al1nllill mccljn Apfil.I.(I~

I ().) I. Dc:;jJ::n:; li)r Iclclcui;l1ing. or Ihc ~miornll Aligl;lc..., CA. by clc~ign. col\sidcrali()n~ IlJX6. J)cvcl()pcr~ I !)H7 .Dcsil:!l1 S()cicly

r()r Pcrr()rIJ(.1iJr. rtlr

A!i~oci:1\c!i. pre!ielllalion Ntlliol1al Mcclin, April,

M. G. 19!!9. Thrcc

of interuction. AllI\Uill

mi\llCC i\l"lln1ilrlll:litlll.

FI)I'lII11: J~1iI\I!~ iIIlll~II11Cli()nallntcr:lclivily. "~~oci:1\ioll

E. J)., and K. Maxwell. E. D.. al1d N. L. Reddy. telcconrcrencing.

'iily C(ll1\jl1l1il1g Edlll:mioll I..II;L: City. UT. Nilliol1:11 (ollnl.:il EI.(It""Ii(", Reigellllh. of Tcal:llcr~ S'(II"I,,'.J.\".f()/.

m"llc.e (11'd 1".~I/'Il("fi(l1l, 25(H): 11-15. in~lrllclional TltC' AII/C'ri(.(111 .1(II'rll(11 (!r /J;.\"(,,,(.(' ror Iligher Educalion. IlJlJ2. Ili.~hl'r :.Iralcgic:.,

1>1. MmJIl:m:llic!I. M(",,(.,II,,'i(..\..

1989. CIlrri(.I"'lm RCSI0". VA: NCTM. theory.

.\(.",,/iI

Ed,,("alhI11 1(3):49-56. We!;lern Inlcr!;lule Commi!;!;ion Ed,I('(lti/JI/ We:.IOll, C., IIllcJ P. A. Crllllton,
j/lll/"nal

C. M.. i'"(1 F. .C)lcin. 19H3. Thc elaboralion Hill~diIJc. NJ: L:lwrcl1t"e

In 11/.\"1'.11("S'(IIII.f. ed. T(.(.h"(It,,.I,'.\.. In M{(.\".f of

(11/(1 tIle E('/JI/(lnly (if' ,II{' W(.,~,. Rrnllllcr, IlJH6. Sclccling

CO: WICIIE,

'i/II'('1 r,,(.()/.;I'.\" {IIIJ M(I(II'I.\": ;\,' ()\.{.'.1'i{.". r. M. I{ci~cltllh. S:I~lller. P. I<)<)(). .'.h(. F.I.(I',IIi,)1I CO: Lihri'ril'!i W. 19.)4. fllr PmcCIlllrl:~ (~f Am()'.i(.(m "nd crfcc,!I

/)r ,h{)i,. C,I'.'.(.II' F.(h((.(I'i()/,(/1

il1~lruclirnlal

ErJbaul11 "s!iOciale!i.

/~r 11;,~h('/" Ed 11{'{/(;{11/ 57(3 ):259-2HH,

El1gll'w(){ld. SI..llrmlll1\. M('(lill .'i('t:iL:ly .)chwicr.

U"limile/.'. of mu!I~ mcdiu. l>f Ihe N"liol11ll Univcr!lily Inll'.\fr/1l'li()/,195-201. Thl.(}r.v Ilf

{/lId f.'{",("(/'i/)/I. Ihc St"dy

eu. N. R. Henry, 53rd Yc:lrhlHIk of Eulll..mion. Purl 2. Chicugo: de!lign.

l.hil::1!,!o Prc~!i. 1{. A. 1991. Clln.cl1\ CO: Libr.lric~ iS~lIC:; in il1\cructivc /,1 .'(.I")/()I/,.I,'.r: l~illll'lon. P{I.~'. P'.{..\{.(lf (111(1 F"",r('. Ulllimilcd. 1949. Th(' M(f'h('II/(I'i('lil or 1IIi,llli..,. 011 li~tcnil1g or Northcrn comprehen!iion inleral.:live TheorizIIJ: Univcrsily \1f t:tlptiol1ing cd. G. J. Anglin.

Sl1aII11\1n. C. E., &11111 W. Wc:,vcr. (.(',)/m"lIi("/I'i()/,. SIIl:II. ('. W. Il}91. \1f En!,!lish l'11ampi'i!!n. The cffcct~

u~ t, ~cl:olld

lunl!lIugc

i() a l:111\'pIlICr-h;,!;ed

vil.lcodi~c ~y!;tcm. l)I)1;. (Ii~~.. Univel'!iity Sil1\J1!;OII. R. J., UllIl J. J. GIlII}(). jllg on Ihc tlrt 0( leaching.

Colorudll.

11)H6. Il1\erllClion

alld learning:

111'('Il.h(/I'.I1(' 17(4 ):.17-51.

~K

21)

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