Stonework, brickwork, and block work

The natural of stones or rocks is a very long process which commenced when the earth was composed only of gases. Building stones: Igneous Sedimentary metamorphic

Igneous stone Igneous rock is formed as a result of the freezing of the magma. Magma is molten material inside the Earth, flare comes from the top or bottom of the sheath of the Earth's crust, high-temperature (900 1300 c) as well as having a high viscosity, easy to move and tends towards the surface of the Earth

Sedimentary Stone Sedimentary rocks are rocks that are formed by the consolidation of sediments, as freelance material, which terangkut to the site of deposition by water, wind, ice and gravity, the movement of soil avalanches or landslides. Sedimentary rocks can also be formed by the evaporation of a solution of calcium carbonate, silica, salt and other materials

Metamorphic Stone These are stone which have altered and may have been originally igneous or sedimentary rocks, but have since been changed by geological process such as pressure, movement, and heat and chemical reaction ddue the infiltration of fluids. Type of metamorphic stone are marble and slate.

Reconstructed Stone

These types of cast stone are homogeneous throughout and therefore have the same texture and colour as the natural stones they are intended to substitute. They are free from flaws, stratification, and can be worked same as natural stone.
Artificial Stone

These stone partly of facing material and partly of structural concrete. The facing is a mixture of fine aggregate of natural stone , cement, and pigmented to give the colour.

Ashlar Walling
This form of stone walling is composed of carefully worked stones, regularly coursed, bonded, and set with thin or rusticated joints and is used for the majority of high class facing work in stone. Rulles for ashlar work 1. Back faces of ashlar stones should be painted with a bituminous or similar waterprooofing paint. 2. External stonework must not be taken through the thickness of thhe wall since this could create a passage for moisture. 3. Ledges of cornices and external projections should be covered with lead, copper or ashpalt to prevent damage by rain or birds. 4. Moulded cornices should be raked back at 4 to counteract the cantilever action 5. Face of stones should be given a protective coat of slurry during construction, the slurry being washed off immediately prior to completion.

Rubble walling
The walls are made of stone in the shape of a rough and uneven so it displays a form that is natural and it is widely used in various forms in rural areas.

The basic raw material is clay, shale or brickearth. Pressed Bricks 1. The semi-dry method This process is used for clay which have a low natural plasticity. 2. The stiff plastic method This process is used for the clay dust needs tempering before being pressed into the mould.

 Wire cut bricks

The clay, which is usually fairly soft and of a fine texture. Soft mud process bricks The manufacture can be carried out by machine or by hand either with the natural clay or with a mixture of clay and lime or chalk.

 Varieties

Common Suitable for general building work. Facing To have an attractive appearance. Engineering To defined limits for absorption and strength. Qualities Internal Suitable for internal use only Ordinary Normally durable in the external face of a building. Special For the structure may become saturated and frozen.

 Types

Solid Small holes passing through the brick dont exceed 25% of its volume. Perforated Holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of its volume. Hollow The holes are small as defined above. Cellular The holes are exceed 20% of the volume. CONCRETE BRICKS These are made from mixture of aggregate and cement in a similar fashion to calcium silicate bricks.

CALCIUM SILICATE BRICKS These bricks are made from carefully selected clean sand or crushed flint mixed with controlled quantities of lime and water. MORTARS FOR BRICKWORK 1. Have adequate strength. 2. Have good workability. 3. Needs to retain plasticity long. 4. Be durable over a long period. 5. Bond well to the bricks. 6. Be able to be produced at an aconomic cost.

Typical Mixes (by volume) Cement mortar 1:3 for brickwork in exposed condition and for brickwork in foundations. Lime mortar 1:3 for internal use only Gauged mortar 1:1:6 for most conditions of severe exposure 1:2:9 except those of severe exposure 1:3:12 internal use only

 By the rain penetrating the head of the wall. By the rain beating against the external wall. By ground moisture entering the wall at or near to the base.

DAMP-PROOF COURSE 1. Those below ground level to prevent moisture from the soil. 2. Those placed just above ground level to prevent moisture creeping up the wall by capillary action. 3. Those placed at openings, parapets and similar locations.

Materials for damp-proof courses Be completely impervious Be durable Be strong enough to support the loads Be flexibel Be in comparatively thin sheets Lead It is a flexibel material supplied in thin sheet Copper This should have a minimum thickness of 0.25 mm. Bitumen This is supplied in the form of felt usually to brick widths.

Mastic asphalt Applied in two layers giving a total thickness of 25mm. Polythene The thickness not less than 0.5mm. Slates These should not be less than 230mm long nor less than 4mm thick. Bricks They are laid in two course in cement mortar.
BRICKWORK BONDING To lay the bricks to some recognized pattern or bond in order to ensure stability of the structure and to produce a pleasing appearance.

Common bonds Stretcher bond Used for half-brick walls and the halfbrick skins of hollow or cavity walls.

English bond A very strong bond consisting of alternate courses of headers and stretchers.

Flemish bond This bond is sometimes reffered to as double Flemish bond.

Single flemish bond The thinnest wall that can be built using this bond is a one-and-a-half brick wall. English garden wall bond Consists of three courses of stretchers to one course of headers. Flemish garden wall bond This bond is fairly economical in facing bricks and has a pleasing appearance.

Special Bonds Rat-trap bonds is a type of wall brick masonry bond in which bricks are laid on edge for gives saving materials and loadings.

 Quetta bonds used one and a half brick walls for

added strength,suitable for retaining walls.

Metric Modular Brickwork have been designed and produced with four differents format , provides only for a single format of 200x100x75mm.

The bond arrangement are usually, but are

based on third
bonding that is overlap is one third

of a brick and not

one quarter as with the standard format brick.

Footings This is wide bricks palced at the base of a wall to spread the load over greater area of the foundations

Boundary Walls these wall such as reatining wall the conditions will be even more extreme. To severe weather conditions. Efflorescence appearing white on the face of brickwork cause deposit of salts which forms on the surface of bricks and mortar. Dry brushing or with clean water may be used to remove the salt.

 More than the BS dimensions specified for bricks and

its high shall not exceed either its length or six times its thickness Clay Blocks they are manufactured hollow by an extrusion process and are fired as for clay bricks. Format size of 300 x 225 x 62.5, 75, 100, or 150mm width

Precast Concrete Blocks The density of a precast concrete block gives an indication of its compressive strength-the greater the density the stronger is the block. Concrete blocks are laid and joined to other walls by block bonding or leaving metal ties or strips. Format size being 400 x 200 mm and 450 x 225 mm with thickness of 75, 90, 100, 140, 190, and 215mm

concrete block not be laid until drting shrinkage ha staken place ( usually 14days) and should be protected on site to prevent them becoming wet, expanding and causing subsequent shrinkage possibly resulting in cracking. These compromise a stainless steel or galvanized steel former incorporating horizontal bed joint ties at 450mm spacing.

Installation with
bonded profiled or perforated ties

to one side and

plastic sleeved ties to the other to maintain continuity ad facilitate movement.

The advantages of blockwork over brickwork Labour saving : easy to cut, large units Easier fixings : with screws and nails Higher termal insulation Lower density Provide a suitable for plaster

The disadvantages Lower strength Less resistance to rain penetration Loadbearing properties less Lower sound insulation properties