fj fj

(Teaching of Mathematics)

ulh ML

ts
Ma f gla g

lhik xU ghtbra
lhik xU bgUFw
lhik kj jikaw bra

jehL
ghl fHf
f rhiy, brid - 600 006.

 jehL muR

Kj g - 2009

jiyt
nguh. Dr. K. Rgkh

Kdh nguha kW Jiwjiyt,

fa Jiw, mid bjurh kf gfiyfHf, bfhilfhd.

yhaf kW nkyhthsf

Dr. K. $thr
iz nguha,
fj Jiw,
khy f, (jdh)
brid-600 005.

Dr. E.. uh fnzZ

U. M.K. Ruka

iznguha,
f Ega Jiw,
ghujhr gfiy fHf,
U

Jiz aFe (X),

Ma f Muh g
aff,
brid - 600 006.

yha & xUizghs

Dr. C.. rnuh#h
cj nguha, (X)
Ma f Muh g aff,
brid - 600 006.

yhaf
Dr. M.. fh nj

U.

KJiy iuahs,
khtl Ma f g Wtd,
faho, fhu khtl.
U
U.

S.P.f

KJiy iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
nj%, fahFk khtl.

U. . uhkf

S. KUnfr

iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
FKS, U khtl.

KJiy iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
bgzh, Utzhkiy khtl.

Dr. R. ght
iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
UZz.
ts jah : jehL muRfhf
Ma f Muh g aff, brid - 600 006.
70 .v.v. jh mlgLsJ.
bt Mbr Kiw mnlh :

affUJ...
vbghUs Mf brybrh jhwth
EbghU fhgJ j.
khztf wikfis tsgLJtJ Ra fLghil tsgJ wj
fUJfis nfLzu brtJ vij fWbfht Kidig
VgLJtJbkd
f
gkhzf
gythF.
fia
fiyl(Curriculum) vD Kiwahd xGfikl mjny f Wtdf
jiyaha gahF.
fiyl fhyF fhy, lF l, NHYF NH, njitnfg,
fgtnfg kh tiuaWfgLwJ. nja Ma f Muh g FGk,
jnghija f mikbfd nja fiyl 2005(NCF 2005)-I
totikJsJ.
1.

gF bt bgw fw mDgt mit g mnthL bjhlgLJj

2. kdghl brtij jJ bghU J fgij cWgLJj

3. ghlfSF mghgL gojj kW br uLj
4. nj Kiwfis nkY beth tFgiw fw braghLfSl
xUizj
5. eho kfsh Kiw kW ehff gghL TWfis fnahL
izj
Kjad jDila tfhL nfhghLfshF. j mogil, murhiz (iy)
v. 82, g f (1) Jiw, eh 05.04.2007go Ma f gla
gofhd fiylK ghllK
jahfgLsd. 2008-2009M
fahL Kj eilKiw cs a fiyl _y khzt
Maf fhQ wfis bgWt.
bjhlJ mit bgUF w
mjtiw bragLJ w
j wikfis mJ mtF Vg thG w; wnuhL xUJ thG
w
midJ ghlgFfY mfgr fw mil bgW w
Mftkhd braghLf <LgL w
M kdghik, a fLof Mat brawid nkgL
bjhiynehF ghit F w
nkY fiyl fhQ nehffis bfhLsJ.
khzt Maf gwid nkgL, mtf KG MSikia
btbfhzj
khzt Mafl ebd, ehL xUikghL, kj nea gfis
tsj
tss gUt f, cley f, thifw f, kf bjhif
f, RWNH f, kj cik f, rhiy ghJfh f, mik
f nghwtF KaJt mj.
nkfl nehff mil bgw, ulhL Ma f gla goF
vL ghlf kW xgJ brKiw gf (Practicum) cUthfgLsd.
iii

t.
v

KjyhkhL ghlf

ulhkhL ghlf

fF FHij (Learning Child)

a f Kiw
(Indian Education System)

fwiy vjhFjY
nkgLJjY (Facilitating and
Enhancing learning)

fwiy vjhFjY
nkgLJjY (Facilitating and
Enhancing learning)

jbkh fj
(Teaching of Tamil)

jbkh fj
(Teaching of Tamil)

kiyahs bkh fj
(Teaching of Malayalam)

kiyahs bkh fj
(Teaching of Malayalam)

bjYF bkh fj
(Teaching of Telgu)

bjYF bkh fj
(Teaching of Telgu)

cUJ bkh fj
(Teaching of Urdu)

cUJ bkh fj
(Teaching of Urdu)

kHiya guhk kW f

kHiya guhk kW f

(Early Childhood Care and Education)

(Early Childhood Care and Education)

My bkh fj
(Teaching of English)

My bkh fj
(Teaching of English)

fj fj
(Teaching of Mathematics)

fj fj
(Teaching of Mathematics)

10

ma fj
(Teaching of Science)

ma fj
(Teaching of Science)

11

r_f ma fj
(Teaching of Social Science)

r_f ma fj
(Teaching of Social Science)

KjyhkhL ghlf

ulhkhL ghlf

t.
1

FHijia cWnehf kW
jkhzhf M

bra lf

g ghit

fiy f kW gaDgt

fij TWj

f fa

clf, cleyf kW
nahffiy

clf, cleyf kW
nahffiy

Rats gkid

Rats gkid

fw fj bghUf

fw fj bghUf

iv

brid gfiyfHf Kdh fa Jiw jiyt Kidt

.v. ghyRuka mtf jiyik, nfhit ghuah gfiyfHf
Kdh bjhiyt f aFe Kidt v.Rthehjis,
bfhilfhd mid bjurh kf gfiyfHf Kdh Jizntj
Kidt v. yR, brid fa nkghL Wtd Kdh
nguha .fzg, Lf fhuhk uha gfiyfHf Kdh
Jizntj Kidt .gf#, ghonr ehafh gfiyfHf
fa Jiw jiyt Kidt nf. Rgkh, brid gfiyfHf
jnghija fa Jiw jiyt Kidt o.Fku, jgu mzhkiy
gfiyfHf fa nguha Kidt v. UZz_ Ma FG
jiytf gy mkf fyJiuaho, f gy MJ njJ
fUJfis gFJ bjhFJ vikgL tsfis cUthf
tfhosd.
xbthU ts FG, Ma f Muh g aff, khtl
Ma f g Wtdf, fa ff, gfiyfHff,
tlhu ts ika, gf, jdht bjhL Wtdfis rhj
fahsfis

nkyhthsfshf

xUizghsfshf

yhafshf bfhLsJ. nkY, Utdju nfus gfiyfHf

Ma fa f Kjt Kidt .nf., brid MjZ
f Wtdf fa Mnyhrf Kidt v.yjh, UZz
Kdh khtl bjhlf f mYty U nf.ehuhazis, brid
gfiyfHf cUJbkh Jiw jiyt Kidt v.ira r A]ir
Mnahiu FGjiytfshf bfhL

Wghik ghlfSF

tsf cUthfgLsd.
fhiuFo mHfgh gfiyfHf Kdh Mkw cWd Kidt
V.v. _, UZz_ mwflis The School mikig rhj
Uk. Rkuh M. bfsjkh, jdht fahsfshd MKjh khajh
knAhghuh kW Kidt ghyh rg (v-ah), ntjh kf
kdts fiy kw cj nguha U. o.v.mUshdj, Jit
gghL kW bkha Wtd KJiy iuahs Kidt j.guRuhk
Ma fahsfS tsf cUthfF gfJsd.
fj vD Ma ika fUJ jhndfw vD
khzt ika fF khs iwa bjhlf f Kiw, braf
v

t fwiyna mogilahf bfhLsJ. a tsf xnth

aY brafis bfhL bjhl khztf jhkhfnt fUij
mJbfhtjhf flikfgLsd. khzt Maf, yffis
gagLJj, g khztfl fw wid nkgLj jkJ tFgiw
fjiy tYgLJj, cWnehF w, tFgiw nkyhik,
ghlbghUs, Jiz fUf kW fw bghUfis gagLJ w,
jiyikg, FHij csaiy mUj Ma midJ wfis
mila tsf tfhL. tsfis fgj _y g<LghL
(Commitment) j m guj MwY (Competence) bghWzl
khzt kdbfhsjf tif fUJfis vLJiuF kh (Communication) cila eyhaf cUtht.
ts (Source Book) vgJ fgjfhd tsf, Mjhuf Kjad
vbfnf csd vgij fhL tfhona. mUJ fwiy
gL njitahd brfis Mfhnf uo khztfsJ mj,
j, gagLJj, gFj, bjhFj, kl wfis nkgLJtJ
jukhd

Ma

bgw

ttFgJ

tfhLtJ

Ma

fahsf flikahF. a tsf TwgLs fUJfis

KGikahf cth, Kiwahf goJ gadiltJ midJ khzt
Maf bghWghF.
tsfis

brikahf

cUthf

cja

midJ

fahsfSF ffUF Ma fahsfSF ffs

khzt MafSF vkJ cskhj ghuhLf!

aFe,
Ma f Muh g aff,
brid 600 006.

vi

mKf
fj vgJ fUij tsF ghl kLkyhk jidia o,
kdij begLJ xU fUahf bragLwJ. vdnt fj ghljf
fj fUJfis ma
mj fUJfis gagLj
fjfUJfis, thif gaghila izJ ff
fzFfSF fhgJnghW thif NH fhQ w
tsf.
thif beKifis nkgLj.
VJthd tif mikfgl ntL. j mogilaY, NCF-2005-
gJiuf go. ulh ML fj (ts) totikfgLsJ.
Street Mathematics vw fUJ thif fzid, a.
brKiw toa gFf cs fUJf bjthf cajidF
ttFwJ.
fj fw tFgiw braghLfSl W nghfhk, tFgiwF
btY fG tif wbryghLf jf l bgWsd.
braghLf fj fw xU bjhl f vW, r_fnjhL bjhlilaJ
vW czugLwJ.
ghl myFf Ko l bgWs dhjh flik kW kh
dhjhf Mad Ma khztf jfis jFj Kiw njF
jah brJ bfhS tz mikfgLsJ. fiy brhfS, nknfh
fS cajidF t tFf bfhLfgLsJ.
fUjjYF, fUJ gkhwF cj tif j ts
totikfgLsik. w jikahF.
Ma FG
vii

ghll (Syllabus)
fj fj - ulhML
gF m (ghlbghU)
myF 1

mwhl thif fj gaghL

gaghL fj braf - f fiylK, fjK, d rjj- ta - FLg iy mif - thif fzUJ g

fzF

myF 2

afj

fjTWf-ljhf-vGJUf-kh, khf- mLF bfGf - xd, ntd cWf - gYW nfhit - gYW nfhit
mogil braf - rkghL - Ukhfis bfhl xUgo rkghL
myF 3

tufis nrfj - tifgLJjY, mltizgLJjY ika nghfsit - gut msitf.

myF 4

brKiw toa

brKiw toa - tuyhW- toa f- ehfuf-w

ehfuf - Knfhzf
ghlf
tF :

6 Kj 8 tiu (ghlgFf 2,4,6,7)

tF :

(ghlgFf 4,9,10,11)

tF :

10

(ghlgFf 10,11)
gF M (fj Kiwf)

myF 5

crh fj

fj Kiw, fj c - crh fj - tiff th rhe cf - cf gilgh - Maf jidF.

viii

myF 6

fj th fw

tiuaiw - th ika fw gof - khztf iy th

fw - Maf iy th fw - gf
myF 7

tha fzFf

tha fzFf - STAR c - fj fg ftd <Fa

khztf
myF 8

fw nkghlila fiyl wbraf

tFgiw braghLf- tFgiw w braghLf - fj kw -

fzFf - fj isahLf - dho dh - fj Mtf - fj yf
- fsgaz - cq njitnfw ghlbghU - xgh FG - CLg
myF 9

fw FiwghLfS fj fUJ gkhwK

fw nghJ VgL iHf-mtfhd f-fj fUJ

gkhw-tiuaiw-tiff-MfTWf.
myF 10

kL

kLj mta - ey nrhjidf gf - nrhjidfS,

njfS - kL fUf- njf tiff-myF nrhjid
fj jah ntWik - brayhuh - nenfhL tiugl.

ix

fhy xJL
I

100 kneu

ghlbghU

m) ts
myF 1

4 kneu

myF 2

8 kneu

myF 3

8 kneu

myF 4

4 kneu

M) ghlf
tF VI Kj VIII tiu (ghlf 2,4 6 & 7) 20 kneu
IX tF (ghlf 4,9, 10&11)

X tF (ghl 10&11 kL)

II

12 kneu

fj Kiw

ts
myF 5

4 kneu

myF 6

4 kneu

myF 7

10 kneu

myF 8

8 kneu

myF 9

8 kneu

myF 10

10 kneu

24 kneu

I (myF 1 Kj 4 tiu)
ghlghlf

32 kneu

II (myF 5 Kj 10 tiu)

44 kneu

bkhj 100 kneu

bghUslf
gf v
myF 1

mwhl thif fj gaghL

(Application of Mathematics in Everyday Life)

myF 2

afj

24

(Algebra)

myF 3

54

(Statistics)

myF 4

brKiw toa

86

(Practical Geometry)

myF 5

crh fj

100

(Strategy Instructions)

myF 6

fj th fw

121

(Problem Based Learning in Mathematics)

myF 7

tha fzFf

138

(Word Problems)

myF 8

fw nkghlila fiyl wbraf 155

(Preparation of Further Activities for Learning Mathematics)

myF 9

fw FiwghLfS, fj
fUJgkhwK

174

(Identification of common mistakes and communication in

Mathematics)

myF 10

kL

190

(Evaluation)

xi

izf
gf v

1.

dhjh flik

213

(Blueprint)

2.

dh tiu

215

(Blue Print)

3.

mfkL - kbg gL

215

(Continuous Assessment)

4.

dhjh totik - Ktiu-I

216

(Blue Print)

5.

dhjh totik - Ktiu-II

217

(Blue Print)

6.

kh dhjh-I

218

(Model Question Paper-I)

7.

kh dhjh-II

221

(Model Question Paper-I)

8.

fiy brhf

223

(Glossaries)

9.

nknfh f

227

(Bibliography)

xii

myF-1

mwhl thif fj gaghL

(Application of Mathematics in Everyday Life)
1.1 mKf
f m vgj fUnt fj m jh. gaghL f fj
m bgU gF twJ. bgw m mw fhF fUahf ftjFa
Mw fjwid mogilahf bfhL mikwJ,
cyfnjhL xl xGf gy fW
fyh m yhjh
vw Fw, f _y th ts bgWtj KaJtij vLJiuwJ,
mjhtJ f mDgtkhf czugl ntL vgJ FljfJ.
mstJ thHhjh thif csnghy
yh njhwh bfL
vd fj gaghoid brbkh sFwJ,
cyf KndwF, tsF fj m f mta. g
ghlf midJ fj mit mogilahf bfhLsd. 1957- uZah
nfhis brYal, mbkff Jiw jajfhd
fhuzij cybfF cs kf ma Kawd. mbkff f
fiyl ngha ftd brYjhikna jF fhuz vwjd.
clnd a fj ghllf mKfgLjgld. Vbd eik
Rs bghUf ah fj jikia bgWsd. vdnt bjhlf
iy fj fUJfshd KG vf, KG vf mogil braf,
msitf, df, toa Ma midY mogil fUJfis
bjJbfhtJ f mtakhF. Mdh khztf fj fUJfis
goF nghJ jid V gof ntL?

jdh vd ga?

vW

vQwd. vdnt ghl fF Ma fj fUij fF

nghJ mj thif gaghil izJ fjh jh ghl J
Mt VgL. fjghl eho Kndw, o Kndw, jkj
Kndw nghwtF f mta vgJ bj.
1

1 . 2 gaghL fj braf
fj fgj gafis braKiw gaf, rKjha gaf, gghL
gaf vd _W thf tif gLjyh. mtiw g eh bjJ bfhnth.
1.2.1 braKiw gaf
fj

kdgfhf,

brKiw

gaghofhf

ffgLwJ. fj fgjh m tsailtnjhL kd MwY

btgLwJ.

fj myhk maiy mJ bfhs KoahJ.

brjh kW giff bttU brfis bjJ bfhtjF

fj m njitgLwJ,
* jg btg iyia mJ bragLj
* gF rij ytu bjJ bfhL KjL brj
* cg w ga tiuglf _y fiy mj
* ntsh brfis mJ cg wid nkgLJj.
* tjf ga brf _y ahghu brj
J nghw braghLf fzL wD, KobtLj wD xUnf
izJ bragLtij fhnwh.
thW xU bjh myJ g bragLtjF VJthf Lj
brtjF gagL fzLjiy braKiw gaf vnwh. nkY y
vLJfhLfis ghfyh.
(i)

tu, bry mif

(iii) neu fzLj

(ii) jSgo rYif tuf

(iv) nr tuf

(v) nj neu mf
fw bra : n k T a i t a y h J n k Y g y b r a K i w g a f i s
goaLf.
1.2.2 rKjha gaf
ehfho gagLJj, t tN brj nghw rKjha gaf fj
fUJf Jiz wd. mjhtJ jf rKjhanfg gagL
bfhS tif UHh fhyfis fzLj, kzHhfis khj
nghwit jkj gaghL vgij l rKjha gaghlhf fwJ.
2

ttN brt fjw KGikahf gagLwJ. mjhtJ bjhif

fzLj, fhybfL j, mguhj bjhif fzLj nghwit ttN
brtj WTWfshF.
fhyiyia bghWJ eh m
cil, bt bry KndghLf (Fil,
bjh,...) Matiw Ko brnwh.
ut afa (Fluid Dynamics) vw
fj csJ. bt MuhF
nt _yhjhu.
J nghW flz, t
fzFf, bjhiyng flzf, gaz
fhyf

MatY

fj

fhyiy

gagLtjh aghd NH rKjha ywJ. gyjkhd gjwf

jfgLwd. vbfF nehD mgG fj nfhnyhRtij
btil kiyahf fhnwh.
1.2.3 gghL gaf
cl, cs kW Mf tsF fj bgU gfhWwJ. gghL
kW fyhrhuij ugF fzhoahf fj sFwJ. nahf
gf, bjt tgho, nfh flik, Mil totik, cz
gHftHff kW tha bef fj fUJf Ka l
twJ. g, Ja kW Ko
fol fiy

cWghL Ma gf fjnjhL
izjitahF.
fiy,

ya

nghwt

gghL khwhk iyJ gjF

fj fUJf cjwd.
fw bra
1.

folfiyf fj gaghL

g FGf thj brJ fLiu vGJ.

2.

Efiyf (fine Arts) fj

gghL ga g fLiu vGJf.

3

1 . 3 f fiylK, fjK
f fiyl fj Kjik ghlkhf fUjgL fj
jiyf totikfgLwd. d, j, rjj, jto Ma fj
fUJf mKf gLjgL tF kW fUJf mwhl thif
ga FJ fhngh.
d _wh tFY, j Mwh tFY, rjj vw fUJ
Ijh tFY mKfgLjgLwd.
ffgL wf
Ijh tF
* rjj - fUjhf
* dij rjjkhf, rjjij dkhf khWj, rjjij jrk
dkhf khWj
* bfhLfgl v myJ ms njitahd rjj fhz
* rjjij gagL thifia xoa va fzFfis j
* mofo gagLjgL rjjfis d vzhf, d vfis
rjjkhf khw kd fzFf g bgWj.
Mwh tF
* rjj, d kW jrkd-bjhl
* yhg kW eZl
* yhg kW eZl rjj
VHh tF
* juF

*jSgo

*gid t

1.3.1 d
d _wh tFnyna mKfgLjgLsJ. d Fj
fUJfis id Tnth. d vgJ xU KGbghUis rk ghffshf
j vw fUJ eh mjnj. y rkaf d vgJ xU bjhFig
gy ghffshf j vgij FF.
4

vLJfhL
xU Til 10 khgHf csd. jid uL rk ghffshf jh
5
xbthUtUF ilgJ 5 khgHf. jidna d to
vd vGjyh.
10

xU KGbghU dij gl sf _y FLtJ, Vfdnt

1
vw dij glsfkhf tiua brhdJ
mjJjh. Mdh ekF
8
id tUtJ tU uL glf jh.

gl 1

gl 2

xU dij gy tf rk ghfkhf f Ko. jid tU

vLJfhLf _y fhngh.

vLJfhL 1
xU brtf guig vL rkghfkhFtjF gy tfis ifahsyh.

gl 3

gl 4

1
mikfgLs j ntWgLsJ.
8
jidna tisnfhL kW nenfhL gagL Jfhlyh.

nkTa uL glfY

tisnfhL gagL j

gl 5

gl 6

nenfhL gagL j.

gl 7

gl 8

gl 9

gl 10

tisnfhL kW nenfhL gagL rkghffshf jh Xnu

khahd tot vnghJ ilgiy. Mdh totf ntWgoUjhY
guf rkkhf mikUgij fhf.
thwhd fUJ gaghLfis mwhl thif fhzyh. totf
xnu kh mika ntLbkgJ ika fUjy. js cUtfshf Ujh
gu rkkhf Uf ntL fd cUtfshf Ujh fd ms rkkhf Uf
ntL.

vLJfhL 2
xU brtf guig ehF rk ghffshf gjF tU tfis
ifahsyh.

gl : 1

gl : 2

gl (1)- ehF rkghff neuoahf fhawJ. gl (2) Y ehF

rkghff fhzgLwd. Mdh fzL mj mtakhwJ
1
vgJ xU ghf.
4

1 1
+ vgJ xU ghf.
8 8

1
vgJ uL ghff vd ehF rk ghffshf fgLsJ.
2

J nghW gl (3), gl (4) mikfgoUgij thJ mf.

gl 3

gl 4

nkTa vLJfhLfUJ dij nenfhL kW tisnfhL

gagL gntW tf rkghfkhf f Ko vgJ bjthwJ.
fw bra
1.

xU brtf guig 6 rkghffshf vjid tf fyh vgij

gl sfJl brJ gh.

2.

d thif gafis vGJf.

1.3.2 j : tiuaiw
j vgJ xnu khahd uL uhfis xLtjhF. jij
a
Ff : vw F gagLwJ. a:b vw jid
vd vGjyh.
b
7

j gf
* bghJthf

a:b

b:a

mjhtJ

cWf

tir

KakhdjhF. Mdh a=b v a:b=b:a

* jij vj xU myfhY Ff TlhJ.
* xU j U uhfS xnu myfhf Uf ntL.
j tir KakhdJ vgij tU vLJfhLf _y
fhngh.
vLJfhL 1
khRgLjiy, iyia Fiwf vjdh myJ bkjdh
i t f S l G a s o line vw vbghUSl fyfgLwJ.

bgnuhY,

vjdhY 9:1 vw j fyfgl vbghUsh fh aFwJ. 9:1

vgJ bgnuh 9 gF, vjdh 1 gF vgij FwJ. jid tU
gl _y sfyh.
bgnuh

vjdh

123456
1
123456
123456
123456
123456
123456
123456

jidna d to bgnuh

9
1
, vjdh
vd Ffyh. Mdh
10
10

1 : 9 vgJ bgnuh xU gF vjdh 9 gF vgij FF.

vdnt 9 : 1 1 : 9
vLJfhL 2
LfL fyit #, kz, bk Mait 3:2:1 vw j
fyfgLwJ.
glsf
#

kz

bk

d to
I ms 3 = 1
6 2
2 1
=
6 3

kz ms

bko ms

1
vd vGjyh.
6

vLJfhL 3
tl RwsF lF cs j vnghJ xU khwhj v.
mjid Jakhf fzl ayhJ.
jid vd FLnwh. =

Rws
~ 3.141592 ...
l

22
vd gagLJnwh.
7

Rws
=
l
C
= C = d
D

1.3.3 j rk
uL jfis rkgLJ nghJ ilgJ jrk MF. mjhtJ
j rk vgJ uL rkhd jf iz MF.
v-L 1- go 54 l bgnuh fyf 6 l vjdh njitgLwJ.
54 9
= vd vGjyh.
6 1
xU j rk nfho cWf bgUF bjhif eL cWf bgUF

jid 54:6 = 9:1 vd j rk mikfyh. d to

bjhifF rk. bghJthf,

>

>

a:b = c:d vd vGjyh.

vLJfhL 4
tU j rk n- kfhf.
1:2=n:4
1 n
=
2 4

2n = 4

n = 2
9

nkTa vLJfhLfUJ d, j, j rk Mait btntW

fUJfis cslaJ vd mayh.
j Fiwj gr uL cWfns Ujh mjid d to
vGjyh. Mdh dij jkhf vGJtJ jtW.
vLJfhL 5
1:4 vg 1 + 4 vw 5 bkhj gFf csd.
1 vw d glsf
4 12345678
12345678

1:4 vw j glsf

123456789
123456789
123456789
123456789
123456789
123456789
123456789
123456789
123456789

1
5

12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678

4
5

1 vw kig 4 vw kgh tFf 1 4 1

5 5 = 4
5
5

1
ilfbgW d
vgjhF.
4

nkny cs gl

vdnt 1:4 vw jij 1 vd dkhf vGjyh. Mdh 1 vw

4
4
1
dij 1:4 vd vGjTlhJ.
vw dkhdJ xU KG bghUis 4
4
rkghfkhf J m 1 gFia J vLgJ vd bghUgL. 1 vw
4
dij neuo bghU bfhL 1:4 vw jkhf vGjTlhJ.
fw bra
j, jrk vgdt mwhl thif gaghL g vGJf.
1.3.4 j & khw (Ratio & Proportion)
j vw fU ts iyahf ne khw, v khw vw U
fUJf MW kW VHh tF fj ghl l bgW csJ.
ne khw (ne j)
uL uhf xnu j bjhlJ khdh mit nej
mikJsd vnwh. mjhtJ xU uh mfF nghJ kbwhU uh
mfjhnyh myJ xU uh Fiw nghJ kbwhU uh Fiwjhnyh mit
nekhw csd vd TWnwh.
10

vLJfhL
5 ngdhf iy %.75 v 8 ngdhf iy vts?
8 ngdhf iyia x vf.

vif

iy (%gh)

75

ngdhf vif iy ne j csd

vdnt 5 : 8 = 75 : x
5x = 75x8

x = 75 8 = 120

8 ngdhf iy %.120
vkhw (v j)
uL uhf xU uh mfF nghJ kbwhU uh Fiwjhnyh
myJ xU uh Fiw nghJ kbwhU uh mfjhnyh mit v khw
vdgL
vLJfhL
xUt xU lUJ kbwhU lF 50 .. ntf gaz bra
6 k neu MwJ. mnj lij 60 .. ntf gaz brjh mt gaz
neu vts?

ntf mfF nghJ gaz neu Fiw. F gaz u khwhj ms

60 .. ntf brY nghJ vLJ bfhS neu x vf.
ntf
(.)

neu
(k)

50

60

x
11

z rjj 100%F mfkhdh 1I l bga v ilF.

[v.L. 105 % = 105

1
105
=
>1]
100 100

bjJ bfhf
1 1 1
, ,
,... vd fzld. jrk vf
20 25 100
tUKdnu ahghf xW, vw fUij gagLsd. jrk

nuhkhaf t fLtjF

vfis mKfgLa 25% vgjF 0.25 vd gagLd.

1.4.2 j u F
vj xU bghUis jahghsnu neuoahf midJ neufY gid
bra Kotiy. bghUis gtUF, thFgtUF il juf Ugh.
jufUF ilF bjhifna juF vdgL.
vLJfhL
xU yij gt 2% juFbjhif mwh. thFgtU 2% juF
bjhifia jufUF bfhLwh. Utl UJ jufUF ilF
bjhifna juF vdgL.
fw bra
juf gagL fgL bghUf NHiy goaL thf
1.4.3 j Sg
Sgo
goif fhyf gidahsf jSgo rYifia bra
gLJwd. xU bghU Fj iyUJ FiwJ gid brtJ
jSgo vdgL.
fw bra
Hhfhyf jSgo mJ tU Lfis nrfJ tFgiw
mfUJ FJ thf
1.4.4 rjj - thif gaf
tU ffSF rjj vw fUJ gagLwJ.
1. kbgf; 2. g goF khzt, khza vif;
3. khzt nj; 4. thaiy, wiy; 5. nr, bry; 6. yhg, eZl;
13

7. kf bjhif fzL; 8. gu (71%) ygu (29%); 9. fyit

cs bghUf; 10. gid t; 11. tUkhd t fzL; 12. muR iy
mif; 13. t to j; 14. td yFf vif;
1 5 . yf cs jff; 16. oF t z k o j ;

17. njj

t h f j t , t h f f h n j h v i f ; 1 8 . dyhil iHf;
19. ma nrhjidf Kof; 22. m gJ, gJ R fzLj;
23. Mil jah iHf ms
fw bra
nkTait ju rjj csla thif gaghL ytiw
goaLf.

1.5 ta
1.5.1

ta mKf
t vgJ gzthfis clh njitnfg bfhLf, thf

trfis nkgLj cj X mikghF. t iy v kfl

gzHfnk iy vdyh. eho cs muR kW jah tf midJ
ka r t ffh aFwd.
t braghLf, nr fzFf tiff, t gotf, to
tu kW to fzL Kiw FJ 8 M tF fj ghl thf
l bgWsd.
1.5.2 to tuyhW
to vgj gaghL .K. 1500- Rnkaf kW vafsh
gagLjglJ. to vgJ xUt nrig Fl fhyF nk
gagLaikF bfhLfgL TLj bjhif vW Td. bghUshjhu
ahf ntshik ghj rkaY, bjhrhiyf gJ nghw NH
fl bgw ntoa NHY flid Ug fl ntoa NHY Vgl nghJ to
vw fUJ VW bfhsgljhf tuyhW TWwJ.
toia jto, TLto vd Uthf fyh. j toia xoa va
fzFfis f 5-M tF jiy mKfkhwJ. Mwh tF
jtoia myF Kiw kW Nu _y fzl bjJ bfhwd; VHh
tF jto, bjhlit bjhif Ma fUJfis fwd. vlh
tF ta kW TL to Ma fUJf mKfkhwd.
14

1.5.6.

TL toF, j toF ilna cs ntWghLf

jto mrYfhd to Fl fhyF mrYl nrfglhk

jahf fzlgL. Mdh TLto mrYfhd to Fl
fhyF fzlgL mrYl nrfgL. bjhifahdJ mLJ tU
fhyF mryhf fUjgL. vdnt xUt jto KjL brtij l
TLto KjL brtJ mf gaid jU. Mdh X MoF xUt
jtoF, TLtoF bgW bjhif rkkhdJ. uoY ilF
bjhifahdJ P(1+i).
ulhLfSF

jtoF,

TLtoFilna

cs

ahrfhd Nuij tUkhW sfyh.

2MLfSF jto
I = 2Pi

............. (1)

2 MLfSF TLto bjhif

A = P(1+i)2

= P(1 + 2i + i2)
= P + 2Pi + Pi2 P

(2) - (1)

............. (2) [TLto = A P]

P + 2Pi + Pi2 P 2Pi

= Pi2

vdnt, TL toF, jtoF ilna cs uL ML ahr

d = Pi2
fw bra
t_y kf bgW gafis vGJf.
1.5.7 uju it bjhif
xU bgUbjhif uju it bjhifahf tfsh thoifahs
flUJ bgwgLwJ. thoifahsf Ugzf fhy ms
za bragLwJ. tf bra KiwfSnfg it bjhiffhd
to

fzlgLwJ.

it

bjhiffhd

rhj

tfsh

thoifahsUF mfgLwJ.
fw bra
uju it bjhiffhd to tu gotij nrfJ tF
thf.
17

1 . 6 FLg iy mif (Family Budgeting)

FLg tUkhd, bry, nr, flid U brYJj Kjatiw
lLj FLg iy mif vdgL.
1.6.1

FLg l mKf
xU FLg tu kW bry ga Kndho lnk FLg

lkhF. xU ehL tsu ntLkhdh l f mtakhd xwhF.

eho tu kW bry Fj bghJl mogilny eho ts
mikwJ.
xbthU L lid jahJ bragLdh mJ eho
tsF L vgJ bj. lid ML l, khjhu
l vd U tifahf J bfhsyh. FLg iy mif jahf
y Ff nH bfhLfgLsd.
1.6.2 FLg iy mif jahF K kdbfhs ntoa
Ff
* Fl fhyK, nehfK kdbfhs ntL.
* tUkhd, bryd uL rahf ll glntL.
* mifahdJ vikahf ifahsToajhf Uf ntL.
* tUkhd Vwjhf VgL rka mjid rbr jkhf
bejik bfhljhf Uf ntL.
* khj tUkhd xnu uhf yhj NH mif jahF
rka 10 % gzij ifUghf itJ bfhS msF
mif jahf ntL. vghuhj brydfis j nrig
itJ r bra Ko. j bjhifia Safety Cushion vg.
* aif goaYnfg mjj brydij vG ciw gzL
itjh mj gz mj bryF gagL jid Envelope Accounting
vg.

18

1.6.3 kh FLg iyaif

tu

jahgtUF Vg

# d.

kh

nk

# ]

# ]iy

Mf

br

et or bkhj

_yjd
bkhj
tu
<
bjhif
to
KjL
yhg
ju tu

bkhj khj tUkhd

bry

bkhj ML tUkhd :

nr

ruhr khj tUkhd

KjL

khj thahf bry mltiz

bryd

kh

nk

#] #]iy Mf br

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

thlif
fl jtiz
fhL
to
nrit
KjL
l
flz
bjhiyng
flz
10.kif bghUf
11. ntiyah rgs
12. kUJtbry
13. Milf
14. jeg bry
15. gazbry
16. thfdbry
17. FHijguhk
18. f bry
19. bghGJnghF
20. fhf bry
bkhj bry
19

m et or bkhj

xbthU khjK tu, bry mltizia jahJ ifahStjh

gwhFiwia rkhgnjhL, kahd FLg NH y.
1.6.4
iyaif jahf gagL bjhEg trf
iyaif
(i)

Spread sheet Software :

NuJl Toa Excel Spread Sheet csJ. mj _y tu kW bryit
iu fzl Ko.

(ii)

Money management Software :

Kija bryd khj mif Mait mla jid bfhL
vfhyF ll Ko.

(iii) Spending management Software :

el khj bry brahj bjhif kW bry br t Fj
brf mlsJ.
1.7

thif fzUJ, g fzF

g fzif wghf br khzt mnj fzif thif

fzfhf bfhLF nghJ rtu brtiy. (v.L) 3+4=7 vd ilaF

khzt _W ngdhl 4 ngdhit Todh vjid ngdh ilF vw
dhF gyf jtWwh.
thif fzFf _y g fzFfS g fzFf _y
thif fzFfS ts mila brtnj ekJ FnfhshF. thif
fzFf g fiyl l bgWsikia Mugf,
eLiyf kW caiyf ghll mogil fhngh.
1.7.1

Mugg fj
* gzij TLnghJ 10, 100 myJ 1000 F mUfhik fzL
vikahf ifahnwh.
(v-L) xU bghU iy % 90. filfhul % 200 bfhLjh filfhu
jU bjhif % 110 vgij thif NH %. 200 I uL
Wfshf J xU 100 + (100-90) = % 100 + % 10 = % 110 vd fzL
bgW bfhwd.
* thFj, ifo m, gU, TWf fhf thFj Mait
l rhuh msitfis gagL eilbgW bra.
20

1.7.2 eLiyg fj
* fol ntiy br bjhyh nfhz ms, gugs, tz Rj,
bjhif

fzLj

Ma

midJ

fUJfis

gagLJwd. mit midJ mDgt _y fwitahF.

* isahL ikjhd mik, gJ Rj, isahLgt F
tir midJ fj fUij cslaJ.
* fJ tofhu TL toia gagL to fzLwh. X
ML toia xU ehisF vts vd fzL tNwh.
* f bjahjtf gagLJ CWnfh j vw fUij
gagL bragLwJ.
* rij ahghu brgt % 100 xUtl bgW bghU th %200
F gid brwh. % 100 yhgij gz bfhLjtUF % 50,
that % 50, J bfhwd. yhg, rkgL, Ma
fUJf gagLwd.
1.7.3 caiyg fj
* sgu iwa NH xU bghUis gJ vgJ ma
brayhF. sgu kfilna gyj tuntig bgWsJ. jSgo,
gid, rjj, yhg, eZl vw fUJf mls
sgufis mf ms eh fhnwh.
* Vgoia gagL caukhd folF Rzh mowd.
VahdJ Fl iy WJ rka jh nH Hhk
UF. mF rh vw fj fUJ gagLwJ.
jid g sfkhf fhngh.
rh : sf
V ilklkhf UFnghJ rh 0
V neklkhf UFnghJ rh crk () milwJ.
jid xU Fl rh mjhtJ 0-F -Fil UFkhW
eh Rt rhthf Via itnwh. jidna 9 tF tan k _y
bjJ bfhnlh.
21

 = 0o Mf UF nghJ V ilklkhf

UF.
vdnt rh tan =

BC
CA

[tan 0o = 0 F BC = 0]

90 o Mf UF nghJ V Rt

WjgoUF.
[tan 90o = F CA = 0]
jid Vfdnt eilKiw gagL bfhoUjhY fj
to mikUgij mUfiy. gFKiw toa _y jid
bjthf fUngh. Mdh jidna nkiy f fjghlij
Ug ghlkhf bfhoUjt tif Efj _y (Differantial Calculus)
dy vd mUg.
dx
* ehW eLbghGJ Fl ilbt u, iu mik
eLwd. F m vw fUJ gagLwJ.
* xU lUJ ntbwhU lij Fiwj neu brwila
ntLbk FWF ghij bry ntL. FWa u vw
fUJ cgnahfgLwJ.
* njF ku eLbghGJ ilbt Lt tifbfG (differential)
rkghL gagLwJ.
* wj cliy nuj gnrhjid br miw F%lgoUF. wj
cl btgiyia 4 kF xU Kiw fzL wj neuij
fzl Ko. F fj fUJ l bgWwJ.
* kUJ FoJL kUJtkid nrfgL ir
bgWgtlUJ vts kUJ bttUwJ vgij ma
Cathedral nrhjid bragLwJ.
fw bra
mwhl

thif

braf

ytiw

bjhlgLJf.
22

fj

fUnjhL

fwit
*

gaghL fj braf

f fiylK, fjK
- d
- j
- j rk
- khwf

rjj

ta

FLg iy mif

thif fzUJ, g fzF

fw braf

d,

rjj,

ta

Matiw

xoa

thif

fzFfis njbjLJ fhf.

*

xU eLju FLg tUkhdij mogilahf bfhL khjhu

bryd mifia jah brf.

bjhlf / eLiy / caiy g fzF, thif

fzF cs bjhlid FJ thd fLiu tiuf.

23

=
nghJ be ig iyahdJ % x vW 3 njfhf iy % y vW
bfhlh
x = y MF.

...(1)

F x, y vw vGJf k jjna xnu kid kLnk

bfhoUF
ntW Niy, mJnt khW ms beYF 4 njfhf kid
<L brayh.
=
mgoahdh
=

=
nghJ

jh cs iy k Kija

jh csij l

ahrkhdJ.
nghJ be igf iy kid x vW njfhf iy
kid y-vW bfhlh
x = y vd MF

...(2)

jnghJ (1), (2)- gagL cs x- k rkkhf Ugiy. y- kf

rkkhf Ugiy.
Ut xbthU ehS btntW mss be igfis btntW
vif cs njfhfis kh bfhlh mt iy k
x = y vd vLJ bfhsyh.
Mdh xbthU ehS ga gLjgL x, y- k khWgLwJ. mjhtJ
x- kf kh bfhnl UF y- kfS kh bfhnl UF.
Jtiu eh ghjUJ

vw FpL (ljh), mLJ brhygl

x, y (literals vGJf) filahf thj x, y (variables, khf) Mait Ka

bghUshf csJ.
25

mjhtJ xU bghU lij jh tUw (Place Holders)

ljhfSF

(iyj myJ iyaw) gyhf gagLjgL

vGJUf (literals), khwToa vGJUf (variables, khf) Mait

afj mogilahF. vGJUf khwhj jik cilajhf U
mJ khahf, vGJUf khw Toa jik cilaJ v mJ khahf
bfhsgL.
vdnt xU vGJU khahf, khahf Uf th cL vgjid
bjJ bfhs ntL. mjhtJ xU vGJU vnghJ khahfnt UF vd
Tw ayhJ.
2.1.1

fjTWf
TW vgJ thijf Kiwahd bghUbghj nrif MF. mnj

nghW fj thijfis FpLfis nrJ xU Tid mikjh,

mTW fjTW vdgLwJ. vLJfhlhf,
1.

X vQl 5ITl ilF v 13 MF. (x + 5 = 13)

2.

10UJ 3Ifjh vd ilF? (10 3 = y )

3.

U vf bgUf gy 24. (a x b = 24)

x
X v gh 50. ( = 50)
2
gh jnghija taJ 21 v 5 MLfSF Kd mtuJ taJ

4.
5.

vdthf UF? (21 5 = d)

mJ bfhf
nkfl

TWf

xbthY

vjid

vf

bjahj

vf(Unknown) vd thJ mJ bfhf.

2.1.2 ljhf
fj TWf bjahj vfis cslsd vgJ bj.
j bjahj vfSF gyhf

nghw FpLfis tHfkhf

gagL tUnwh. FpLf mjj lf cs kfis jh

tUtjh mtiw ljhf vd miHfyh.
2.1.3 X ljhia csla TWf
1.

15 kW 10 t TLj vd?
Tid ljhia gagL vGdh 15 + 10 =
myth!

vgJ ljhahF.
26

vd ilF

2.

12 vw vUJ vj viz fjh 7 ilF vgjid

12 -

3.

= 7 vd vGjyh myth!

X viz 8 M bgUdh ilF bgUfgy 72 vgjid

x 8 = 72 vd vGjyh myth!

4.

35I vj vzh tFf 5 ilF vgjid 35

= 5 vGjyh

myth!
F
1.

nkny cs vLJfhLf _y ljhf gagLJtjh RU

TW w tswJ vgjid mJbfhf.

2.

ljhf gy totf mikUgij mJbfhf.

fw bra
ljhf xnu totkhf Ujh rahd bghU mikkh vgij
Muhf.
uL ljhfis csla TWf
Jtiu xU ljh gagLa TWfis ghnjh. U
ljhf gagL TWfis fhngh. cjhuzkhf,
1.

Utl cs bjhiff ahr 28 vgjid

= 28 vd

vGjyh myth!
(j _y
2.

- kf khwhj jik cilajhf Uf Kokh?)

vl 17 khgHf Ujd. mt y khgHfis uh#hl

bfhLnj. ia uDF bfhLnj. u bgw khgHf vjid
vgij 17 -

3.

2x

vd vGjyh myth!

vw ljh Tid fjTwhf tU KiwY

vGjyhkh!
1.

xU tl, Mu

UklF mj l

2.

2- klFf

3.

x k UklF k

4.

xU bghU iyUJ U bghUf iy TWj.

27

MF.

gl 3 cs brtf s l = 6, mfy b = 4
brtf gugs = s x mfy
brtf 1 gugs = 12 x 2 = 24
brtf 2 gugs = 8 x 3 = 24
brtf 3 gugs = 6 x 4 = 24
j _y l,b btntW kfis bgWsJ.
vdnt, 24 xU kh, l, b khf.
j vLJfho _y eh mtJ

iyahd vk bfhl xU cUthdJ kh (constant) vdgLwJ.

btntW vkfis bfhl xU cUthdJ kh (variable) vdgL.

F
1.

khia xU vQU _ykhfnth myJ vGJU _ykhfnth vGjyh.

Mdh mj vGJU iyahd viz bfhoUf ntL.

2.

U vf TLj 15 vw Tid x + y = 15 vw fj Twhf

vGjyh. F x, y -F gy kf bfhLf aY. it khf MF.
Mdh 15F gyhf a vw vGJU gagLdh a xU khahF.

3.

bghJthf tFf vGJUfis khf vw bghU gLgoahf

vLJ bfhsgL. (2)- brhy gl fUjhdJ nk tFf
bjthf ifahsgL.

4.

Known, unknown, variable

Known constant

Unknown constant vGJU

Variable

kh

thf
1.

vQUf midJ khfshf mikkh?

2.

khfis Ff a Kj z tiuyhd My vGJfis kL jh

gagLj ntLkh?

3.

flt khf kW khfis vLbjG tifgLJtjfhd

fhuzfSl J vGJf.
5
h, k, b, 4, s, q, l, 25, 0,
8

4.

My vGJf kL , , , ,........ nghw nuf vGJfis Tl

gagLjyh vgjid mJ bfhf.
30

2.2.3 kh mLF (goF)

X vGJUit mnj vGJUth L L bgUdh ilF
bgUfgyid vthW vGjyh vd fhngh.
m I m M bgUdh m x m ilwJ. F m MdJ U Kiw mnj
vzh bgUf gLsJ. jid m2 vd vGjyh.
m2 vgij m uL mLF vW Twyh.
m2 vw cW 2 vgJ mLF kW m vgJ mokhd MF. njngh,
n x n x n = n3 vgij n _W mLF vdyh.
F n3 n vgJ mokhd kW 3 vgJ mLF MF.
F
xU kh mLF vgJ, mj mokhd (kh) L L mnj
mokhd vjid Kiw bgUfgLwJ vgij FF.
thf
1.

y vw cW y vgJ mokhd kW 1 vgJ mLF MF. (vthW?)

2.

a x 5 vgj bgUfgy 5a vd vGJnwh. a5 vd vGJtJ ku iy.

fhuz khia Kj vGJtnj tHfhF.

F
vthW khf bgUfiy mL _y vGJnwhnkh mthnw
khf bgUfiy vGjyh.
(v-L) 5 x 5 = 52, 3 x 3 x 3 = 3 3
cWnehFf
bgUf tot

mLF tot

m) 5 x b x b x b x b

5b4

M) p x p x q x q x q x r x r

p2q3r2

) 7 x m x m x m

7m3

<) 12 x x x y x y x x x y

12x2y3

31

2.2.4 bfGf (Fzff)

10a, 5m2, 6ab, 7y3 vw cWfis fUJf. it midJ kh kW
khf bgUfgydhf csd.
10a vw cW 10 MdJ a bfG MF. njngh 5m2 5 MdJ
m2 bfG, 6ab 6 MdJ ab bfG, nkY 7y3 7 MdJ y3 bfG MF.
vdnt, xU kh myJ khf bgUfgy tWl bgUf (myJ)
tFj _y izJ vGjgL v (kh) bfG myJ Fzf.
F
nkny bfhLfgLs vLJfhLf Fzff midJ xU v
khahfnt csikia fhf. Mdh nk tFf Fzff vGJU
khfshf UF. (v-L. ax2 + by2 + cxy) vw nfhit xvgJ kh, a
MdJ x2 Fzf, b MdJ y2 Fzf, c MdJ xy- Fzf. Fghf a, b, c
vw vGJU khf iyahd kid bfhlitahf vLJ bfhsyh
vLJfhLf
cW

bfG

a)

3c- c - bfG

b)

y2 - y2- bfG

1 x y2 vdnt -1

c)

5m- m - bfG

5 x m vdnt -5

d)

25pqr- pqr - bfG

25

e)

yz - yz - bfG

1 x yz vdnt 1

ftd bfhf
vGJUfis mj jikia bghWnj khf vW khf vW
Twyh.
x, y, z vgit khf. a, b, c vgit khf vW TWtJ jtW.
ifahsgL lij bghWJ xU vGJU khahfnth, khahfnth mik.
thf
bfG, go vgit xnu khahd bghU bfhlitah? iyba
thJ mJbfhf.
Mdh tFf khfSF vGJUfis gagLdh, jtwhf
j TlhJ vgjfhf jfgLwJ.
32

i) - Fzfij jJ midJ

ii) - Fzfij jJ midJ ab

a
iii) - Fzfij jJ midJ
b
ntd cWf
i) 6x, 4y

ii) 3a2, 7b2

iii) x, 2x2 MF.

2.2.8 cWf TlY, fjY

afj vGJf, vfis Ff gagLtjh, mit
fj ehF mogil brafSF cglit MF.
ghl gF afj Tl kW fj ga mogil
fUJfis fhngh.
afj cWfis Xd cWf vd, ntd cWf vd
nwh. Xd cWfis kL Tl, ff aY.
vLJfhlhf
2 njfhf kW 3 njfhf TLjiy eilKiw 5 njfhf
vnwh.
2 njfh + 3 njfh = 5 njfh
5 khfhfUJ 2 khfhfis f ilgJ 3 khfh
5 khfh - 2 khfh = 3 khfh
F it Xd cWfshF,
nghJ 5 njfhfis 3 khfhfis Tl aYkh? vd ghngh,
njfhF, khfhF kfis bfhLF gr mjF xU
bghU ilF.
mjhtJ 5 njfh + 3 khfh vgjF bghU cL.
vdnt, kf mogil
3 njfh - 2 khfh vw fjYF bghU cL.
U tif njfhahfnth myJ khfhahfnth Ujjh RUa
to Tw KojJ.
Mdh U tiffS btntwhf Ujh nkbrhd totnk RUa
totkhf mikwJ.
34

fw bra
njfhF x vw vGJU, khfhF y vw vGJU
gagLdh nk brhd Tl fjf vthW mik?
Xd cWf Tl
uL myJ mjF nkgl Xd cWf TLj Xd cWf
bfGf TLjiy bfGthf bfhl X cW MF.
(v-L) TLf (1) x + x + 3x
x + x + 3x = 1x + 1x + 3x
= (1 + 1 + 3)x
= 5x
(v-L) TLj fhf :

14xy2, 8xy2, 3xy2

14xy2 + 8xy2 + 3xy2 = (14+8+3) xy2
= 25xy2

Xd cWf fj
uL Xd cWf fj Xd cWf bfGf fjiy
bfGthf bfhl X cW MF.
(v-L) (1)

14a2b UJ 4a2b Iff

14a2b 4a 2b = (14 4)a 2b
= 10a2b

(v-L) (2)

kfhf. 9m3 18m3

9m3 18m3 = (9 18)m3 = 9m3

2.2.9 gYW nfhit ((Polynomial Expression))

gYW nfhit vgjid bjJ bfhs afj nfhit (algebraic
expression) id Kj mJ bfhsntL.
vfj brafsh (+, , x, ) VW bfhsToa tif khf
kW khfsh izfgl xU bjhF afj nfhitahF.

2)

x2 + x 5
3
y3
y

3)

2x3 + 5y2 xy

(v-L) 1)

35

x
y
+
+ y2
y
x
5) x2 + y2 + z2 + xy + yz + zx
z
y
6) x2 +
+ z2

y
x
7) x + y

4) x2 + 4

8) 52 + 3 x 4 7
F vLJfhL 8-MdJ vfsh kLnk Md bjhF vgjid
mf. thW vfsh kLnk va brafsh izfgl
bjhFid vfj nfhit (numerical expression) vdyh.
Fghf vLJfhLf 1, 2, Mait xnu xU khah Md afj
nfhitahF.
x2 + x 5 MdJ x-M Md afj nfhit
3
y3
MdJ y-M Md afj nfhit
y
vLJfhLf 3, 4, 7 Ma _W x, yMa U khfshyhd afj
nfhitfshF.
vLJfhLf 5, 6 Mait x, y, z -M Md afj nfhitfshF.
F
xU v nfhitid afj nfhit vdyh. Mdh xU afj
nfhit v nfhitahf Uf ntoa mta iy.
nkTa vLJfhLfgo btntW khf vifila xU
afj nfhitid eh cUthf aY.
eh xbthU cW mLF g bjJ bfhs ntL.
x2 - mLF 2
x - mLF 1
xy - mLF 2

(bgUfyhf tU nghJ xbthU kh mLid

Tl ntL.)

x2 y3 - mLF 5

x2
- mLF 1
y

(tFjyhf tUnghJ bjhF cs mLUJ gF

cs mLid ff ntL.)
36

y
- mLF 0
z
z
- mLF -1
y2

y2
- mLF -2
x4
1
3
xy 2 - mLF 2
1
x 2 - mLF 3
2
x2

(1 - 1)
(1 - 2)
(2 - 4)
(1 +
(

1
)
2

1
- 2)
2

nkfhQ vLJfhLfgo xU cW mLfhdJ if KG

vzhfnth (1, 2, 3, ...) akhfnth (0), Fiw KG vzhfnth (-1, -2, ...) myJ
dkhfnth Ufyh vgJ bj. Fghf vj xU kh cW
mLid 0 Mf bfhsyh. mjhtJ 8 = 8 x x0 vd vGjyh. F kh
mLid Fliy. cW mLidna vLJnsh vgjid
ftf.
vdnt xU afj nfhit
1.

khf vif khWglyh.

2.

cWf vif khWglyh

3.

cWf mLF Fiwaw KG vzhf (0, 1, 2, 3, ...) Fiw KG

3 1
vzhf (-1, -2, ...) dkhfnth ( , ...) Ufyh.
4 2

2.2.9 gF FLs vLJfhLf

vLJfhLf
(v-L) 1-

Kj cW mLF 2
ulh cW mLF 1
_wh cW mLF 0

(v-L) 2-

Kj cW mLF 3
ulh cW mLF -1

(v-L) 3-

Kj cW mLF 3
ulh cW mLF 2
_wh cW mLF 2

(v-L) 4-

Kj cW mLF 2
ulh cW mLF 0
37

_wh cW mLF 0
ehfh cW mLF 2
(v-L) 5-

midJ cWf mLF 2

(v-L) 6-

Kj kW ehfh cWf mLF 2

uL kW _wh cWf mLF 0

(v-L) 7-

uL cWf mLF 2

(v-L) 8-

midJ cWf mLF 0

thW cWf mLF ga bjit afj nfhit ga

bjit vLJfhLf_y s Twyh. nghJ gYW
nfhitid tiuaWf aY myth.
gYW nfhit
xU afj nfhit midJ cWf mLFfS Fiwaw
KG vfshf U mnfhit gYW nfhit vdgL.
cjhuzf 1 Kj 8 tiuyhd afj nfhitfis Muh nghJ 1, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8 midJnk gYW nfhitfshF.
Fghf xnu xU cW cs gYW nfhitid xUW nfhit
(Monomial) vW U cWf U mjid <UW nfhit (Binomial) vW 3
cWf U mjid _W nfhit (Trinomial) vW w bga bfhLJ
miHfyh.
eh ghj gYW nfhitfshd (3), (4), (7) Mait U khfshyhd
(x, y) nfhitfshF. (5) kW (6) _W khfshyhd (x, y, z) nfhitfshF. Mdh
(1) MdJ xnu xU khah (x) Md gYW nfhitahF.
xnu xU khahyhd gYW nfhitF f w cL. cjhuzkhf
5x 3 3x 2 + 2x 8 vw x -M Md xU gYW nfhitid vLJ
bfhnth. khahd gYW nfhitfSF go (degree) vw a
fUid izJ ghfyh.
2.2.10 xnu xU khahyhd gYWnfhit go
nfhit cs cWf vj cW mLF f bgajhf csnjh
mj viz m gYW nfhit go vdyh.
38

(v-L) 6x3 3x2 + 7x 8 vw gYW nfhit

6x3 vw cW mLF 3
3x2 vw cW mLF 2
7x vw cW mLF 1
kW kh -8 vw cW mLF 0.
nkflitf, fbga mLF 3 MF.
vdnt, bfhLfgl gYWnfhit go 3 MF.
2.2.11 xnu kh bfhl gYWnfhit ltot
xU gYWnfhit cWf, mt mLFfSF VwthW
wFtir (myJ) VWtir mikUjh, mJ gYWnfhit
ltot MF.
(v-L) 7x5 6x4 5x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 6
f
6x2 + 3x + 5x + 7 vw nfhit ltot mikJsjh? iyba,
ltot vd?
2.2.12 gYWnfhit Tl
xUt 5 jffis, 2 ngdhfis thdh vdbfhnth. jh
tha bghUfisTW nghJ thaJ bkhj 7 jff vnwh (myJ)
7 ngdhf vnwh TWtiy. mjFgyhf 5 jff kW 2 ngdhf
thnd vW jh TWt. jfF p vW, ngdhfSF q vW
fUbfhlh 5 jf + 2 ngdh = 5p + 2q vW mikwjyth!
mnj eg L 4 jff thdh v, mtl 9 jff, 2
ngdhf UFkyth? ij 9p + 2q vd Ffyh myth!
vdnt U gYW nfhitfis Tl aY.
(v-L) 4x2 5x + 2, 2x2 + 4x + 5 I TLf.
uKiw
4x2 5x + 2 (vfis lk mogil vG TLtJ
+

2x2+ 4x + 5 nghW Xd cWf mogil TlntL.)

__________
6x2 x + 7
__________
39

iuKiw
(4x2 5x + 2) + (2x2 + 4x + 5)
= 4x2 5x + 2 + 2x2 + 4x + 5
= (4x2 + 2x2) + (5x + 4x) + (2 + 5)
= 6x2 x + 7
0-I xU gYW nfhitahf fUjyhkh? M v vthW?
gYWnfhit Tl vkiw (Negative of a polnomial)
uL gYWnfhit TLgy xU a gYW
nfhitahdh, mnfhitf xWF xW Tl vkiwahF.
(v-L)
2m3 5m2 + 2m vw gYWnfhit Tl vkiw 2m3 + 5m2 2m
bjJbfhf
vj xU gYWnfhitia, m cs xbthU cW Fia
khdh mj v kiw ilF myth?
2.2.13 gYWnfhit fj
xU gYWnfhitUJ kbwhU gYWnfhitid ff,
ff ntoa nfhit vgYWnfhitid Kj nfhitl Tl
ntL.
(vLJfhL)
7m2 + 2m + 4 UF 4m2 + 6 Iff.
ffntoa nfhit (4m2 + 6) Tl vnfhit 4m2 6
jid Kj nfhitl Tl,
7m2 + 2m + 4
+

4m2
6
____________
3m2 + 2m 2
____________

(myJ) xj cWf Fzffis ff ntL.

mjhtJ (7 4)m2 + (2 0)m + (4 6) = 3m2 + 2m 2
40

2.2.14 gYWnfhit bgUf

iy (1)
X gYWnfhitia X khah bgUFtjF gYWnfhit
xnth cWig bfhLfgl khah bgUf ntL.
(v-L) x + 3 I 5-M bgUf
5(x + 3) = 5(x) + 5(3) = 5x + 15
iy (2)
X cWig khah bgUFnghJ bfGit Kj vGjntL.
(v-L)
p2 I 7-M bgUf
p2 x 7 = 7p2
iy (3)
1I jj bfGl Toa cWfis bgUFnghJ bfGfis
jahf mJl mjid rhjtiw bgU vGjntL.
(v-L)
4m2 I 3m M bgUf
4m2 x (3m) = (4) (3) (m2) (m) = 12m3
(v-L)
(9x 6)-I 7x M bgUFf.
(9x 6) x (7x) = (7x) x (9x 6) = (7x) (9x) + (7x) (6)
= (7) (9) (x)(x) + (7) (6) (x) = 63x2 + 42x
v-L.
RUFf : (2m + 6) x (8m 9)
2m + 6
x (8m 9)
_______________
18m 54
16m2 + 48m
_______________
16m2 + 30m 54
_______________

(2m + 6)-I (9) M bgUf.

(2m + 6)-I (8m) M bgUf.
cWfis ugLJf.
(jnghJ Xd cWfis TLf)
41

f
(5x + 2y + 7) x 4- 20x + 8y + 7- rkkh! iyba fhuzij mLf.
2.2.15 gYWnfhit tFj
XUWnfhitia XUWnfhitah tFj
Kj bfGfis tFJ kh bjhFid tFf ntL.
a5
= a5-3 = a2
a3

vLJfhL (1)

28 x 5 28 x 5
=
2 = 4x3
(2)
7x2
7 x
<UWnfhitia XUWnfhitah tFj
<UWnfhit
tFfntL.

xbthU

cWig

XUWnfhitah

vLJfhL
(15m 4 + 10m 7 ) (5m 4 )
(15m4 +10m7 )
5m4
(15m4 + 10m7 ) 15m4 10m7
=
+
5m4
5m4 5m4
15 44 10 7 4
m + m
=
5
5

= 3m0 2m3
= 3 2m3
F
xU kh akw kid bfhoUFkh, mj mLF 0 Mf
UFnghJ k 1 MF.
m0 = 1, (m 0)
rkghL ((Equation))
xU nfhitid bdhU nfhitl rkgLj ilgJ rkghL
MF. F rkgLJ nfhit akhf Tl Ufyh.
42

afj rkghL ((Algebraic equation))

xU afj nfhitia bdhU afj nfhitl rkgLj
ilgJ afj rkghL MF.
gYWnfhit rkghL ((Polynomial equation))
xU gYW nfhitid bdhU gYW nfhitl rkgLj
ilgJ gYW nfhit rkghL MF.
xU go rkghL (myJ) nea rkghL ((Linear equation))
xU gYW nfhit rkgho tuToa midJ khfmLFf 1
Mf U mJ xU go rkghL MF.
x+3=8
2x 7 = 0
2 8x = 0

nghwit xnu xU khah Md xU go rkghLf MF.

2x + 5y = 0
x+y=3
2x y = 4

Mait U khfsh Md xUgo rkghLf MF.

nkTa midJ xWbfhW bjhlgW vLJ bfhl

cjhuzf MF.
Ukhf bfhl uL xUgo rkghLfis xnu neu vLJ
bfhlh mjid Ukhfshyhd xUgo rkghLf bjhF vdyh.
(v-L)
x+y=3;

xy=1

nkTa U rkghLfS jjahf bragLjhk xUnf

bragLj ntL.
f
1
vw afj nfhitia (gYW nfhitay) 3 vw khF
x
rkgLJ nghJ xU gYW nfhit rkghL ilFkh?

x+

2.3.2 rkgho
xU rkgho, mj rkghil iw br vGJUf (khf)
kfmrkgho vdgL. mj viz mj rkgho cs
khF upL brjh mrkghL iw bgW.
(v-L) x + 6 = 15 vw rkghil fUJf.
43

rkgho x = 9 vd ulh rkgho tyJ gfF rkkhf

mikwJ.
vdnt, x = 9 vgJ rkgho MF.
9-I jj w f Uf aYkh? f !
x U rkghil gl Kiw j
x + 6 = 15 vw rkghil gl Kiw tUkhW fhzyh.
lgf (x + 6), tygf (15)
x-F a MuJ gogoahf vfis upL brJ, lgfK
tygfK rkkhF tiu brLf.
.g

t.g

x = 0 v 0 + 6 = 6

15

.g t.g

x = 1 v 1 + 6 = 7

15

.g t.g

x = 2 v 2 + 6 = 8

15

.g t.g

x = 3 v 3 + 6 = 9

15

.g t.g

x = 4 v 4 + 6 = 10

15

.g t.g

x = 5 v 5 + 6 = 11

15

.g t.g

x = 6 v 6 + 6 = 12

15

.g t.g

x = 7 v 7 + 6 = 13

15

.g t.g

x = 8 v 8 + 6 = 14

15

.g t.g

x = 9 v 9 + 6 = 15

15

.g = t.g

x = 9 vgJ x + 6 = 15 MF.
lkhw Kiw rkghil j
xU juh uL jLfY rkkhd vilia itjh uL jLfS
rkiy Ugijfhzyh. uL jLf cs vill rkkhd vilia
nrjhY (+) myJ dhY (-) myJ rkiy bgUdhY (x) myJ
rkms tFjhY () jLf rkiy UF vgJ bj.
nj Kiw, xU rkgho bfhLfgLs khl mikJs
v Tl vkiw viz U wK TodhY rkgho lgf,
tygf kf rkkhf UF.
vLJfhL (1)

f : m + 7 = 15

khl mikJs v 7
7- Tl vkiw -7I UwK TLf.
44

m + 7 + (7) = 15 + (7)
m + 7 7 = 15 7
m+0=8
m=8
m = 8 vgJ rkgho MF.
vLJfhL (2)

f : n 5 = 12

khl mikJs v -5
-5 Tl vkiw +5 UwK Tl.
n 5 + 5 = 12 + 5
n + 0 = 17
n = 17

n = 17 vgJ rkgho MF.

f
xU rkgho U gffis, kh bfGth tFjh, rkgho
lgf k, tygf k rkkhf UF.
vLJfhL (3)

f : 8x = 56

rkgho, kh x-bfG 8. vdnt, UwK 8 M tFf.

8x
56
=
8
8

x=7

x = 7 vgJ rkgho MF.

F
8 jff iy %.56 v xU jf iy vd?
f
xU rkgho U gffis kh bfG jiydh
bgUdhY rkgho Ugf k khwhJ rkkhf UF.
vLJfhL (4)

a
=7
6

rkgho kh a bfG

1
. j jiy 6.
6

vdnt, UwK 6 M bgUf,

a
1
6 = 7 6 , a 6 = 7 6 a = 42
6
6

45

F
xU akyhj viz mj jiyah bgUf ilF v 1
MF.
vLJfhL (5)

f : 5x + 9 = 54

rkgho fhz Kj lgfKs khia (9)I Kj

fntL. x- bfGthd 5I fntL.
5x + 9 = 54
F 9 Tl vkiw -9.
vdnt, -9I UwK Tl,
5x + 9 9 = 54 9
5x + 0 = 45
5x = 45
F x- bfG 5-M UwK tFf.
x=

45
5

x = 9 x = 9 vgJ bfhLfgl rkgho thF.

2.3.3 l/ty khw Kiw f

(1) xU if khia lgfUJ tygfkhfnth myJ
tygfUJ lgfkhfnth vLJ brwh Fiw khahf
khW.
(2) xU Fiw khia lgfUJ tygfkhfnth myJ
tygfUJ lgfkhfnth vLJ brwh if khahf
khW.
(3) xU kh bfG lgfUJ tygfkhfnth myJ
tygfUJ lgfkhfnth vLJ brwh mj bgUf
jiyahf khW.
F
3-id gagLj ntLkh kh cs gf kh Uj TlhJ.
vLJfhL (6)

f : 3x 15 = 0

3x 15 = 0
46

((2) go lgfKs -15 tygf

3x = 0 + 15

khW nghJ 15 MwJ.)

3x = 15
x = 15 x

1
3

((3) go x- bfG 3 lgfUJ tygf

1
brY nghJ MwJ.)
3

x=5
x = 5 vgJ thF.
vLJfhL (7)

f : 5y + 24 = 14

5y + 24 = 14
5y = 14 24

[(1)]

5y = 10
y = 10 x
y=2

1
5

[(3)]

y = -2 vgJ rkgho thF.

vLJfhL (8)
X v 7 kl UJ 5I fjh 30 ilF.
mj viz fhf.
njitahd viz x vdfUJf.
mj 7 klF = 7 x x = 7x
7x UJ 5I fjh 30 ilF.
va rkghL : 7x 5 = 30
jid f ,
7x = 30 + 5

[(2)]

7x = 35
x = 35 x

1
7

[(3)]

x = 5 njitahd v 5 MF.

47

2.3.4 U khf xUgorkghL

U khfis bfhl xUgorkghLfis mikj :
vLJfhL (9)
rkghlhf khWf :
uL nkir kW 3 ehfhf bkhjiy %.2000.
fz nkir iy (%gh) x vd, ehfh iy (%gh)
y vd fUbfhf.
vdnt, 2x + 3y = 2000
2.3.5 U khfis bfhl xUgorkghLf fhz
rkghLfis uL Kiwf fhzyh.
1. f Kiw (Elimination Method)
2. upL Kiw (Substitution Method)
v LJfhL (10) f p + q = 10
pq=2
f Kiw j
p + q = 10
pq=2

... (1)
... (2) vdbfhf.

uL rkghLfY q- bfGf xW kwj Tl vkiw

vzhf csJ. vdnt, uL rkghLfis TLnghJ q vw kh
L.
(1) + (2)
+

p + q = 10
pq=2
__________
2p 0 = 12
2p = 12
p = 6 [ (3)]
p=6

p = 6 vd rkghL (1) ul,

p + q = 10
6 + q = 10
q = 10 6 [ (1)]
vdnt p = 6 kW q = 4
48

q=4

ilrghj :
p = 6, q = 4 vd rkghL (1) ul

rkghL (2) ul

p +q = 10

pq=2

6 + 4 = 10

64=2

10 = 10

2=2

vdnt, rkgho rahdjhF.

upL Kiw
p + q = 10

... (1)

pq=2

... (2) vdbfhf

rkghL (2)I vLJ bfhnth.

-q Tl vkiw q-I UwK Tl,
p q + (+q) = 2 + (+q)
p+0=2+q
p=2+q

... (3)

p = 2 + q vd (1) ul,
2 + q + q = 10
2 + 2q = 10
2q = 10 2 [ (1)]
2q = 8
q=8x

1
[ (3)]
2

q=4
q = 4 vd rkghL (3) upL bra,
p=2+q
p=2+4
p=6
vdnt, p = 6 & q = 4 MF.
49

vLJfhL ((11)
11)
f : 3x + 2y = 7
3x + y = 5

(1) (2)

3x + 2y = 7

... (1)

3x + y = 5

... (2) vd fUJf.

3x + 2y = 7
3x y = 5
__________
0+y=2
y=2

y = 2 vd rkghL (1) (2) ul

3x + 2 = 5
3x = 5 2
3x = 3
x=3x

1
=1
3

x = 1 vdnt, x = 1 & y = 2 MF.

rghj
x = 1, y = 2 vd rkghL (2) ul,
3x + y = 5

3x + 2y = 7

3+2=5

3+4=7

5=5

7=7

.g = t.g
vdnt, ilj rahdjhF.
vLJfhL (12)
jh, kf Ut taJf TLj 46. gJ MLfSF d
jh taJ kf taijnghy uL klF UF. mtf jnghija
taid fhf.
jnghJ jh kW kf taid Kiwna x kW y vf.
mtf ta TLj 46.
mjhtJ, x + y = 46

... (1)
50

gJ MLfSF d,
jh taJ

x + 10

kf taJ

y + 10

gJ MLfSF d, jh taJ kf taijnghy uL klF MF.

x + 10 = 2 (y + 10)
x + 10 = 2y + 20

x = 2y + 20 10

x = 2y + 10

... (2)

x = 2y + 10 vdrkghL (1) ul,

2y + 10 + y = 46
3y + 10

= 46
3y = 46 10 3y = 36
y = 36 x

1
3

y = 12

y = 12 vd rkghL (1) ul,

x + 12 = 46
x = 46 12

x = 34

jh jnghija taJ = 34
kW kf jnghija taJ = 12
vLJfhL (13)
X <yf v yff TLj 10. mj v UJ 18I
fjh yff l kha v ilwJ. mj viz fhf.
X <yf v gjh yf x vd, xwh yf y vd
bfhf.
<yf v 10x + y
<yf v yff TLj 10 MF.
vdnt, x + y = 10

... (1)

vLJbfhl <yf v = 10x + y

yff l khdh, ilf Toa a v 10y + x
(yff l khdh g l yf yvd, x l yf
x vd mik.)
51

fzgo,
(10x + y) 18 = 10y + x
10x + y 18 = 10y + x
10x x + y 10y = 18
9x 9y = 18
xy =2

... (2)

rkghLf (1) & (2) I f.

(1) + (2)
+

x + y = 10
xy =2
__________
2x
0 = 12
__________
2x = 12
x=6

x = 6 vd rkghL (1) ul,

x + y = 10
6 + y = 10
y = 10 6
y=4
v g lyf 6 kW x l yf 4.
<yf v = 10x + y
= 10(6) + 4
= 60 + 4
= 64
il = 64.
fw bra
6,7 kW 8 M tF afj vw ghl my cs g
fzFfis brJ ghf.

52

fwit

fjTWf

ljhf

ljhf csla TWf

vGJf

khfS, khfS

kh mLF

bfGf (Fzff)

cWf

Xd cWf

ntd cWf

cWf-TlY, fjY

gYWnfhit

gYWnfhit go

gYWnfhit ltot

gYWnfhit Tl

gYWnfhit fj

gYWnfhit bgUf

gYWnfhit tFj

xU kh xUgorkghL

rkgho

l/ ty khw Kiw f

U khf xUgorkghL

uL khfis bfhl xUgorkghLf

fhz

53

myF-3

a
(Statistics)
mKf
y bkh (Status) jha bkh (Statista) b#k bkh Statistik
vw brhf UJ Statistics vw thij wUfyh. brhf bghU
mua iyik (Political State) vgij FwJ. xU khfhz cik iy
g kfis g, mua fhuzfSfhf nrffgL tuf
bjhFng a vdglJ. jid mua thfF njitgl
tuf bjhF vdyh. mj tif a murfSfhd ma
(Science of Kings)MdJ. Sir Ronald Ficher (1890-1962) mtf Kaah
aYF wghd l iljJ.
Statistics vw brhiy xUik (Singular) gagLJ nghJ tufis
nrfj, tifgLJj, mitfUJ Kofis bgWtJ Matiw
bfhl ma vdyh. gik gagLJnghJ vj X Muh
JiwY xU Fl Fnfhis fU bfhL nrffgL v
tufis FwJ.
muRF njitahd tufis nrfF nghJ isahL, kf bjhif,
mir brhJ, mirah brhJ, brydf bghUshjhu nghw a
Kiwf (statistics) ga mogil fUJf njitgLwJ.
vLJfhL
bf isaho U mfS vLJs Xlfis mtnghJ
tiugl sf _y bjhiyfh ghUf. vj iy vj m
mf XlJl UjJ, vnghJ Fiwj Xl iyF brwJ vgij mj
sfgl bjthf czJ, vdnt, bfhLfgLs tufis mgona
bfhLfhk, a Kiwf _y mtiw tifgL mltizfshfnth,
tiuglfshfnth bfhLgj _y midtUF go v vLJ
Twyh.
a tufis ifahStJ mtUJ njitahd tufis
njbjLgJ, njitid bghWJ, bfhLfgl tufis bghWJ
mik. tfhd y vLJfhLfis fhngh.
54

X vw khztD Y vw

khztD MWghlf bgw ruhr kbg 63

vd itJbfhnth. j _y UtU midJ ghlfY iyj,

uhd milf bgwsd vd TW aYkh? khztf X,Y bgw kbgf
tUkhW,
ghl

nkfl vLJfho Ut

khzt (X) khzt (Y)

ruhr, rkkhf csJ. Mdh

75

61

My

72

62

vyhghlfY iyj jik

fzF

90

65

(Consistency)

aa

45

64

nta

74

63

vgij, xUghl X vgt

ca

22

63

njik

bkhj

378

378

ruhr

63

63

khzt

fw

jik

bfhljhf Ugij

fhzyh. mnj neu X F

iyj jik FLgo iy
csij

fhzyh. j vLJfhoUJ
ruhr vw msL xU Fl
msF kLnk gagL vgJ
ydhwJ.

vLJfhL
r bjahj 5 mo cauKs xU kj, ruhrahf 3 mo MHKs Miw
flf Jayhkh!
tUJ ruhr vw fUij vyh NHfY gagLJtJ
Mgij isF vgij mJ bfhsyh.
a msLfis (Statistical Tools) gagLJtJ vgJ uil
TKid fid ifahStJ nghwJ. mjhtJ fUjh (Interpretation)
cikjik bfhlhjhf, btgilahf (Transparancy) Uj
ntL.
cjhuzkhf
xU g xU tF, A,B vd uL f csd. A juv
(Rank) 2 bgwtD, B juv 2 bgwtD, fw mil rk msid
bgUf ntLkh? njitiy v V?
F : khTW (Sample) khWwnghJ fw mil rkmsthf Uf ntoa
mta iy vdgij mf.
55

vLJfhL
xU FLgYs ehF ng khj tUkhd Kiwna %. 13000, 2000, 4000,
1000. FLg khj ruhr tUkhd %.5000. kbwhU FLgYs ehF
ng khj tUkhd Kiwna %. 5500, 4500, 6000, 4000, U FLgf ruhr
khj tUkhd %.5000jh. j egf khj tUkhd bga ms ntWghLf
UD FLg ruhr tUkhd rkkhf Ugjh U FLgf thif
ju xnu ms UF. vdnt nkTa vLJfhLfUJ bfhLJs
tufSF ruhria fzlh kL nghJkhdjy. UD j
ruhr mogil rahd it fhgJ mtakhF. mjhtJ D y
tuf ruhrl TLjyhf njitgL.
tiuaiwf

Statistics are numerical statements of facts in any department of enquiry placed in relation
to each other .......... Bowley

Statistics are collection of note-worthy facts concerning state both historical and descriptive
Achenwall

Statistics are aggregates of facts to marked extent by multiplicity of causes numerically

expressed, enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standards of accuracy,
collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined purpose and placed in realation to
each other....... Horace Secrist

Statistics is the science of collection of data, classification and tabulation of numerical

facts as the basis for explanation, description and comparision of phenomena..... Louitt

tufis nrfj
a Kjgoiy tufis nrfj. tufis(Data collection)
nrfF nghJ ftf ntoaitf.

vbjj fhuzfSfhf nrffgLwJ

rhJ mjYfhd th

tufis nrfF Kiwf

UggLw Ja
tufis uLtifahf fyh,
1. Kjiy tuf (Primary Data)
2 . kiwKf tufmyJ ulh iy tuf
(Secondary Data)
Kjiy tuf (Primary data) vd fhuzfSfhf
ulglnjh, mjid cW br tif cik jik csjhf
UfntL.
56

ntWy FnfhfSF ulgl tuf UJ, njitahd

tufis vLJbfhtJ bgwgl tuf myJ kiwKf
tuf (Secondary Data) vW bga.
Kjik tufis nrfF tf

Mthsnu neuoahf nrfj

Mthsnu fsF brW neuoahf njitgL gufis nrfj.
Kiw Jakhd Kiw tufis bgwyh.
Mdh fhy, bghU bry, ciH mf njit.

kiwKf nefhz (thbkh) (Indirect Oral Interview)

Kiw Mths _wh egiu(Third person) neuoahfnth myJ
kiwKfkhfnth rhJ tufis bgWth.
bgwgL guf egfjik Jakhf UF vgij
brhYtjiy.
kiwKfkhf rhJ gufis bgWj y rkaf jtwh l
thsJ.

bjhlghsf
Correspondents)

_y

brfis

bgWj(Informations

from

fsij gF gFahf J bjhlghsfis aJ mtfthyhf

brfis uLj. fs f bgajhf U Kiw gadF.

brfis mr t bgWj
dhjh (Questionnaire) jah brJ mr tna mD brfis
ulyh. gog yhjflUJ bgWtJ fod. Ra yhrl
mr ciuia mDgntL. y rkaf tuf KGik
bgwhk Tl UF. y rkaf gufis bgWtJ fod.

dhjhis (Questionnaire) br nrfghsf (enumerator)

mD bgWj
Mths jkJ u xUtiu mD dhjh tna brfis
uLth. Kiw bghU bry mfkhF.

kiwKf tuf myJ ulh iy tuf

(Secondary Data)

y neuf Vfdnt X Mtuh nrffgl Kjiy

tufis knwh Mt ntbwhU njitfhf gagL bfhlh
57

mnghJ m tufis ulh iy tuf myJ

kiwKf tuf vd miHnwh. fl nfhf
UJ brfis ulyh.
FG miff
muR btpLf
Muh Wtd btpLf
f, ahghu, bjhEg riff (Journals)
NCERT, HRD, UNESCO, WHO, NCTE, DTERT Ma Wtdf _y
btlgL jff
Muh miff
kf bjhif fzL miff
tifgLJjY, mltizgLj (Classification and Tabulation of data)
bgwgl brf UJ ekF

njitgLw tufis

tifgL, mltizgLJj KakhwJ. tifgLJj vgJ Kiwik

gLJj vgnj rhy bghUJ.
tifgLJj gf

y rkaf njitaw tufis jJ L, njitahd

tufis RUa to jU.

tufis xLjYF gagL.

tuf cs xjjik (Similarity) kW xjjik ikfis

btbfhL tU.

tuf ikanghF jikia fhL.

tufis tifgLjJj uL tifahf fyh

1.

gf mogil

2.

ilbt (Class interval) mogilF Vg

1.

g mogil tifgLJj
tuf, xW myJ mjF nkgl gf fit myJ

fHhikia rhUF. (Presence or absence) xnu xU gig kL Kiy

gL tifgLJjiy rhjhuz tifgLJj (Simple Classification) vnwh.
vLJfhlhf, Ukz Mdtf, Ukz Mfhjtf.
58

uLF nkgl gfis Kiy gL tifgLJj, gKf

tifgLJj (Manifold Classification) vdgL. vLJfhlhf
X CYs
kf

bgf

Mf

gojtf

gofhjtf

gojtf

gofhjtf

II. ilbt mogil tifgLJj

tuf neuoahf v msit (Quantitative measurements) mikkhd

ilbt mogil tifgLJj cfj KiwahF. cjhuzkhftUkhd, cau, vil, cg, kbgf
ilbt khztf
(kbgf)
vif
50F

50-60

60-70

70-80

80-90

90-100

bkhj

30

fbt mltiz jah brj

tifgLjgLJj mLj goiy mltizgLJj MF,
mltiz Kiw tuf nghif v J bfhs Ko. jid
tuf nrfj Wgo iy kW gFjhF Kj goiy vW
bfhsyh.
vLJfhL
xU tF cs 10 khztf xU myF nj bgw kbgf 11,
11, 11, 10, 13, 12, 13, 14, 14, 15 f mltiz jah brf.
f mltiz
kbg

10

11

12

13

14

15

bkhj

khztf

10

59

f mltizUJ, xbthU kbgY vjid ng

csd? vgJ bjthwJ, tF khztfis g xU njhuha Koit bgw
KowJ. ff vif mfkhf UF gr mltiz f
ga csjhf UF.
ilbtKiw mltiz jahj
cr r msfSFs ntWghil, ntWghbliy vnwh. (fbga
msF fa msF cs ntWghL)
ntWghil Ugjf ilbt vifah tFf
f vif ilF. f vif 10 Kj 15 tiu UgJ
eyJ. Koj tiu vyh fY y tufshtJ (tufis uh vW
TWyh) UFgo j eyJ.

vLJfhL
xU tFnj 40 khztf bgw kbgfSF jFj
ilbt mltiz jah brf.
39

25

27

32

35

13

10

12

15

45

54

52

50

55

38

42

48

46

54

45

43

58

62

66

24

62

68

26

28

32

38

37

79

77

49

16

74

32

44

42

bga msF a msF cs ntWghL 79-10=69

Ugjf f 7
ilbt ms 10
ilbt
Class Interval

FpLf
Tally Marks

fbt
Frequency

10-20

llll

20-30

llll

30-40

llll lll

40-50

llll llll

50-60

llll l

60-70

llll

70-80

lll

3
40

60

xbthU ilbtY kid viy vW nk kid nk

viy vW TWnth. Fghf 10-20 vw ilbt 20 vgJ nk
viyahF. 20-30 vw ilbt 20 vgJ viyahF. xU
khzt

20

kbgbgwh

nrfntLnk

ju,

mkhztid

mjhtJ

2 0 - 30

vw

viy

ilbt

nrfntLnk ju 10-20 vw ilbt nrj TlhJ.

FpLf (Tallymark) 5 vgij llll vd FLnwh.
j mltizUJ

ilbt 10-20 vgJ gJ kbgUJ UgJF 5

khztf Uwhf.

40-50 mfgr khztf 9 ng csd.

70-80 _W ng kLnk csd.

nghw gy brfis bjJ bfhnwh.

tiugl
fbt mltizia tiuglkhf jgJ, tuf nghif g
ma clnd cjwJ. v J bfhs KowJ.

rjj brtfgil tiugl (Percentage Bar Diagram)

cTWf bfhl brtfgil tiugl (Component Bar Diagram)

tl sfgl (Pie Diagram)

tiw gnyna thf fWnsh.

tiuglf tiff
1. fbt brtfgil tiugl
2. fbt gy nfhz.
3. fbt iHj tisnfhL. (Smoothed Curve)
4. TL fbt tisnfhL Xi# tisnfhL fbt brtfgil
tiugl. (TLgl)
tF ilbtia X mY, fbtiz Y mY Fngh.
brtf mogf ilbtia Fgjh midJ brtff
mogf ms rkkhf UF. brtf cauf fbtfis Fgjh,
61

brtf cauf ntWgLwJ.

vdnt

brtfgil

gu

fbtfSnfg

cs

j mik.
fbt mltiz

ilbt fbt
(C.I.)
(f)

70-80
60-70
50-60
40-50
30-40

4
7
9
3
2

bkhj

25

ilbt

fbt gynfhz tiugl

Y-

9-

8-

7-

6-

5-

4-

3-

2-

60

70

80

ilbt

62

50

40

30

20

10

1-

fbt

fbt
mltizF
tiuj tiugl xbthU
brtf
gil
ika
ia ne nfhlh
izf. Kj kW fil
gil eLfis m
gil
ghas
gilf
UwfY
cs fnshL izf.
f
gynfhz
jah.
gynfhz
gu
mltiz fbtQF
rkhd j UF.

fbt iHj tisnfhL tiugl

fbt brtfgil tiugl, gilf c
ikafis, X m gil gh ms u Kj kW
filgil UwfY cs fis bfhl iHj tisnfhL
tiuglF fbt iHj tisnfhL tiugl vW bga.
ikanghfsitf
tufis uo tifgLa gFjhj Kakhd goiy
MF. tifgLjgl tufis ugF xU msthf X viz
fla Kokhdh, mbtiz bfhL gy Jbrfis ffyh.
Jnghw xU viz eh ika nghfsit vW TWnth.
ikanghfsitf tiff
TL ruhr
iliy ms
KfL
ikanghfsitf U Ka gaf
1. flagl bkhj tufSF Xnu xU v mj uahf
(Representative) UF.
x1 , x2 , x3 ...xn
2. uLF nkgl goa U, xL gy a brfisbgw
ikanghfsitf cjL.
TL ruhr
tuf khW gig bgWsjh mtiw khf myJ uhf
vwiHngh.
y rka bfhLfgl tuf midJ Xnu vzhf Ujh ruhr
vdthf UfKo? mj Xnu v jhnd !
cjhuz 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ,3 t ruhr 3.
vdnt khf midJ Xnu vzhf UF rka mitf xU uh
ruhr vdgL.
khf rkkhf iy vwh ut Kiw rkgLja ruhria
fzL brnwh. ruhria x vW FgJ tHf. khfis
Fngh.
x=

xn
x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn
jid
vw toY vGjyh.
n
n

63

vW


VG msf bfhLfgLsJ. N = 7
tufis VWtir vGJf.
5, 15, 17, 32, 45, 47, 50
iliy ms = (

N
+ 1) MtJ msL MF
2

7
+ 1 mjhtJ 4 tJ mslhF.
2

ehfhtJ msL 32.

iliy ms 32
vLJfhL 7
iliy ms fhf,
92, 90, 85, 84, 80, 78, 70, 68
N
N
kW ( + 1) MtJ msLf ruhr
2
2
8 8
MF. F msLf vif 8. F N = 8; Mjyh, ;
+ 1 Ma
2 2
ehfh msL Ijh msL Kiwna 84, 80 iliy msL MF.
mt ruhria fhf.

ika mik msLf

84 + 80
= 82
2
fbt gut mltizF iliy ms fhz

mjhtJ, iliy ms =

2 F
C.I .
iliy msit fl Nu l +
fm

N : vgJ fbtf TLjyhF.

N
vgJ iliy ms
2

l vgJ iliy ms mikJs iliy viy.

F = vgJ iliy ms mikJs ilbt viy
tiuyhd fbtf TLjyhF.
fm = iliy(l) mikJs ilbt (Class) fbt.
C.I= ilbt R (mfy) (size of the class Interval)
68

vLJfhL 8
cs fbt gut mltizF iliy msit fzfLf.

ilbt

10-20

20-30

30-40

40-50

50-60

60-70

70-80

fbt

fzL

fbt
ilbt

fbt TLj N = 40
N
= 20 (iliy)
2

iliy mikJs ilbt 40-50

iliy tF viy (l) = 40
viy (l) tiuyhd fbtf
TLj (F) = 18
iliy mikJs iliy ms
fbt ( f m ) = 9
ilbt (C.I) =10

2 F
CI
iliy ms M = l +
f
m

F
fbt

10-20

20-30

30-40

18

40-50

27

50-60

33

60-70

37

70-80

40

bkhj

40

10

F :

40

2 18
= 40 +
10
9

F fbt
(cumulative frequency) - cf.

20 18
= 40 +
10
9
2
= 40 + 10 = 40 + 2.22 = 42.22
9

69

goiyf

tF ilbtia rahd viyia (Exact limits) mikf

TL fbtid fLof

N
it fLof.
2

N
vj ilbt mikJsJ vgij flJ mj viy (l)
2

I fhf.

viy tiuyhd fbtf TLjiy(F) fLof.

iliy ms mikJs tF fbtiz fhf. (fm)

tF ilbt ( ilbt) C.I fhf.

Nu uL iliy msit ff.

brJ ghf
iliy ms fhf

10-20 20-30 30-40

ilbt
fbt

40-50

50-60

60-70

10

70-80 80-90
5

90100
1

iliy ms gf

ruhr msit nghynt iliy ms jikia J bfhtJ,

fzL brjY vJ.

iliy ms, nfho mik uhfdh khw milahJ.

wj tF (wj ilbt) UD iliy ms fhzyh.

Ez, bgUjik. wik itfis gFgh brt iliy

ms bgUgF twJ.

iliyas FiwghLf (Demerits)

vnghJ jF xU iyahd tiuaiw Ugiy.

bghJthf caa gFghF (Higher level Statistics)

gagLtiy.
70

KfL (Mode)
nrffgl tuf vj(kh) mfkhd ms fJnjh mjid
KfL vngh.
vLJfhL
xU FG cs VG khztf xU nrhjid bgw kbgf, 18,16,
15, 18, 17, 23, 18. ntG vfY 18 vw v kL UgUg _W
fJsJ. vdnt 18 tuf KfL vd Twyh. mfgrkhf 18 _W
Kiw fJsJ.
uL myJ nkgl khf rkms ms mfkhd Kiw
fUjh mbtf ruhrna KfL vdgL.
[KfL = 3 iliy ms - 2 TL ruhr ms vw Nuij
gagL ffyh. (Mode = 3 Median - 2 mean)]
fbt gut goaYF KfL fj
njhuha KfL flj
vj tF ilbt mfkhd fbt fJsnjh mtF
ilbt ikaia njhuha KfL vdyh.
rahd KfL flj

f2
Nu = KfL = l +
C.I
f1 + f 2
l = KfL mik tF rahd viy.
f1= KfL mik tFF nk tF fbt.
f2 = KfL mik tFF tF fbt.
C.I= tF ( ilbt)
goiyf

caj fbt cs tFig fLo. mj rahd viyia

fLof.

KfL tFF nktF fbtiz fLo f1

KfL tFF tF fbtiz fLo f2

tF ilbt ( ilbt) fLo.

Nu uL iliy msit ff.

71

vLJfhL 9
cs fbt gutYF KfL fzLf.

fbt
ilbt
f
C.I.
10-20

20-30

KfLtF rahd viy (l) = 40

KfL tFF nktF fbt f1 =6
KfL tFF tF fbt f2 =8
tF ilbt C.I. = 10

30-40

8
KfL

40-50

50-60

60-70

70-80

bkhj

40

f2
C.I
= l +
f
+
f
1 2
8
80
= 40 +
10 = = 40 +
14
6+8

= 40 + 5.7 = 45.7

fw bra
mltiz nkny bfhLfgLs tufSF
KfL = 3 iliyas - 2 TLruhr
vw Nuij gagL KfL fzLf,
ilfis xL ghf
KfL msit gf

KfL ms, TL ruhr, iliy msit nghynt J

bfhStjF fzLjYF vJ.

KfL ms k fbt gut nfho fG fbtfis

bghWJ khWglhJ.

tiugl _y khfyh

cg br FGkF gaDs ms.

72

KfL msit FiwghLf

eilKiw Fiwj gaghnl csJ.

cldoahf afzoF (Algebraic Treatment) cglJ.

a gFgh (Higher Statistics) F gagLtiy.

gut msitf (Measures of Dispersion)

gy Niy eh ruhria fzL mjbfhg thif
eilKiwid kh bfhnwh. y rkaf J Mgjhd Koid Tl
bfhLF. cjhuzkhf xU M ruhr MHij fzL mjid
gagL flf KatJ. Mgij isF. mjid fz bfhL
Miw flJ brtJ jtwhd KothF myth? vdnt ekF Miw
ga mfgoahd fUJf njitgLwJ.
khWgL.

MH lF l

khWghL jik ga m, ms njitgLwJ.

nrffgL tuf Kjgo msitf ruhrf (First order measures)

vW, gut msitfis ulh go msitf (Second order measures)
vW Twyh. gut msitf Kjgo msf egfjikia
mJ bfhs cj.
khWgL jikia fltjfhd xU mogilia gut msitf
jU. uL myJ nkgl gutf khWgL jikia gagL
xl cj. a gFghF gagL. FGf xUik
jikia (Homogenious) xl cj.
gut msitf
tuf vthW gusJ vgJ g ma cj msitf
1. ntWghbliy

Range

2. fhkhd, fhkhd yf

(Quartiles, Quartile deviation)

3. ruhr yf

Average deviation

4. lyf

Standard deviation

ntWghbliy (Range)
tuf uhf fbga msF, fa msF cs
ntWgho msnt ntWghbliy (Range) vdgL.
(v-L)
fbt gut mltiz, ntWghbliyia, fil nk
viyF Kj viyF cs ntWghL vW njhuhakhf
ffyh.
73

ntWghbliy gaf
uhf vthW gusJ vgij xLbkhjkhf TW nghJ,
uhfis ga cldo Ko bgWtjF.
FiwghLf (Demerits)

j msit egfjik Fiw.

uhf uL msitf kLnk (bga, aJ) gutiy zwJ.

uL msfSF ilna fj msfis fz

bfhtiy.

wj tF ilbtfSF ff KoahJ.

a gFghF <LgLj KoahJ.

fhkhd yf (Quartile Deviation)

ntWghbliy (Range)ia fhoY fhkhd yfij wj gut
msitahf fUjyh.

fhkhd yf vgJ Kj fhkhd (myJ)

fhkhd (First Quartile or Lower Quartile) _wh fhkhd (myJ) nk fhkhd

itfSF ilna cs ntWghL ruhr vW Twyh.
mjhtJfhkhd yf = _wh fh khd - Kjfh khd
Q Q
Q.D. = 3 2 1
2

F Q.D. : fhkhd yf
Q3
: _wh fhkhd yf
Q1
: Kjfh fhkhd yf
fhkhd Q
bkhj uhf fh gF uhf (25%) fh khdF nH,
fhgF uhf nkfh khdF nkny mik.
glsf

25%

25%

25%

Q1 25%
fhkhd

25%

iliy

Q2

74

Q3 75%
nk fhkhd

fbt gutYF fhkhd yf fhQj

fhkhd yf fLogjF _W goiyf gwgLwd.
go 1 : Kj fhkhd fhQj

4 F1
Q1 = l1 +
C.I
f1

N = fbtf TLj
l1 = Kj fhkhd mikj tF viy.
F1 = viy tius
fbtf TLj
= Kj fhkhd tF fbt &
f1
go 2 : _wh fhkhd fhQj.

C.I. = ilbt

3N
4 F3
Q3 = l3 +
C.I .
f3

l3 = _wh fhkhd mikj tF viy

F3 = viy tius TL fbt
f 3 = _wh fhkhd tF fbt & C.I.= ilbt
go 3 : fhkhd yf = Q.D. =

Q3 Q1
2

vLJfhL
nH bfhLfgLs fbt gutYF fhkhd yf fhf.
kbg

0-10

10-20

20-30

15

28

khztf

30-40 40-50
16

fzL
ilbt
C.I.

fbt
f

0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
TLj

4
15
28
16
7
70

F
fbt
c.f
4
19
47
63
70
75

go 1 : Kj fhkhd ( Q1 )
N 70
l1 = 10; =
= 17.5
4
4

F1 = 4;

f1 = 15; C.I = 10
N

4 F1
Q1 = l1 +
C.I .
f
1

17.5 4
= 10 +
10 = 19
15
Q1 = 19
go 2 : _wh fhkhd ( Q3 )
l3 = 30;

F3 = 47;

3N
= 52.5
4

f 3 = 16; C.I . = 10

3N
4 F3
Q3 = l3 +
C.I
f3

52.5 47
10
16
=33.44
= 30 +

go 3 : fhkhd yf = Q.D. =

Q3 Q1 33.44 19
=
= 7.22
2
2

fhkhd yf gf
fzLj vJ.
ntWghbliy (Range)_y utfis mJ bfhtijl
fhkdyf _y mf Jakhf bjJbfhsyh.
viy cs uhfdh jF ghgJ iy (Extreme Items)
gut ika cs 50% uhfis g cldoa bjJbfhs aY.
FiwghLf
gut Kj 25% uhfis fil 25% uhfis fz
vLJbfhtiy.
afj (Algebraic Treatment) fzLF cjtiy.
gut ika mik 50% uhfis kLnk fz
vLJbfhsgLwJ.
kh bjhF (Sample) f khw Vglh, fhkhdyf khwkilwJ.
76

vLJfhL (16)
y=3x+2 tiugl tiuf.
goiy 1

x F _W bghUjkhd kf
bfhLJ y kfis fL of.

x mR 1 br. = 1 myF
y mR 1 br. = 1 myF

goiy 2

4
3

mtiw bfhL mltiz

jah brf.
x

0
2

(0,2)

(1,5)

y=3x
+2

X'

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

(0,0)
1

-1

-1

-2
(-1,--1)
-3

goiy 3

-4
-5

ms l

-6

x m 1 br. = 1 myF

-7

Y'

y m 1 br. = 1 myF
goiy 4
fis FJ nenfhL tiuJ bgal.
kh 3
y = mx + c vw mikF tiugl tiuj

vLJfhL (17)

y = 2x + 1 tiugl tiuj.

x mR 1 br. = 1 myF
y mR 1 br. = 1 myF

6
5

goiy 1

x-F _W bghUjkhd
kfis
bfhLJ
y-
kfis fLof.

(-1,3)

goiy 2

X'

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1
-1

fSF mltiz jah

y=-2x+1

-2

brf.

2
(1,-1)

(2,-3)
-3

-4

-5

-6

goiy 3

-7

Y'

msl
x m 1 br. = 1 myF
y m 1 br. = 1 myF
goiy 4
fis FJ nfhL tiuJ, bgal
82

kh 4
rkghL y = mx + c (m, c jKW vf ; Mdh {a my)
vLJfhL (18)
y=

2
3
x tiugl tiuf.
3
2

goiy 1
x-F bghUjkhd kfis uL y- kfis fLof.
2 3 1
x = 3 vngh. y = 3 =
3 2 2
2
3 5
x = 6 v y = 6 =
3 2 2

2
3 7
x = 3 v y = 3 =
2
2
3

goiy 2
mltiz jah brf.
x

1
2

5
2

7
2

Y
7

x mR 1 br. = 1 myF
y mR 1 br. = 1 myF

6
5

goiy 3

msl jah brf.

x mR 1 br. = 1 myF

3
(6,5/2)

(3,1/2)

X'

y mR 1 br. = 1 myF

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-1
2
-3/
/3x
+2
y=

goiy 4

(-3, -7/2)

-2
-3
-4

fis tiuf.

-5

nfhL tiuJ; bgaLf.

-6
-7

Y'

1.

U mRfY xnu msl vLJbfhsntL vw mta

iy.

2.

nfhLrkghL ax+by+c=0 vw cU UjhY y=mx+c vw cUF

khw brJ K nghynt bjhluyh.
83

vLJfhL (19)
vd

3x+2y4=0 vD rkghil y = mx + c tot khdh

ilF
njngh x3y4=2 vD rkghil y =

1
2
x vd vGjyh myth !
3
3

tiugl gaf
9 nfhL tiuglij thif fzFfSF tiuayh.
9 thif fz tiuglUJ ekF njitahd bjhls brfis
bgwyh.
vLJfhL (20)

xUt jdJ to
uhf xU kF 5 .. ntf
brwh. mt 4 k neu
vts u brW Ugh
vgij tiugl _y fLo.

x mR 1 br. = 1 myF
y mR 1 br. = 1 myF

6
5

y=
5x

(1,5)

(6,5/2)
2

fhyij x vd brw
uij y vd bfhL y
rkkhd kfis flJ
mltizgLJf.
x

10

25

X'

3-5 -4 -3
y=
x+2
2
-7

-6

-2

-1
-1

fhy

-2
-3

(-3, -7/2)

-4
-5
-6
-7

Y'

msl
x mR 1 br.. = 1 k
y mR 1 br. = 5 .
tiugl
tiugl fis FJ, nfhlh izfyh. bgal.
x m 4 k vw UJ brFJnfhL tiuf. mJ tiugl
nfhil btLlUJ x mRF iznfhL tiu. mJ y mir vF
bjhLwnjh mj ms 4 k neu brY uij FF. njnghy
brY ufhd fhyij fzlyh.
84

myF-4

brKiw toa
(Practical Geometry)
4.1. t u y h W
fja cs gy cf xW toa MF. tot,
bghUf Ul, msitf Ma fUJf gaghLf kW
njit mogil cUthdJ toa vdyh. toa, kjf
thif gaghLl beUa bjhlilaJ MF. gy whLfSF
KUnj af kL vJ, nuf, ghnyhah ehodU toa
fUJ rhj, folfiyia wjd. kjFy ehffF,
fyhrhuF vLJfhlhf sF gntW fLkhd gfSF, y
msitfSF wlkhf mikjJ toa fUJfnsahF. nuf
folfiy, va folfiy Mat tuyhW wf gy id
df mikfgL, ghJfhfgL ws ngrgLwd. afS
toa m Fj nj bgW gy ma fiy bghfis cUthd
v mJ ifaW. Augh, bkhfrjhnuh mff fblLfgl ehff
efuf gila af toa m MHij ygLJwJ.
nfh folf, Filtiu nfhf, gf, mizf, efuikf,
nfhilf, mukidf nghwd af toa yikF rhWfshf
csd. W eilKiw cs ghg ghy gK, EgK bfhl toa
mik btghlhf sFwJ.
ml (Space) ga gy cikfis sf toa fUJf Jiz
jd vdyh. jilahdJ vW fhyfhykh fUa kj eifF
khwhf, cUilahdJ vd saJ toa cikfnsahF. nkY
Naid Rna midJ nfhfS aFwd vW maglJ.
ml cs eruf, nfhf nghwt mikf, fhy
khWjYnfg mt Ulf, mt ghf Matiw fF
thda MdJ toa fUJfis mogilahf bfhlnjahF.
aif gilY toa gF kfJtkhdJ. nj To cs
miwf xGF mWnfhz to mikJsJ. . gh nghw cdf
CJ brY ghijahdJ nfhir, ir, klif rhf (Series) tis
tiuia xUF vgjid Tl cW neh mayh.
86

nkY cyfehLfSF rth L tif ISRO Phfsh cUthfgL

2008- Vtgl ruha fy UJ ruid milj ghij kW
ru RWghij Mat fzLfS braghLfS fj toaiyna
rhjJ vgij mayh.

4 . 2 . brKiw toa - mKf

fja toa gFia
(1) mKiw toa (Theoretical Geometry)
(2) brKiw toa (Practical Geometry)
vd UbgU fshf fyh.
4.2.1. mKiw toa
toa mogil fUJ vdyh. ia Mjhukhf bfhnl,
nfhL, js, tisnfhL, tisjs, rkjs cUtf, fd cUtf vd fUJf
J bfhnl brwd. tiw g tilnaahd
(Connctivity)bjhlfis gy ma njwf(Theorems), cikrh
thaf(Axioms), ciunfhf(Postulates) thyhf, fj mPf MuhJ,
cyF mJsd. thW Muhagl fj cikfis %gzf
thyhf ma brtJ mKiw toa vdgL. njwf thyhf
bgwgL f Jiz bfhL is njwf(Corollaries), njwfis
mogilahf bfhl fzFf (Riders) Mad cUthwd. toa
yikia nkgLj mKiw toa cjwJ.
4.2.2. brKiw toa
toa fUbgo cs ftuha, msnfh Matiw kL
gagL, , nfhL, Mutis nghw nfhL cUtf _y toa
cUtfis tiua, tiuKiwf thyhf toa fUJnfhfis ma
cjtJ brKiw toa MF.
ftuha, msnfh Matiw gagL tiuagL tiuKiwf
midJ, , nfhL, tl Mat VnjD xid ikagLna
tiuagLwJ. mthW tiunghJ tU braghLf mogil(Basic
Constructions) mikJsd vdyh. mitahtd,

bfhLfgl (m) mikfgl Uf UJ xU nfhoid

cUthFj

xU ia ikakhf, kbwhU tahf tiuagl tl

myJ Mutis
87

U izaw nfhLf btL

tl myJ Mutisia xU nfhL btLtjh VgL xW/uL

btLf.

U Mutis myJ U tlf btLtjh VgL xW/uL

btLf.

nkfl braghLfis bfhL

toa cUtf tiua

toa fUJfis ma

cjtnj brKiw toa MF. mKiw toa mj fUJfis

brKiw toa bragLjgLwd. bfhLfgl msfis bfhL
Jakhf glfis tiutjFa wid tsf brKiw toa cjwJ.

4.3. Knfhzf
Knfhz vgJ _W nfhL JLfsh milgl cUt vd
mnth.
Knfhzij xU va gy nfhz vd Twyh.
nfhz mogilY, gff mogilY Knfhzf
tiffis Vfdnt mJnsh.
xU Knfhz tiua _W msf njit. mj _W msfS
tUkhW mikayh :
*

_W gf msf.

uL gf msfS xU nfhz ms.

xU gf ms U nfhz msfS

f
xU Knfhz _W nfhz msf bfhLfgoUjh tiua
aYkh?
mjifa Knfhzf xUik jikajhf Uf aYkh?
Knfhz gugs =
=

1
x mogf x FJau.
2
1
bh rJu myFf.
2

88

fw bra
btntW w ehfufis tiuJ bfhf. mt gff
ikafis izJ ghf! xbthW vtifahd ehfuf?
ehfuf kW w ehfuf gfis g fnwh myth!
tU TWf vit rahdit? V? vd thf :
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

vyh ehfufS rtf MF.

xbthU rtfK ehfu MF.
xbthU izfuK rtf MF.
xbthU izfuK ehfu MF.
xbthU rtfK izfu MF.
xbthU ehfuK izfu MF.
xbthU brtfK izfu MF.
xbthU izfuK brtf MF.
xbthU brtfK rtf MF.
xbthU rtfK brtf MF.
xbthU brtfK ehfu MF.

xbthU ehfuK brtf MF.

xbthU rhrJuK izfu MF.

xbthU izfuK rhrJu MF.

xbthU rhrJuK rtf MF.

xbthU rtfK rhrJu MF.

xbthU rhrJuK ehfu MF.

xbthU ehfuK rhrJu MF.

xbthU rJuK rhrJu MF.

xbthU rhrJuK rJu MF.

xbthU rJuK brtf MF.

xbthU brtfK rJu MF.

xbthU rJuK izfu MF.

*
*
*
*
*

xbthU
xbthU
xbthU
xbthU
xbthU

izfuK rJu MF.

rJuK rtf MF.
rtfK rJu MF.
rJuK ehfu MF.
ehfuK rJu MF.

98

fwit
brKiw toa tuyhW
brKiw toa mKf
Knfhzf
ehfuf
tl ehfuf
izfu
rhrJu
rtf
U rkgf rtf
ehfu ika njw

fw braf
izfu, rhrJu, rtf Knfhzf
MatF njitahd tufis
btntW msfis bfhL tiuJ
ghf.

99

myF-5

crh fj
(Strategy Instructions)
5.1

mKf

khwfis VgLJtnj f. fhy khwF Vg fw

fjY khwf njit. ma ts jhf f yY
cL. xbthU fhyflY, mj NHYF aikahj a fw fj
KiwfS, mQF KiwfS, cfS njh bfhnljh Uwd.
Niy, fw fj mtnghJ vGw lghLfis F
tif fj gy tifahd cf ifahsgLwd.

5 . 2 fj Kiw, fj c
fj Kiw (Teaching Method) khwhj jik bfhlJ. mJ njha
fhy UJ gagho cstiu fhyjhY, eguhY, NiyahY
khWtiy. (v-L) tU Kiw.
Mdh, fj cf (Teaching Strategies) iyahdjy. xnu fUij
ff gagL cf fhy, eg, NH MatWF jf kh bfhnl
Ugij eh fhzyh. (v-L) brat fw.
fj Kiw, fj c f braghLf xnwhblhW
bjhlilajhF. fu fhQ fhy fl, fj KiwfS,
fj cfS izJ tFgiw NHYF Vg a cfshf
eilKiw Ugij eh fTlhf fhnwh. Mdh vyh cfS
ttot bgW iyJ giy. y cf Kiwahf nrhjidfSF
gLjgL ikl bt bfhzugLsd. mtW ytiw tU
gFf fhzyh.
5.3 neKf fj (Direct Instruction)
J Maiu ikakhf bfhl xU fj KiwahF. F Ma
neuoahf, btgilahf khztfSF jftfis, mogil
wfis, cfis fWjUwh. Ma neuoahd kW
btgilahd tFgiw braghLfsh KiwahdJ neKf fj vW
miHfgLwJ.
100

neKf fj tU _W iyf mikJsJ. mit,

1. Kj iy (Opening of the session)
2. il iy (Body of Instruction)
3. fil iy (Closing of the session)
neKf fjnghJ _W iyfSF bghUjkhd fw
fj braghLfis lL tifgL bfhsntL.
xbthU iyY mikUF ffis tirgo F fhngh.

1. Kj iy
i.

khztf ftdij <j (ftd <)

ii. Kija milfis U ghj (Uj)

iii. iwa ff yFfis sFj (yFf)
2. iliy
i.

vLJ bfhl wDfhd brafis Ma brJ fhLj

(brJ fhl).

ii. Ma brJfhL fw braf ManuhL khztfS

jfis <LgL bfhSj (brJ fw).
iii. mbrafis khztf jahf brJ wdilit bgwhfsh
vgij cW brj (kL brj).
3.fil iy
i.

miwa milfis U ghj (tYLj)

ii. mLj tFfhd ghlij mKf brj (mKf)

iii. miwa milfis tYl khztf jhnk bra ntoatiw
mj (jhnd fw)
vLJfhL 3
ghl : d Tl
1. Kj iy
i.

ftd < : df njhw, va d vf gF,

d vf ts kW njitia vLJfhLfSl T
khztf ftdij <j.
101

ii. Uj : df tiffshd jF d, jfh d, fy

d, Xd df kW ntd df FJ khztf
bgw milfis Ma id Tj.
iii. yFf : Xd df kW mtiw TLj Fj miwa
yid khztfSF sFj.
2. il iy
i.

brJ fhl :
d tL 5 I gagL Ma 1 + 2 = 3 vd
5 5 5
sfJl brJ fhLj.
1
5

1
5

2
5

1
5

go 1 :

go 2 :

go 3 :

1 2
+
5 5

1
5

3
5

1
5

1
5

1
5

go 4 :
1. : uL Xddfis Tl ilgJ, mdf
bjhFf TLjiy bjhFahf, mdf bghJthd
gFia gFahf bfhl dkhF.
1 2 1+ 2 3
+ =
=
5 5
5
5

102

2. brJ fw :
khztfis gy FGfshf J d tL 6, d tL 7
2 3
2 4
+ 2) + Ma fzFfSfhd
6 6
7 7
brafis ManuhL khztfS nrJ brJ fw.

Matiw gagL 1)

3. kL brj :
khztf Rakhf br tif d tLf myJ tlij
rk ghffshf btlgl milfis mJ
1) 1 + 2
4 4

2) 3 + 4
8 8

3) 2 + 5
9 9

nghw fzFfSfhd fis fla brJ kL brj.

3. filiy
1. tYLj : Xd dfSfhd Tl ia gagL il
fhf.

3 2
+ =?
7 7

2. m : ntd dfis mt TLjiy khztfSF

mKf brj.
(v-L)

1.

2 5
+
3 6

2.

4 5
+
5 6

3. jhnd fw : xU tl milia rk ghffshf J Xd

dfis mikJ Tl fzFfis brj.
fw bra
brtf gugs ghlgFF neKffj Kiwgo _W
iyf fw braf mikf.
5.4. crh fj
fj jikia msF msnfhyhf fw miliy
sFwJ. gR kujh nghy ga ntoa iyahd fw Rik
bgWtjF fj cf bghUjkhdjhf mikj ntL. fj
Kiwfis bragLJ nghJ ghu mJ gJ bfhLgjF gW
cia nghy fw fsY fnghUF Vg y fj cfis gagLj
ntoa mta VgLwJ. vdnt crh fjiy cf bjhFghf
fUjyh. fft tzfis tzfyitf bfhLfiyah !!!
103

mJnghy Jik gilF a Kiwf crh fjiy f cy

KaJt thjjhf fUjgLwJ. mjhtJ xbthU khztD j
ftd bgW tif crh fj Kiw miktjh fw braf
Ut gnf cnuhlKsjhf fhzgLwJ.
crh fjY, neKf fjY
cyfnk csif UF iwa fhy NH fwYF
jilnaJiy. Ma Fl m viyF khztiu milJ itf
idgJ iwa eilKiwF rhakW. tFYs xbthU khzt
mf gr fw milid yfhf bfhl crh fj, tHf
UJ tj neKffjiy braHf brJ lJ. neKffjY,
c rh fjY vd y wd vgij fl mltiz
bjthf sFwJ.
crh f j

neKf f j

1.

f ngh ika

Ma ika

2.

fUJfSF
KDik

ghll F
KDik

3.

t hd
viyfis bfhlJ

iyahd ghll
viyfis bfhlJ

4,

f w bghUfis
rhjJ

ghljffis rhjJ

5.

U t bjhl

xU t bjhl

6.

khzt jid,
braghL c W nehf
_y kL

nj _y kL

7.

FG braghL

j khzt braghL

8.

Rjukhd NH

jilfS, fLghLfS

9.

njit mogil
jj f j
cf

midt UF xnu
f j Kiw

10.

x bt hUt lK
jft d

khzt fl jft dik

104

5.4.3 crh fj nehf

xU tF UF midJ khztfS xnu ju Ugiy.
w bgwtf, ruhrahdf kW bkJthf fngh vW
gytifgltfis eh fhnwh. midJ khztfS, mtf
wDnfg mtf mila ntoa yFfis mila itgJ, Maf
jiyaha filikahF.

mijLJ, Ma nefj Kiwgo,

midtUF xnu jkhd fjiy gWtJ midJ khztf fw

milfSF rthyhf mikahJ. vdnt, tU nehffis bfhL
crh fj mikwJ,

bkJthf fnghiu ruhr iyF bfhL tUj

mtf VW bfhS tif Mauh cfj cf

ifahsgL eilKiwgLJj

v nehF fw yFfis mila itj

ruhr khztid caiyF bfhL brYj

w bgwtf KGwid bt bfhzj
mtut iyF Vg, fw mtf v bfhS jilfis
fU bfhL cjj

5.4.1 crh fj ikafUJ

F c rh fj khztiu ikakhf bfhl KiwahF. jkJ
yif mila fngh ifahS m rh kW kdahd ffis bfhL
cf mikwd.

jftfis vthW mtJ

mogil wfis vthW tsJ bfhtJ
njit nghJ mj jftfis vthW L bt bfhztJ

nghwtiw khztfSF fW jUtnj c rh fj ika

fUjhF.
5.4.2 crh fj KaJt
vj iy myJ ghlkhf UD, midJ ghlbghUis
midJ khztfS id WJtJ vgJ eilKiwF xthj
xwhF. ruhr myJ w bfhl khztf ghl gFfis v
J bfhlhY, y fhy ilbtF d mtiw L id
TtY, btbfhztY VgL fw ffis tFgiwf
ekh fhz KowJ.
105

fj fjY fw braghLfS

106

bkJthf fnghiu bghWjtiu, fw fj ff

Ma j ftd bjhlahf Uj ntL. tFgiwf mtf
ma ntoa ghlbghUis, mila ntoa wfis bgUD,
mtiw tFgiwF btna gagL fyhd uidfSF
mtfsh fhz Kotiy. Fl xU fw iyF bghUjkhd
wj cia nj brt mtf Fj FHg milwhf. nkY
Ma neuoahf fgij kLnk mtfsh czJ bfhs Kownj
ju miyia jho mtfsh f aYtiy.
jh fw xU ghlbghUis xU l ilbtF d L
idF bfhLtu, btbfhzu Mw bgw FHijf e
gf f Fiwthfnt Uwhf. Mdh mwhl tFgiw
ff _y midJ khztflK wfis tsgJ f
rhank vgJl mJ fhy flhaKkhF.
fj ghlij ju kw ghlfis gYnghJ, bkJthf fF
khztfsh Tl jhkhfnt vjhf y cfis g ff aYwJ
vW fj bkJthf fF khztfSF Ma Jizl J
rhank vW khnl (1998) vD fj mP TWwh.
iwa khztf kW tFgiw braghLf J FLg, RW
NH, iuglf nghw gntW wfhuf jhf mf ms
UD, Ma c rh ll kW khztf u gnf
_y mtf xUizj milit bgw aY vgij gl
sFwJ.
5.5

crh fj tiff
fj cfis fj mP khnl (1998) uL tiffshf

J FLwh. mit,
1. mrh cf (Cognitive Strategies)
2. nkjha mrh cf (Meta Cognitive Strategies)
5.5.1 mrh cf
J fl cfis mogilahf bfhljhF.
1. goj (Reading)
2. ghj (Visualisation)
107

3. fzLj (Computation)
4. mDkhj (Estimation)
tif cfis khztfSF fl braghLf _y
Mauh v ff aY.
1. cfis Ug Ug ifahSj.
2. fis ifahS khztfis ffhj.
3. jtWfis Rofho telJj .
fhQ vLJfhLf _y fhngh.
vLJfhL 1
xU bga viz, xU a viz TLj.
cjhuzkhf, 8 + 2
1.

goj
vfis, Fpil goj

2.

ghj
(i) vfis fUJ bghUnshL ghj
(ii) 8 + 2

3.

kW

2+8

vW tir kh ghj

fzLj
8 + 2 I fUJ nghJ uL gof fzL id milj
go 1

8+1=9

go 2 9 + 1 = 10
2 + 8 I fUJ nghJ vL gof flj id milj.
4.

mDkhj
j U fzLf vnlhL (bga v) uil (a v) TLtnj

wjJ vw cia mDkhJ filoj.

108

vLJfhL 2
xWF nkgl mogil brafSl mikj fzFfis F
nghJ xU tir ukij g tUnwh. jid xU gUt fJ
L, kbwhU gUt d nghJ mjid id bfhLtu khztf
ukgLwd.
1.

TlY bgUfY izj fzFf

3x2+1

goj
vfis Fpil goj. _W bgUf uL Tl xW
vd goj.
ghj
(i) vfis fUJ bghUnshL ghj
(ii) (3 x 2) + 1 vW

123
123
123
123
123
123

123
123
123
123
123
123

123
123
123
123 123
123

123
123
123

3 x (2 + 1) vW btntW ghj
fzLj
(3 x 2) + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7
3 x (2 + 1) = 3 x 3 = 9
vw

uL

btntW

ilf

bgWwd.

fj

xUikjikF KuzhdJ.
mDkhj
vdnt j U fzLf rahdij eh gWj ntL. mJnt
bgUfYF Tl bra vw cahF.
mjhtJ,

3x2+1
= 6 + 1 (bgUf braYF )
=7

(Tl braYF )
109

2)

J nghy ehF mogil brafS izj fzFfSfhd cia

t fhngh : goj, ghj, fzLj, mDkhj Ma
gofis g fhf.
10 5 4 + 2 3
= 2 4 + 2 3 (tFj braYF )
=8+2-3

(bgUf braYF )

= 10 - 3

(Tl braYF )

=7

(fj braYF )

bghJ
milF (m) - tFj (t) - bgUf (bg) - Tl (T) - fj (f)
vW tir uk UF brhf Kj vGJfsh mikj
brhbwhluhd, "mj ts bga Tl fz jh " vw c _y eh
jid id bfhL tUnwh. jF My BODMAS vw c
gwgL tUwJ.
vLJfhL 3
X Xyf viz xgjh bgUf ifufis
gagL fl cia t fhngh.
9 4 I fUJf.
c 1 : csiff y ghf gJ ufis
nrJ gu itf.

c 2 : lwUJ bgUf ntoa vzhz

4 tiu ufis vQf. nghJ lJ if
Mfho u tiu vzgoUF.

110

c 3 : muYF lwKs uf
vif (3), tywKs uf
vif (6) Kiwna g
l kW x l yf vfshF.
mjhtJ 36.
vLJfhL 4
15 kf cs xU nfhig UJ 8 kfis btna
vLjh nfhig UF kf vif 7 vgij v T
Lnwh. J bghUfnshL izJ fF bkahd iy

csjh ekF

v JLwJ.
fzid fUa to(Abstract) ff KgLnth.
xU gJ 5 xWfS csd. UJ
gJ

xW

8 xWfis vLf ntL. Mdh 5 xWfns

csd. J nghw fUa iyf y fw
cfis fWbfhlh kLnk fwiy bjhlu
Ko. F g l UF 1 MdJ 10
xWfSF rk. mjid
xWfshf,

gJ

xW

l l kh fzFfhd it fltJ
xU cahF.
Jnghw gy cfis mwhl fW
tUw

iy,

NH

jugL

fzFfSF bghUjkhd cfis jhnk fl w bgw Ko.

ehsil, Maiu rhnj Uw iyUJ bky bky y
jjikl jhnd fwYF jsgL Niy VgL.

crh

fj nehfnk, jh fw cfis gFgh brJ mjid a

fw iy gagLJtjhF.
5.5.2 nkjha mrh cf
111

xUt nkbfhS th (Problem Solving) nghJ mtuJ vz

Xlf (Thought Processes) bragLtij mogilahf bfhl c nkjha
mrh c MF. J fl go iyf mikUwJ.
1. lLj

(Developing the Plan of Action)

2. ffhj

(Monitoring the Plan of Action)

3. kLj

(Evaluating the Plan of Action)

tif cf Ra dhfS (Self - questioning) Ra nrhjidfS (Self

- checking) l bgWwd. mtiw ff lLj f mta. bkJthf
fngh Ma cj fis tsgLj, mtiw rahf
ifahs bjahjtfshf Uwhf. vdnt ffhj fwiy
tsgLJtjF njitahwJ. vD f fngh theh KGtY
eilbgW fwiy btfukhf bfhL bry cj fhuf vwh
ifahfhJ. bjhlfw bjhlUtjF kLjY mtnghJ eilbgw
ntosJ. thW lLj, ffhj, kLj Ma TWf
bfhl nkjha mrh cahdJ fw - fj ffis bjh
bjhlu cjwJ vdyh.
5.6.

th rhj cf (Problem Solving Strategies)

#h{ nghah (1998) vw fj tYe thF (Problem Solving)

gagL ehF gof mikj cfis flthW sFwh.
1. thid J bfhs.
2. fhd xU lij jahj,
3. lij bragLJj
4. id rghJ cW brj.
goiyf fj ghlF kLnk caJ vW vzhJ ekJ mwhl
th vbfhS uidfSF thf mik gof vgij kd
bfhnthkhf. fw f mw fhF fUahf sFtjF goiyf
Vw bgW Vgofshf mik vgJ z.
5.7

cf tiff
cf gy tifgL. mtW ytiw F fhngh.

5.7.1. glsf c (Imagery Strategy)

fj ghl mf ms gaglhoD, w ghlf gutyhf
gagLjgLwJ. ma mogilyhd X cikia t eh fhngh.
brhfis, glfis g bra e kd btntW gFf csd. xU
jftiy eh bgWnghJ, mJ l ehf id iyJ f mjftYFa
brhfis, glfis nrJ kd gaitJ bfhs ntL,
112

vLJfhL
d vw ghlgF bjhF kW gF vw fUJfis fUJf.
xU rahd fw cia ifahshj nghJ d gF, bjhF FHg
VgL. ij jgjF gy cf UD, glsf c _ykhf fj
f bghUjkhdjhF.
bjhF - bjh bjh vgJ jiy nkgF UgJ nghW bjhF d
nkgF UF vw cia gdh gF, bjhF
miklf lkhw rahd jiy VgLJwJ.
5.7.2. nffiz c (Elaborative Interrogation Strategy)
V, vgo vw jUf yhd nff jidia L.
Fghf, jifa dhfis vG khztf fw w bgwtfshf
Ug.
xU fUij eh id bfhtjF Kd mJ V, vgo vw
nffis nfL mjfhd it mtj _y mfUij ujukhf
id itJ bfhtnj mogilahF. bghU bghj
fUJf idUJ fhjyth !.....
vLJfhL
X v gjh tFgl ntLbk mj x l yf v
{akhf Uj ntL vw fUij vLJbfhnth. J V, vgo
vw nffis nff khztf Kgo, jfhd bjit bgWt
Ma cj tif fl sffis mfyh.
1. {a KobgW midJ vfS g klFf vd
mJbfhSj.
2. {a KobgW y vfis khztfns gutyhf nj
brJ gjh tFJ ghJ bj bgWj.
3. gjh kLjh tFgLkh vgij thJ mj.
4. nkY ulh, Ijh tFgL vd bjJ bfhSj.
113

5.7.3. Kj vGJbrh c (Acronyms Strategy)

gy brhfis X tir miknyh myJ tir mik myhknyh
khztf kd Wj ntoa iy, mbrhf Kj vGJfshyhd
a brh xiw cUth, mbrhiy ij iybgw brtj _y
m ijUF mjid brhfis khztfsh btbfhzu
itgnj mogilahF.
ahdJ, bkh, ma, r_f ma kW fj vd midJ
ghlfY Mafsh gutyhf ifahsgLwJ.
vLJfhL 1
izfu, rJu, rhrJu, brtf, oua nghwit ehfu
tiff MF. j IJ brhf Kj vGJfshyhd xU a brhiy
fhngh.
`rrh bro
j, brhf tirfis khWnghJ btntW brhf ilf
bgD, fnghUF irthd xU brhiy cUth ifahStnj wghdJ.
rrh bro vgJ xU bghU jUw brh nghUgjh Phgf itgJ
vjhdjhF.
vLJfhL 2
xU Knfhz ehF tif ikafshd ctl, RWtl, brnfhL
kW eLnfhL ikafis kd bfhs, mt Kj vGJfshd c, R,
br, e , Matiw nrJ `cRebr vw Kj vGJ brh cia
gagLjyh myth.
5.7.4. JUbrh c (Keyword Strategy)
fFnghJ bghU ahj xU brhiy milahsfhz, mbrhiynah
myJ mYs vGJfisnah ekF gHfkhd a xU brhYF kh,
ma brh glnjhL ffnghF brhiy izJ kd ga
itgnj mogilahF.
J glnjhL bjhlila cahifah bjhlf iyYs
khztfSF fw ff eF gagLwJ. J bkh ghlfY
114

maY mfkhf gaghoYsJ. ma bkh brhf, ma

brhf kW tiuaiwfis kd Wj gutyhf ifahsgLwJ.
vLJfhL
rhrJuij, rtfij d fhQt khztf FHgkiltij
eh mnth. rtfij JUbrh c _y fl goiyf
vjhf id bfhsyh.
go 1
rtf My brhyhd (Trapezium) vg tU Z vw vGij
fUJf. btGJ rhrJufhd My brh tUtiy.
go 2
Z vw My vGij rtf cUtnjhL
flthW bjhl gLJf.
go 3
Ut rtf cUtij xUgjh,
jid

id

bfhL

fwiy

nkbfhsyh.
5.7.5 bjhFj c

(Summarising Strategy)

xU fLiu myJ ghlbghU Ka fUJfis brhbwhlfshf

kh mtiw id bfhS tif bjhFJ gagLJtnj bjhFj
cahF.
fl gofis cW nehFf.
go 1 : jugLs ghlbghUis gof.
go 2 : Ka fUJfis milahsLf.
go 3 : khzt brhj eil, xbthU Ka fUij ugF
xU brhbwhliu vGJf.
go 4 : brhbwhlf midij bjhFJ id bfhf.
bjhFghdJ jugLs ghlbghU rhukhF. ij id
bfhL bkhj ghlbghUis khzt kdf K bfhL tJ
btbfhzu aYtJ j wghF.
115

vLJfhL
brKiw toa xU nfhzij U rk ghffshf jiy fUJf.
J gntW gofis bfhlJ. xbthU goY cs fU brhfis khztnu
flJ, mtiw bjhFJ vG id itf VJthwJ.
nj Kiw fLiu myJ g to cs vj ghlbghUis
bjhFj c _y ud RUfkh id itJ bfhs Ko.
wf
1.

ghlbghU ika fUJfis jhnd flJ khztf

vGJtjh, ghlbghUis MHkhf f monfhYwJ.

2.

nkiy

tFf

fzFfgo

fj

iyfis

ghlYs

kd

bfhs

njwf

kW
bgJ

gagLtjh, Mug tFfUnj ia ifahSt

g mj eyJ.
3.

bjhFig th khztfns fLiuahf kh vGJtjh mtuJ

brhyh kW vGJ w nkgLwJ.

4.

midJ iyfY cs midJ ghlfY gutyhf

gagLwJ.

5.7.6. fUJ tiugl c (Concept Mapping Strategy )

xU fUD MHkhf brW mj cfUJfis milahsfL,
mitf bjhlfis tiugl thyhf my MuhJ a bghU njLjny
fUJ tiugl c nehfkhF.
xU fUJ tiuglij cUthf khztf fl goiyf
bragLj ntL.
go 1 : ghlbghUis bjthf goj.
go 2 : ghlbghU cs Kakhd fUJfis milahsfL
mtiw goaLj.
go 3 : goal fUJfis mt bjhlf mogil
tirgLJj.
go 4 : bjhlila fUJfis tiunfhLfsh izj.
go 5 : bjhlfis s FLj.
116

vLJfhL

j kd tiugl cs ghlbghU KnfhzkhF. tiuglij

ghlbghU brF Vg gL bfhnl bry KowJ.
jid d (Webbing), fUJ d (Concept Webbing) , kdtiugl
(Mind Mapping) vW gyjkhf miHfgLwJ. ahdJ, fyhd
ghlbghUYs fUJfis khztf v J bfhs tif
brwJ. F ghlbghUYs Ka fUJf khztfsh
milahsfhzgL mitfSfhd bjhlfis fla tWjgLwJ.
J fj, ma, r_f ma vd vyh yfY gagLjgo
D, iwa bjhEg tsF <L bfhLF tif gy iyf
ifahsgLwJ.
wF U fhuzf TwgLwd.
1.

ff ntoa ghlbghU Ka fUJfis dfL

mitfSfhd bjhlfis M brtjh, mogil fUJf Kj
midJ mrfS thd tif khzt kdf K wJ.
117

2.

fUJfis bjhlgLJ tiuglf fhahf fK

tUtjh khztfsh v jftfis btbfhzu KowJ.
brhfS, fhfS izj jftfSF ekJ idtiyf j
lKL vgij Uk FpL jJt (Dual - Coding
Thoery)sFwJ.

fw bra
nkTa cfSF bghUjkhd bjhlf iy fj ghl
fUJfis flJ fw braf mikf.
5.8. cfis gWtjh VgL MfK, CfK.
rahd cfis khztf ifahSt Ka gF tgt Mauh
myJ khztfsh vW gokw eldh id TW eLt iy rW
fyhfnt UF.
fw f khztf ntfkhf, bjthf, MHkhf fgjF
fw cf aikahjit vgij eh czUnwh. tif fw
cfis cUthFtY, njbjLgY, gagLJtY uL tifahd
khwf fhufshf Uwd. mit,
1. Ma iyghL,

2. khzt iyghL.

Ma _W tiff khzt c rhj jidia

Lwh. mit,
1. crh jidia L tif Ma ghlbghUis
fj.
2. c r h

jidia

tsF

tif

khztfSF

xgilfis (Assignments), bra lfis (Projects) mj.

3. g o F g h l b g h U i s g l n g h W k d i t f , V v W
nff, Kakhd fUJfis id itJbfhs,
fUJ tiuglij cUthf tFgiw filna Ma TW
mghd flisf.
Mf, khzt iy khw Ka gF tgt Manu.
fw bra :
bjhlf f khztfSF, gugs vw fUid ff
ifahS cfis sFf.
118

5.9.

Maf jidF y Jf
khztf ctkhf J, bragl itf Maf

jidF y braghLf nH bfhLfgLsd.

1. fw cfSfhd tia cUthFt Ma Kid fhLj.
2. xU fw NHYF bghUjkhd gy fw cfis khztfSF
tHf Ma vneuK Majkhf Uj.
3. a fw cfis bjhlJ bragLJtY, mt vit ekJ
NHYF VwJ vgij fltY mfiw cilatuhf Uj.
4. fw cf KaJtij khztf VWbfhS tif
czJj
5. xbthU ghlbghUSF ca fw cfis bjhl gLJj.
6. xbthU khztU mtUF Ugkhd cfis njbjLgjF
cfj tif xbthU tFY gyjugl cf khfis
Ma mKf brj.
7. fw iyf VgL njitf mogil kLnk fw
cfis ifahs khztfis CFj.
8. tFgiw khztf ifahS cf rahditjhdh vgij
Ma ffhJ cW brj.
9. kw ghlfSF Vw tifY, njitgo khwfSlD khztf
bragL a cfis fla Ma CFj.
10. tFgiw ja khztfl w ftd nkbfhs.
11. Ma btgilahf TW cfis kLnk bkJthf fngh
gWtjh, mtfsJ jidia LtY, mtfshfnt nj
br rahd cfSF btFkfis, ghuhLjfis mj.
12. xgh FG (Peer - Tutoring ) kW TLw fw (Coperative Learning) _y
bkJthf fnghiu Kndw ghijF miHJ bry.
cfis fw fj X mfkhFnth !
khzt th xnaWnth !

119

fwit

crh fj - mKf

fj Kiw, fj c

neKf fj

Kj iy

iliy

filiy

crh fj

crh fjY, neKf fjY

crh fj ikafUJ

crh fj KaJt

crh fj nehf

crh fj tiff

neKf fj _W iyf

mrh cf

nkjha mrh cf

th rhj cf

cf tiff
9

glsf c

nffiz c

Kj vGJ brh c

JU brh c

bjhFj c

fUJ tiugl c

cfis gWtjh VgL MfK, CfK

Maf jidF y Jf

fw bra

120

myF-6

fj thikafw
(Problem Based Learning in Mathematics)
6.1 mKf
midJ tif khwfSF mogilahdJ fy VgL
khwfns. Ma tFgiw Vfhgadh, thUJ ngr ayhj
Cikfshf cHW tU khztfSF JUt erukhf mtnghJ y
fw fj KiwfS, cfS, mQFKiwfS njhbfhnljh
Uwd. nsnlh, rhuO nghw jJt nkijf jkJ khztfis
f itgY, adtiw njLjY, thj brtY cikahd
fw mDgtfis fld.
mt y, fhy njit mogil Mfhnf gaghoY
UJ tUwd. mj tif, kUJt khztf njit
mogil, nf btl [ gfiHfHfjh 1950 MLth
njhWfglnj thikafw KiwahF. vD, jid xU
fj Kiwahf fdlhYs bkkhl gfiyfHf 1968 ML
mfjJ.

6.2

tiuaiw
xU thit (Problem) ikakhf bfhL, mj Dila

njlnghJ, guj mDgtfis, mit bgW, rahd fhd

fhufis Rakhf, xghFG _ykhf flJ, mt vJ rahdJ
vgij kL brJ jhnk fltJ thikafwyhF.
6.2.1. bghU
th ika fw vgJ Ma a tfhLj khztf
1. RanehF mQFKiwlD (Self - directed approach)
2. fnghiu ikakhf bfhl fw cfSlD (Learner Centred
Learning Strategy) fgjhF.
121

6.3. thika fw gof

thika fw ma tkhf gy gofis cslajhF. mit,
1.

khztfis rkuw (heterogenious) FGfshf j.

2.

VnjD xU FGYs
btgLJj.

3.

xbthU FGYs khztfS mth bjhlghd

cikfis (facts)flj,

4.

flj cikf mogil jj FGdUl thj brj.

5.

fyJiuahl _y xU bfhifia(hypothesis) xbthU FGdU

cUthFj.

6.

cUtha bfhifia %f njitahd fwnjitfis

(learning needs) milahsfhQj.

7.

Kofis j FGdUl gJ bfhL mtiw btgLJj.

8.

midJ FGd KofS xnu jikilajh xU

bghJthd KoF tUj.

9.

Kof ntWgljh, L gof bragLj.

khzt

_ykhf

xU

thid

6.3.1. gJiuf (Suggestions)

fl gFfis th ika fw Kiw _y ff
gJiufgLwJ. mit,
1. afj

2. va

3. msa

4. toa

5. a

gF nkny FLs gof mogil vd fw

ff rhakhF vgij jFj vLJfhLf _y mJ bj
bgWnth.
vLJfhL 1 : (afj)
th

am x an = a m+n
tU mLFfis TLtjh myJ bgUFtjh vw
khztfl njha uidna th dahF.
122

go 1 :
khztfis rkuw FGfshf j.
go 2 :
Ma tfhLj go, xbthU FGYstfS mtf
Ugnfg flthW xU dhit btgLj.
FG 1

a3 x a2

FG 2

a4 x a3

FG 3

a5 x a2

FG 4

a8 x a1

go 3 :
mokhd kW mLF bjhlghd cikfis flj.
cjhuzkhf,
a3

axaxa

a3 x a2

a x a x a x a x a = a5

go 4 :
flj fl cikfis thj. cjhuzkhf,
FG 1

a3 x a2 = a5

FG 2

a4 x a3 = a7

FG 3

a5 x a2 = a7

FG 4

a8 x a1 = a9

go 5 :
Ma tfhLj , bgUf bra nghJ, mokhd rkkhf
U mt mLFfis To vGj ntL vw bfhifia xbthU
FGdU cUthFj.
go 6 :
FG bra _y fltiw ma brj.
123

FG 1

a3 x a2 = a3+2 = a5

FG 2

a4 x a3 = a4+3 = a7

FG 3

a5 x a2 = a5+2 = a7

FG 4

a8 x a1 = a8+1 = a9

go 7 :
xbthU FGdU, jhf fLoj Kofis btgLJj.
go 8 :
bgUf branghJ, mokhdf rkkhf U, bgUf gy
mLF, juglt mLFf TLjYF rkkhf UF vw bghJ
ia th ika fw _y fwj.
mjhtJ,

am x an = am+n

vLJfhL 2 : (va)
th
ifKG x FiwKG = FiwKG.
if KGit, Fiw KGit bgUfilgJ FiwKGth myJ
if KGth vw khztfl njha FHgnk th
dahF.
go 1 :
khztfis FGfshf j.
go 2 :
Ma tfhLjgo, FGd Unfg flthW xU
if kW xU FiwKG bgUf gyid btgLJj. cjhuzkhf,
FG 1 : 3 x (2),

FG 2 : 5 x (3)

FG 3 : 2 x (4),

FG 4 : 4 x (1)

go 3 :
th bjhlghf khztf flj cikf

) KGf, ifKGf kW FiwKGfSF ilna cs bjhl

mt gaghL cikfS.

) if, Fiw KGf tir jik.

) v nfho if, Fiw KGf iyf.
124

go 4 :
flj cikfis jj FGdUl thj.
thj nghJ, U if KGf bgUf gy Fj bj
bgWj.
go 5 :
xU if KGit, xU FiwKGit bgUf ilgJ xU Fiw
KGnt vw bfhifia xbthU FGdiu cUthf itj.
go 6 :
cUtha bfhifia %F tif, fl FGbrafis
Ma gJiu brj.
bra 1 : (thif bra)
(+3) x (2)
xUt xU Fl l Uj 2 . ntf ndh (-2)
eljh, 3 k neuF (+3) mt vUgh vW ddh, 6 .
bjhiy iy (-6) Ugh vgJ bj.
vdnt

(+3) x (2) = 6

bra 2 : (mik Kiw)

(+5) x (-3)
xbthU FGdU, flthW mik tiria cUth,
bfhifia %f ttFj.
(+5) x (+2)

+ 10

(+5) x (+1)

+5

(+5) x 0

(+5) x (1)

(+5) x (2)

10

vdnt (+5) x (3)

15

J nghW xbthU FGdU,

fzFfSF braf mikJ fhz.
125

mtf

vLJbfhl

go 7 :
xbthU FGdU jkF ilj Koid btgLj.
go 8 :
midJ FGdU, ifKG x FiwKG = FiwKG vw bghJthd
Koit btgLajh, mKoitna midJ FGdU th ika
fw mogil VW bfhSj.
vLJfhL 3 : (msa)
th
brtf gugs = brtf s x brtf mfy.
brtf gugs kW Rwsfhd fis jtWjyhf J
bfht VgL uidna th dahF.
go 1 :
khztfis FGfshf j.
go 2 :
VnjD xU FGYs khzt _ykhf,
brtf gugs = brtf s x brtf mfy
vw thid btgLj.
go 3 :
khztf flj cikf

)
)
)
)

brtf gntW gf

miw jiugu iuf kW uf mikj XLf

mik, vif

tiugljh guig milF rJu flf mik,

vif

brtf RwsF, gugsF cs ahr

lysit kW gugsf myFf Fj bj
miw s, mfy, gugs nghw NH cs bghUf Fj
neuo mDgt

126

go 4 :
nkfl cikfis jj FGdUl MHkhf thj brj.
go 5 :
xU brtf sij, mfyij bgUf ilgJ mj
gugsthF vw bfhifia xbthU FGdU cUthF tif
khztfis Maj brj.
go 6 :
khztf VW bfhl bfhifia %f fl fw
fUfis, brafis Ma gJiuj.
fw fUf
1. njitF Vwgo, xU rJu myF gf ms bfhl rJu milf.
2. btntW msf mikj brtf milf.
cjhuzkhf, s kW mfy Kiwna,
4 myFf, 3 myFf ;

(ii) 5 myFf, 4 myFf

(iii) 6 myFf, 3 myFf ;

(iv) 7myFf, 2 myFf

(i)

bra 1
xbthU FGF jyh xU brtf mil, njitF Vg rJu myF
milfis gJ mj.
bra 2
bfhLfgLs brtf mil guig uhf ug njitgL rJu
myF milf vifia FGd flj.
go 7 :
Ma fUgyif flthW jahJ itUF mltiz
FGd Kofis btgLj.
FG
v

brtf s

brtf mfy

4 myFf

3 myFf

12 r.myFf

5 myFf

4 myFf

20 r.myFf

6 myFf

3 myFf

18 r.myFf

7 myFf

2 myFf

14 r.myFf

127

guig milf
njitahd rJu milf

go 8 :
mltiz cs tufis khztf cW nehFgo brj.
d s, mfy kW guig milf njitgL rJu milf
vif Mat bghJthd bjhlid bt bfhzj. mjhtJ, xU
brtf sij, mfyij bgUf ilgJ mj gugsthF vw
Koit th ika fw Kiwgo midJ FGdU Ia f fW
bjj.
vLJfhL 4 : (toa)
th
xU Knfhz _W nfhzf TLj 180 0
midJ tif Knfhzf _W nfhzf TLjY xnu
msilaJ vw fUij khztf VW bfht VgL uidna
th dahF.
go 1 :
khztfis FGfshf j.
go 2 :
khztfis MajgLJ jkhf, Knfhz tiffis
fla brJ FG cs xUt _y, Knfhz _W nfhzf
TLjiy fl nehfij btgLj.
go 3 :
th bjhlghf FGd flj cikf
z xU Knfhz _W Kidfis, _W gffis cila xU

milgl xGF gynfhz

z xU Knfhz _W nfhzfis bfhlJ
z gff mogil, rkgf, Urkgf, mrkgf Knfhzf vW

tifgLj aY
z nfhzf

mogil, FWnfhz,
Knfhzf vW tifgLjyh

z midJtif

KnfhzfS
nfhzfis bfhlit

_W

nfhz,

brnfhz

gffis,

_W

go 4 :
nkfl cikfis jj FGdnuhL a Kiw thj.
128

go 5 :
Ma t fhLj , xbthU FGdU xU Knfhz
_W nfhzf TLj 1800 vw bfhifia cUthFj.
go 6 :
khztf cUtha bfhifia %f
fUfis, brafis Ma gJiuJ cjj.

fl

fw

fw fUf
1. bfoahd fhj gntW msfY, tiffY btlgl
Knfhzf.
2. ghifkh.
3. fj nfh.
bra 1
vLJbfhl Knfhz mil _W nfhzgFfis gl
fhosgo fnfhyh bto xU nenfho mikj.

2
1

gl - 2

gl - 1

bra 2
xU Knfhz milia vLJ ghifkh cjl _W
nfhzfis Jakhf msJ To ghj.
go 7 :
nkfl braf mogil nfhz gFf FF nfhzf
TLj xU nenfho J mikJsjh mJ 180 0 I FwJ vgij
khztf czJ mjid btgLj.
ghifkhia gagL fl nfhzf TLj VgL f
Ja iHf, jh ghif khia ifahSt VgL iHjh vgij
khztf czJ btgLj.
129

go 8 :
midJ FGd Ko xnu jikilajhifah, xU
Knfhz _W nfhzf TLj 180 0 vw Koid midJ
khztfS VW bfhSj.
vLJfhL 5 : (tiugl)
th :
tiugl ( x,y) vw mikila f l bgWtJ _wh
fhgFahF. (x > 0, y > 0)
(-x,-y) vw mikila f ehF tifahd fh gFf vj fh
gF mikJsJ vw FHgnk th dahF.
go 1 :
khztfis FGfshf j.
go 2 :
VnjD xU FGYs xU khzt _y tiugl (x,y) vw
mikila f l bgW fhgFia fl thid
btgLj.
go 3 :
J FJ FGd flj cikf
z tiugl cs xbthU F uL Mabjhiyf cL.
z mit x- Ma bjhiy kW y-Ma bjhiy MF. mit Kiwna x

kW y m UJ m mikUF bjhiyf MF.

z xU tiugl 4 fhgFfshf fgoUF.
z x,ymRf vnfhLshf, mit {a xWbfhW brFjhf

csJ.
go 4 :
khztf flj ikfis jj FGdUl thj.
go 5 :
Ma tfhLj go, xbthU FGdU (x, y) mikila
f tiugl _wh fhgF mik vw bfhifia cUth
bfhSj.
go 6 :
khztf cUtha bfhifia %f fl fw
fUfis, brafis Ma gJiuJ cjj.
130

fw fUf
1. tiugl jhf.
2. tiugl fUgyif.
bra
(x, y), (x, y), (x, y), (x, y) vw mikf cs fis
khztfns bj brJ mjid tiugljh Fj.
go 7 :
tiugl Fj tuf mogil, nkny Fl ehF tif
mikfS vbjj fhgFf tUwd vgij jj FGdUl
gJ bfhL mtiw btgLj.
go 8 :
midJ FGdU fl bghJthd Kofis bgUg. mit,
1. (x,y) mikYs f lbgW fhgF I
2. (-x,y) mikYs f l bgW fhgF II
3. (-x,-y) mikYs f l bgW fhgF III
4. (x,-y) mikYs f l bgW fhgF IV
vdnt, th fw mogil, tiugl (-x,-y) mikYs
f _wh fhgF mikUF vw Koid bjthf fW
bfhwhf.
th _ykhf kw mik cs f vbjj fhgFf
lbgWwd vgjid TLjyhf fW bj bgWwhf.
fw bra
nkny gJiufgl fj ghlgFf bghUjkhd thfis
flJ fw braf mikf.

6.4. khztf iy th fw
eilKiw f NH, njf mf kbgf bgW
Kiy UF midJ khztfS th ika fwY
Kiy Ug vd cWahf Tw KoahJ.
131

Ma TW jftfisbayh mdnk kdghl brJ, mt

btgilahf TW brafisbayh WF W rahf brw
khztUF fj f thgfgLsjh vW xU fz eh
f flikgLnsh.
bjhlf iy tFf fj mogil brafnshL bjhlila
thghLfis kdghlkhf mj khztf ghl bghU Ma d
nffSF

cldoahf

gywhf.

Mdh

mit

vd

ilfbgwJ vW nflh y brhy bjahjtfshf Uwd.

thghLfis khztf kdghl brtJ FJ fj tYefilna
vkiwahd fUJf y tUtij eh mnwh.
U Xd dfis Tl, bghJthd gFia il
gFahf, bjhFfis To il bjhFahf vGj ntLbkW
Ma TW sf vjid khztfSF bjUwJ.
bjahjtf vjid ng Mal nfL jf Iafis t
brJ bfhwhf.
jugLs U dfis Tl, bjhFf TLjiy il
bjhFahf, gFf TLjiy il gFahf vGJw y
khztfis gf eh fhnwh. mjid t br Ka,
Ma L rahd fis T khztfis kdghl bra itJ,
xU fhyflF mtiw kwJ L mnj jtWfis brw
khztfis gf eh fhnwh.
mtFgiw bgUghikahd khztfSila uidia
th mQFKiw f Ma V KaYj TlhJ. Kiwia
gW nghJ, df tiffis khztfns Ia f fW
bfhwhf. mtfsJ btahdJ xU Fl nffhd il
kLkyhJ, mnf rhUF bghUnshL bjhlila mjid
fUJfY bj bgW tif csJ.
th ika fw NH khzt,
N

fis bt bfhzu

a cfis, Kiwfis , fla

132

mtiw F Vg kh ifahs

ntbwhU bghUjkhd
wdilwhf.

iy

mtiw

gagLj

nkY mtf,
1. fj bjhl bfhs (communication)
2. gnff (representation)
3. khah bragl (modelling)
4. fhuz fhaka (reasoning)
fW bfhwhf.
Kiw FG fwiy CFgjh, khztUF
N

fw MtK

mr rf khztfl fyJ bj bgWw th

mtfnshL thjho KGik bgWw wD

jdif tswJ.

Mf, khzt jh vbfhS r_f uidfSF jhnd

fhz, NHfSF Vg j iyfis kh bfhs fW
bfhtJl, mtuJ MSik w KG ms btgLtjF t brwJ.
cyfkakhfgL midJ bjhEgfY ntfkhf tsJ tU
iwa ngho iwj cy, tFgiwF btna UF bghUjkhd
tsfis FJ fW bjJ gzwhf.

6.5. Maf iy th ika fw

th ika fw NH Ma gF msgaJ. mt vbraiy
brj ntL, vjid brahJ jj ntL vg f ftd
cilatuhf Uj ntL. Ma jf ntoa brafis br
gr mJ mNHYF vkiwahd idfis mit isF vgJ
cikahF.
Kjgoahf th ika fw NH Ma gf g t
fhngh. mt,
133

1.

khztf tfho

2.

fw fF njitahd fUbghUfSF bghWghs

3.

ghlbghU mit mgt

4.

mtnwhL bjhlila wf midij mjt.

5.

mwf gaghoid (application) , fis MHkhf

mUgt.

6.

vnyhiu rknehFl elJgt

7.

khztfis crhfJl bragl Lgt

8.

midJ iyfY njit mogil cjgt

9.

fw go iyf il ngha fhy mtfhr mgt

10.

khztf fUJfSF ngha Rju mgt

11.

mtf Rafw bghWfis czJgt

12.

adtiw njL khztfSF tfhLgt

13.

gilghwiy tsF NHiy cUthFgt

14.

jft tsfis bgw JiztJl, bjh Eg mogil

fwiy nkgLJgt

15.

Ma, khztUilna bjhW bjhnl UJ tU gkhw

jilfis (Communication barriers) cilbjgt

16.

khztfSl nrJ jhD xU fnghuhf (Co-learner) fUJgt

17.

th ika fw tFfis wghf nkyhik br w

bgwt

18.

khztfis TLw fw (Co-operative learning) mogil

gaDW FGfshf F nj bgwt

19.

eilKiw cs xnth neKffj (direct instruction) NHiy,

th ika fwYF cfjjhf khWgt

20. khzt, Ma kW rKjhailna Uf ntoa cdjkhd

cwit tYgLJgt
134

mLjgoahf, th ika fw NH Ma vtiwbayh

jLj ntL vgij fhngh. mit,
1. KG neu neuo fj
2. fwiy njit JjgLJj
3. khzt fUJfSF vkiwahd fUJfis TWj
4. neuoahf, btgilahf cjj
5. uo ffhj
6. cjuL fLgLJj
7. thFa fhuzf FJ sf mj
8. cnjr FJ Fiu eFj
thfis Ma nj br bghGJ. mit,
N khztf mahta njit mogilY
N mtfnshL bjhlilajhf
N Ma U, btWF mghgljhf
N wj viyfis (open ended) cilajhf
N khztf nkjha mrh tsia (Meta-Cognitive development)

CFF tifY mikj ntL.

vdnt, Ma vtiw ftd bfhSj ntL, vtiw jj
ntL, vthwhd thfis nj bra ntL vgij fU
bfhL braglh, khztfilna eh vghF th ika fw
yFfis milj f rhank.

6.6. wj thf gf
xU thid nj brt Ma gF msgaJ.
ghlbghUnshL bjhlila thf gy UD, mt e khztf
iyF cfjJ vJ, vjid njbjLjh fw ff wghf UF
vgij gFjhJ nj brj ntL. wj thf gf
ytiw F fhngh.
135

1.

khztf fw Mtij Ltjhf Uj.

2.

fUjhHf jidF t br tif khztfis

MajgLJj.

3.

ghlbghUis,

thifia

bjhlgLJ

tif

mikUj.
4.

cikf(facts), jftf (information), jUf (logic),kW

gFjthj (rationalisation)Mat mogil KobtLF
tif Uj.

5.

fUJnfhfis (assumptions) mikf cfjjh Uj.

6.

id fltjF Vw flikig bfhoUj.

7.

thit cfshf J gy FGfl xgilJ mt

Kofis bjhFJ W thf mF tif yhUj.

8.

FGbraghLF Vw tif Uj.

9.

midJ khztfS <LghLl gnfF tif wj

viyfis (open ended) cilajhf Uj.

10.

ghlbghU nehffis iw br tif Uj.

fw bra
gJiufgl gFf a thfis flJ fw
brafis lLf.

136

fwit

th ika fw

mKf

th ika fw

tiuaiw

th ika fw

bghU

th ika fw

gof

gJiuf

vLJfhLf
9

afj

va

msa

toa

tiugl

khztf iy th ika fw

Maf iy th ika fw

wj th gf

fw braf

137

myF-7

thafzFf
(Word Problems)
mKf
thiffzFfis thafzFf vd eh F FLnwh.
g khzt fWbfhS 7+5, 7-5, 7 X5 nghw fzFfis khzt
thif neuoahf mogil brafis gagLJtiy. Mdh,
W xU ngdh %7F xU fy bg %5 F thdh bkhj vts
bfhLf ntL?
W vl 7 %gh UwJ. m 5 %ghF eh fhf thdh
vts UF?
W xU ik ngdh iy %5 v 7 ngdhf thf eh vts bfhLf
ntL?
nghw fzFfisna thif bgJ rf neLwJ. jifa
tha fzFfis tha NH cgnahgjh tiw thif
fzFf vnwh. fzFfis gjFa tKiwfis,
cfis gF fhngh.

7.1.

thafzFf (Word problems)

vQ vGJ izj brhbwhlfis tha fzFf

gagLJnwh. bkhw, brhyh w, bghUs w Kjad

tha fzFfis JbfhtjFa TL wfshf fUjgLwJ.
(v-L) _W thiHgHfis mz, j Ut rkkhf gL bfhlh
xbthUtUF vts ilF?
fz fzL wid l bkhw gaghL mfkhf
csjyth? vdnt tha fzFfis J bfhtjF bkhw
f mtakhF.
tha fzFf bfhLfgoUF jftfis UbgU thf
fyh.
138

bfhLfgl brf vd?

fhzgl ntoait vd?

bkhw njfiy UF gr tiw jj ayhJ.

nkY jj w UD fj thijf l rhj bghU
bjUj f mta. cjhuzkhf degree vgj jHhf mLF,
go, ghif (nfhz) vd btntW bghUgl fzFf gagLwJ. mit l
rhJ bragL. vdnt, ghlw kW bkhw Ujh kLnk tha
fzFfis bjthf f aY.
fw bra
W ng bfhl tF Mf bgfis l 20 ng mf v,
Mf vjid ng? bgf vjid ng? - fz bfhLfgLs
tufis goaLf. fLof ntoait vd?

7.2. STAR c (STAR Strategy)

bkf, A] & % (Maccini, Hughes & Ruhl) vngh fj uridfis
vikahd t fhz lh cia ifahld.
STAR vgJ F ehF brhf Kj vGJf nrj xU RUa
brhyhF. j thf tUkhW bfhLfgLsJ.
1. Search the word problem (tha fzid Muhj)
2. Translate the problem (tha fzid fj Fplhfnth(m) glkhfnth
khWj)
3. Answer the problem (fzF fhQj)
4. Review the solution (id sh brj)
STAR vgJ j ehF braghLfis cslaJ.
7.2.1. STAR c goiyf
1. cia gagLJtjfhd fUJ nrf tKiwfis flj,
2. bghUjkhd fUJfis gagL fhgjnfg bghUshf
brj
3. tfhLjYl g mj.
4. jjahf g bgWj
139

5. ghit kW Uj brj
6. bghJ fis mj
7. bjhlg nkbfhSj
7.2.2. fj goiyfis tFgiw gagLJj
go (1) cia gagLJtjfhd fUJ nrf tKiwfis flj,
mDgt mit a ghlnjhL bjhlgLJj.

a brf mogilyhd wfis bragLJj.

a jftf fgjfhd fhuz mj.

nghw mogil wf _y fj goiyfis vLJfhLfSl

sF nghJ rKjha NH rhj jftf iz bgWwd.
go (2) bghUjkhd fUJfis gagL fhgjnfg bghUshf
brj
fj uidia cuf thj.
STAR cfgo, ehF braghLfis mikj.
go (2.1)

Ma fzF thj

$ef org khj xU eh oafhiy btgiy ms -7oC

Mf UjJ. mW egf oafhiy btg msit l +15 oC TLjyhf
UjJ v meh egf ya btg iyia fhf.
go (2.2) STAR c
go (2.2.1) tha fzid Muhj (S)
fz cs tufis goj vd bfhLfgLsJ vgij,
vij fLof ntL vgij FJ bfhSj ntL. fz
uL ntWgl btg iyf bfhLfgLsJ vgij mJ bfhnwh.
nkY egf ya btg iyia fla ntL vgij khJ
bfhnwh.
go (2.2.2) fj Fplhfnth (m) glkhfnth khWj (T)
bfhLfgl fzid glkhf khWj.
-7 o C vgij Ff rJu tot (1 br X 1 br) mss 7 t
milfis,

R
140

go (4) jjahf g bgWj

Ma cj yhknyna uL KGfis TLtjF khztfSF
gia mJ khztfSila braghil Ma nkghit bra
ntL. ekF bjj Niy tufis gagL tha fzFf
cUth il fhz khztfSF g mj ntL.
go (5) ghit kW Uj brj
}l yh braghL tYl bgwhJ. vdnt tfhLj brJ
CFf ntoaJ f mtakhF. jid tUkhW nkbfhsyh.
khztf braghoid cWbr fj Vil ghitLj.
jtW VgL lfis rghj.
njitglh L ff, TLjyhd fj uridfis
mJ jtWfis U bfhs cjj.
j mk khztfSF jdif VgL tifyhd
tfhLj brj.
go (6) bghJ fis mj
btntWjkhd fj uridF fhz khztfSF gntW
jkhd thfis Ma tH bkhj shit KoJ bfhs ntL.
v-L 1 : Fiw kW if vfis TL nghJ ahr fLoJ bga
v Fl ntL.
v-L 2 : Xnu ms bfhl Fiw, if vf TLj 0. jF F
njitiy. (5+5=0)
go (7) bjhl g nkbfhSj
khztf jf bgnwhUl filF brW bghUfis th,
gzij bfhLJ gzij bgWnghJ vbfF, vbdd fj
braf gagLjgLwd vgij goaLj.
fw bra
xU ku Va Xzh 20 br.. - UJ 4 br.. rWaJ. L 2 br..
VaJ. bghGJ 7 br.. rWlJ. v Xzh UF cau vd?
142

7.2.3.fj fj cfis ifahSnghJ ftd bfhs

ntoait
fj tF fj cfis gagLJ nghJ, Ma kd
bfhs ntoa y gJiuf.
1.

khztfSila elijfis
KDik mj.

(mrh,

elijrh)

cth

fj cfis gagLJnghJ Ma khztfSila

elijia, KDikia ftd bfhs ntL. cjhuzF y
khztf fj uridf Kakhd thijfis cuf
gogtfshf, y khztf kdFnsna goJ monfhoLtjF
KDik mghf. Fl U ntWgl elij khwKila
khztfSF rrkkhd KaJtij mf ntL. khztfSF
Mtij, Rajidia CFf ntL. khztf Mt
Fiwthf Ujh mtfSF jftd brY braghL f khztfshf
khw ntL. FG fw _y j cia ewhf braToa khztfis
gagL jgl xbthU khztiu braghL ftuhf, gilghw
ftuhf khw aY.
2.

fj cia jjahf midtU gagLj CFj.

tFgiw khztf jahf xbthUtU fj cia gagLj

CfgLj ntL. cjhuzF lh (STAR) cia gagLJtj
_ykhf jhdhfnt fj uidia ftdkhf goJ J bfhtJ, mtiw
fj braghlhfnth (m) gl totnfh kh bfhs, fhz
cjwJ.
3.

bghJikgLJj

Ma xnu jkhd fj uridfSF gntW cjhuzfis mJ

khztfilna fUJfis iy WJtjF, nkfl cfis
gagLj ntL. cjhuzF KGf if v, Fiw v TLjiy
nghy caufilna cs ahr, ta cs ahr, neu ms cs
ahr.
(v-L)

ah 82 12 o H fhiy 11.30 v yhJ jiyef

yl neu vd vd fhzbrayh.
J nghW gntWgl fj jiyfSF lh (STAR)cia
gagLjyh.
(v-L) 8 x 5 mss xU miw jiuF bk r xU rJu
lUF %.7.50 j vd brythF ?
143

fz id STAR c _y tUkhW ffyh

tha fzid Muhj (S)

bfhLfgl fzid gyKiw thJ J bfhSj.

J bfhlUJ vd fLof ntLbkgjid vd

bfhLfgLsd vgij flj.

(S 1 ) bfhLfglit

miw s, mfyf Kiwna 8 , 5

miw jiuF bk r 1 rJu lUF %.7.50 brythwJ.

(S 2 ) fLof ntoait
mj miw jiuF bk r bkhj vts brythF ?
tha fzid Fplhfnth (m) glkhfnth khWj ((T)

8
brtf gugs

s mfy

s mfy

40 r. l.

fzF il fhQj (A))

jiu gugs

1 rJu l mss jiuF bk r MF bry = %. 7.50

40 rJu lUF bk r MF bry = %. 40 7.50
= %. 300
bfhLfgLs miw jiuF bk r %gh 300 brythF
144

id sh brj (R)
Ug fzid thJ go iyf rjhdh vgjid sh
brj.
F miw s mfyfis bfhL gu fl d 1 rJu
lUF MF bry %.7.50 I bfhL 40 rJu lUF MF bry
fzlgLsJ. Jnt mj miw jiuF bk r MF bry
vgJ j _y cW bragLsJ.
7 . 2 . 4 fj fw ukgLnthfSfhd fj cf (Strategy
Instructions (SI) for learning difficulties)
fiyl yFfis
fw ukgLnthU mila
brantL vgJ MafSF f bga rthyhF. a
muayik rl 45-A- go midtUF flha f mf ntoa
iy eh cnsh. mjifa NH nkFl khztfS f
mil bgw ttif bra ntoaJ e xbthUtUila flikahF.
khztfSfhd fw fj ff wj fj
cf mtakhwd. fj c vgJ wj cf
wgrfis mtiw gagLj njitahd jftfis milahs
fhQtjhF. TLjyhf, fj fj cfSF brKiw
fzFfis vLJfhlhf jUtJl fUJnfhfis gagLj fj
tF th mf ntL.
fj cfS (SI),, mj wgrK
c vgJ tirukkhf brafis lLtJl yhk, wj
wdh tfhLjYlD, rahd Kofis bgWtjF fis
cslajhf Uf ntL.
fw ukgLnthUF wj cfis mgjfhd y mrf:
1.

khztf fj cfis Phgf itJbfhs

thijf Kj vGJfis gagLJj. (Mnemonic)

(v-L) BODMAS (Bracket of Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subraction)

2.

fzFfis TJ gof brJ m tU Kakhd brhfis,

braghL brhfis
khztf MtJl fla
Maf cjahf Uf ntL.
145

3.

fj mQFKiw bghUjkhd tir Kiw bfhLfgl

fjuridia ftdkhf goJ UgjFj Kofis fhQ
tif bragLj ntL.

4.

mrh tsia bgW jkhf wdh brj rahd

goiyfis bfhL fj uridia f ntL.

5.

flj il rah vgij mrh iyfis bfhL fla

ntL.

vLJfhL 1
xU f (Computer) kW xU fgh (calculator) t bkhjiy
%gh 31000. xU f iy xU fgh iyia l %.29000
mf v xU f iy kW xU fgh iyia flJ
ilid rghf.
tha fzid Muhj (Search) - S
bfhLfglit

xU f kW xU fgh bkhj iy %.31000.

xU f iy xU fgh iyia l %.29000 mf.

fLof ntoaJ

xU f kW fgh iyia kl ntL

tha fzid Fplhfnth myJ glkhfnth khWj (Translate) - T

xU f iyia x vd

xU fgh iyia y vd fUJf.

xU f (x) kW xU fgh (y) bkhj iy %.31,000

vdnt, x+y = 31000................(1)
nkY, xU f iy (x) xU fgh iyia (y) l 29000 mf.
vdnt, x = y + 29000.................(2)
fzF il fhQj (Answer) - A
rkghL (2) kig rkghL (1) ul,
x +y =31000 y +2900 + y =31000
2y +29000 =31000
146

fzF il fhQj (Answer) - A

nkY uL vf TLj 60 vdnt,
5x +7x =60
12x =60
x=

60
12

x=5
xU g k x=5 Mjyh xU v =5x

kbwhU v = 7x

=5(5)
xU v

= 25

=7(5)
kbwhU v = 35

njitahd vf 25, 35
id nkyh brj (Review) - R
v j = 25:35 = 5:7
uL vf TLj = 60
25 +35 = 60
60 = 60
vdnt, rahdJ vgJ cW braglJ.
vLJfhL 3
xU Knfhz ulhtJ nfhz ms Kj nfhz msit l 5 o
mf. _whtJ nfhz ms Kj nfhzij nghy _W klF MF. _W
nfhzfis fL ilid rghf.
tha fzid Muhj (Search) - S
bfhLfglit
xU Knfhz ulhtJ nfhz ms Kj nfhz msit l 5o mf.
_whtJ nfhz ms Kj nfhzijnghy _W klF.
fLof ntoait
_W nfhz msf fla ntL.
tha fzid Fplhfnth myJ glkhfnth khWj (Translate) - T
xU Knfhz Kj nfhz msit x vd fUJf.
ulhtJ nfhz ms = x+5
148

 nkY, _whtJ nfhz ms Kj nfhzijnghy _W klF

vdnt, _whtJ nfhz ms = 3(x) = 3x
x

3x

5
x+

fzF il fhQj (Answer) - A

xU Knfhz _W nfhzf TLj 180 0 vgJ glUJ

bjthwJ.
vdnt,
Kjnfhz + ulhtJ nfhz + _whtJ nfhz
x + (x+5) +3x = 180

= 180

x + x+5 +3x = 180

5x + 5 = 180-5 5x = 175

x=

175
5

x = 35

vdnt, Kj nfhz ms = x = 350

ulhtJ nfhz ms = x+5 = 35 +5 =40 0
_whtJ nfhz ms

= 3x = 3(35) =1050

id nkyh brj (Review) - R

Knfhz _W nfhzf TLj =1800
Kj nfhz ms + ulhtJ nfhz ms + _whtJ nfhz ms = 1800
350 + 400 + 1050 = 180 0
1800 = 1800 vdnt, thdJ rjh vgJ cW braglJ.

7.3. fj fg ftd <Fa khztf (At-Risk Students)

bjhlfgf fj fg ftd <F cshF khztfis
uL FGfshf fyh.
1. gia L il fToa th ftf (Potential Dropouts)
2. fjghl Xus ja khztf (Nominal Students)
149

tf fj fFnghJ ftd<F cshwhf kW tf

fF nghJ rahd ilia njbjLgY mtid eilKiwgLJtY
jsd vd Mf _y ydhwJ. fjghl fF wD,
gagLJ wD KGikahf khztflUJ btbfhzugLtiy
vd tu TWwJ.
Kj FG Uf Toa khztf bgUghY gia L
ilfToa th ftfshf Uwd. kW ulhtJ FG
Ugtf Xus fjghl <LghL bfhltf. tf caiy,
nkiy kW f fF bry thf bgUjhY mJ mtf
thifia nkgLJtjF, fza mit bgWtjF nghJkhdjhf
iy vd Mf bjwd.
nkfl uridfis fU bfhL, xU bjhlfg Ma j
g VgL uridfis f vtfis nkbfhs ntL vd
khztf uridfis fU bfhL mjid F tKiwfis
bjJ bfhs ntL. J bjhlghf gJiufgl eltoiff
bjhlfg khztfSF kL midtUF bghUJ tif
csd.
7.3.1 gia L ilfToa th ftf (Potential Dropouts)
gia L ilfToa th ftf jikfis gFgh
br nghJ _ uL gF bjhlfg gY khztf tWik
nfhoF nH cs FLgfUJ tUif wd. bghJthfnt
tfl

jdif
ngR Mw
go rhjid
btyf bjhl
fiy Mt
wnuhL bjhlbfhS w

Mad Fiwthf fhzgLwd. nkY, bjhlf f gY w

FHijflUJ tf fjw Fiwnj fhzgLwhf. bghJthfnt
j FHijf fjghl ftd brYJtij l kw braf Mt
cilatuhf fhzgLwd. fhy mtf jfSFa jFfis
nkgL bfht uk VgLwJ. jdh r_fF, muRF
bgURikahf fUjgLwhf.
150

7.3.2 fjghl Xus js khztf (Nominal Mathematics)

bjhlfg Maf Xus js khztfSF
fjghlij nghgJ vgJ f ukkhf csJ. Vbdwh mtfSF
nghJkhd J bfhS w yhik, fjghl J ngha
Mtik fhuz vd bjwJ. tif khztf fjghlij
catFf Ugghlkhf njbjLf Utiy. bgUghyhd
khztf jfsJ mwhl thif Tl fjij gagLJt jaf
fhLwd. mogil vz gagL fzLj njfiy
fhzgLtjh fj Mtik fhzgLwJ.
7.
3.3 fj
fg ftd <Fa khztf (At-Risk Students)
7.3.3
fj
ukgLtjfhd fhuzf
1.

bjhlfg gY ftd<Fa khztf fjghl f

ukgLtjF gntW jugl fhuzf csd. ja khztf
j gf bt bgw Fghf fjghl nkghL miltjF
jilahf cs uridfis khwnth, Fiwfnth myJ jfnth
Ko. y khztf Fghf Wghik r_fUJ tuToa
khztf midtUF rkth nghw nghJkhd y
fiyl izUjhY, mtf bgUghnyh Kj jiyKiw
fgtfshf UgJ xU fhuzkhf mikwJ.

2.

MaUila Niy, mt vgh, mt elij kW mt

ifahsToa fw fj fUf rahf gagLjhjJ khztf
fj ukgLtjfhd fhuzfshf csd.

3.

khztUila FLg Niy, khzt elij, khzt vgh,

khzt jdifik nghwitf.

4.

khztf fjij gogjF, fgjF kW gagLJtjF

Mt FiwJ fhzgLtjh mtf fj j UgJl
catFf fjit bj brtij, fgij
jwd.

5.

y khztf tFgiwf wgl fWbfhshjjF mtfSila

fw, ftd ij, jid jw nghw elijf, y cz
FiwghLf kW cl, cs FiwghLfns fhuz MF. y neuf
gogltf fj rhj fUJfis fgjh ntiyth
ilfbgWwhf.

6.

g khztfilna fj fg Mtikah caf

bgWtjfhd wf bgWtY, ntiy th bgWtY ngha
Kndw iy. Vbd ntfkhf khtU fhy Niynfg
151

fiyl iy. nkY khztf UgToa kdghik, vgh,

fj w rhj J bfhSj Mait thifF
bghUjToa tif mikaiy.
fj fjiy ghfToa IJ fhuf
fj fjyhdJ
ghfgLwJ:

fl

IJ

uridfsh

mofo

1. a fUJfis cUthf jnghJs tFgiw eilKiwf

wghdjhf iy.
2. bgUghyhd khztfSF fF ntf Fiwthf csJ.
3. gKiw g wghdjhf iy.
4. nknyhlkhf bjaToa jtWf kLnk fisagLwJ.
5. fw mDgtfis tsfToa tif fj Kiw mikaiy.
7.
3.4
7.3.4
3.4.. fj fg ftd<Fa khztf vifia
Fiw
g Ma gF
Fiwg
Kija fja rhjidfSF, jnghija fja
rhjidfSF f tYthd bjhl Ugjhf M Kof bjwd.
fjghlf rW fodkhf UjhY mtid fW bfhsKo.
fjghllf lLtY mjid bragLJt _ykhf
Xus fjghl m bgwtfis btahsuhf khw Ko. Fiw
fhgjF Kdnu mjid jLf tKiw fhQtJ fwghdjhF.
cldoahf Fiwfis fistJ mfgoahd btia jU.
wj khf mikf iwa Mf njitgLwd. fl khf
gf fj Fiwj rjj ms yfiy, Xus fj mit
bgwt vifia FiwJ, Fj fj m bgwtf
vifia cUthFtjF nkFlit fhuzfshf mikwd.
bjhlff
fjghll
rhjitahf csJ.

vgJ

fltiw

1.

yaF, FnfhSF KaJt mj.

2.

totikfgl fiyl mit bgUFtjF, wfis

nkgL gagLj cjj.

3.

fj fj kHiya fUJ bjhlFj.

4.

mwhl fj fwYF neu xJFj.

5.

mwhl th fjgaghil cW brj.

6.

brat fw gagLJj.
152

7.

khztf njitf, mtfSila UgfSnfg fj

cf kW mQFKiwf gagLJj.

8.

midJ tFfSF ghl bghU KG mit bgUf Toa

tif tFgiw tsf mfgLj.

9.

xgh FGfw

10.

bjhl bra kL kW TLw kdghik fwYF

KaJt mj.

11.

Lghl gaghL kW mj KaJtij czu

brj.

12.

bgnwhf gfig mfgLJ tif mikj.

13.

tF vghfis br tif khztf

FiwghLfis flJ, mtiw t brtjfhd cfis
flj.

14.

fjghl fg urid cs khztfis Kdnu milahs

fL mjnfg lLj.

15.

uridila khztfis fhgnjhL kL mofo

ffhJ uridfSF fhQj.

16.

khztf Kndw gntLfis ftdkhf guhkj.

17.

fj fw urids khztfis flJ tFnyh (m)

btnyh jftd brYJj.

18.

u jftd brY Fl fhyF urid fgl

Mad.

153

fwit
tha fzFf (World problems)
STAR (lh) c
STAR c goiyf
fj goiyfis tFgiw gagLJj
cfis ifahSnghJ ftd bfhsntoait
fw ukgLnthUfhd fj fj cf
(Strategy Instructions for learning difficulties)
fj fg ftd <Fa khztf (At-Risk Students)
gia L ilfToa th ftf (Potential Dropouts)
fj ghl xusF js khztf (Nominal Mathematics
Students)

fj fg ftd <Fa khztf ukgLtjfhd fhuzf

ftd <Fa khztf vifia Fiwg Ma
gF

fw bra
c ghlgF cs tha fzFfis STAR cia
gagL fhf.
ftd <Fa khztf lghLfSfhd fhuzf
ytiw bjhFJTWf.

154

myF-8

fw nkghlila
fiyl wbraf
(Preparation of Further Activities for Learning Mathematics)
8.1

mKf
fw fUtiw bjhl fyiw Ko vw TW fwiy xU

bjhlfthf jwJ. tFgiw braghLf kLnk, fw

KGikail vgij VWbfhs KoahJ. fw KGikaila mfgoahd
f braghLfis cUthFj ntL. fw fUJfis thif
rahd Kiwgo, gagLj

cjL tif mika ntL. fw

braghLfis uL tiffshf fyh.

1. tFgiw braghLf.
2. w braghLf.
vghF fw
isfis
mil t
tFgiw wff
KiwrhuhbraghLf
ff

tFgiw ff
Kiw rhj ff

iyUJ tsfhd (Sustainable Development) kj cikf

tWikia vJ nghwhLj, jgbtg iykhw, ghd rkiy, Ra fyhrhu
ghJfh nghw fiyl wbraghLfis, fw nkghL miltjF
gWf ntL. vfhy brGikF fna mogil vgjh
iygLJ tsfhd f Kiwl fiyl wbraghLf KG
Rl bragLJj f mta MF.
155

Kiwrh f braghLf eilKiw nkbfhtjF Vg eF

tiuaWfgL fiyl bfhLfgLsJ. nkY jid bragLj
ey bralK cUthfgoUwJ.
Kiwrhuh f braghLfis flJ, mjid lL fF
fUJf Fnfhfis mil tz eilKiwgLj ntL. fhy,
fhy ms, fF Kiwf, fF Kiwf, mil tiw xU tiuaiwF
bfhLtu ayhJ. UD jfhd tfhLjYF tiuaiw cL.

8.2. f iz braghL
9

fw vghF fw isf, KGikahd mil iyid

bgw ntL.

fw fUJfis gagLJw tif tY bgUf ntL.

fUJ nkghlila t tif bra ntL.

iz braghLf Kakhd ytiw fhngh
1. fj kwf.
3. fj yf.
5. TLj ghlbghU
7. CL g

2. fj M Tl.
4. fsgaz.
6. xgh FG fw

8 . 2 . 1 fj kw
FHijf bgUghY fLghil Utiy. tFgiw vgij
fLghLf iwj lkhfnt FHijf vQwhf. fj kw vgij
fLghLf mfyhk fw Niyia cUth bfhLF X mik
vW Twyh.
khztf jf fUJfis wj kdJl thf kf,
j kw thgwJ. jf wikfis btgLJ tofhfshf
mikJ LwJ. fj kwf gntW Jiwia rhj tYdfis
bfhL ciu fj brayh. j_y khztf jf Iafis
aghd Kiw t bra Ko. J nghw braghLf tahf
MafS jf Iafis t brJ bfhs Ko.
fj kwf fj braghLfis vjhFtJl kLtjhf
brwJ. fj f, fj braghLfis vjhFwJ. f
LwJ. kl fj brafis uf Mt_LwJ. fj
kwf, fj braghLf gij, jwikfis btgLj
thgwJ.
fj kw jiytuhf, gjiyik Ma bragLth. fj
Ma fj kw bghWghsuhf, khzt jitt, brayhsuhf
bragLt. thu xU Kiw myJ uL thufSF xU Kiw Tlf
156

TlbgW. kw brayhs xU gnto, Tl ffis bjhFJ

vGj ntL. gfis mLj Tl thJ mit jiytl xj
bgw ntL. mLj Tlfhd f tiufis FJ itf ntL.
fj kw tFgiwnyna braglyh. mjbfd j miw U
gagL bfhsyh. TlF tUif j fUjhsf bga, Kft,
Matiw FJ itf ntL. kw brayiu _W khjF xU Kiw
kh kwtfSF thgfyh. xbthU f iwF,
jiyikaha ifbahgl ntL. Tl neu mfgr 2 k neu
eilbgwyh. mjnfg ll ntL.
fj kw nehff
*

fj <LghLs khztfSF xUeynkilahf mikj.

fj braghLf mf Mt clhF tif braghLf

mikfgLj.

kL
fjgFfis
bj
brJ
mjid
kwbraghLfshf khaikJ fj Mt_Lj.

fj isahLfis cUth mj _y fj cs
<Lghil tsl cjj.

khztf Jik gilfis munfl thgF lkhf

mikj.

fj ngho kdghikia tsf cjj.

fj tYdf, w g Maf fj brhbghit

nfla cjLj.

g fj jiH (Magazine) btLj.

fj j khztf fLiufis btLtj _y

mtf fj <Lghil tsf cjLj.

dho dh el grJ CFj.

fj nkijfis g brhbgh VghL brj.

fjij fl vthW cjlyh vgij g vLJ TWj.

giff tU fj brafis bjhFJ mLJ tU kw

Tlf thj.

kha flf. fzFfis vthW cUthfyh vgij

thj.

fj tuyhW g thgJ, vLJfhlhf tuyhW,

tuyhW, tot fj njhw. muh vD bga fhuz, ir
vf, gfh v, Kwh v, fgid v Mait g sFj.

fj bghUfh mikj.
157

fj kw braghLf
*

fj dho dh elJj.

fj isahLfis elJj.

fj fis cUth kLj, fjfis bjhFj.

fj ghlfis jahJ ghl brj, ghlfis bjhFj.

fj nkijf cUtfis bjhFJ Album jahf brj.

khztf jf fj mit vthW dr thif

gagLd vgij thf brj.

rf khztfSF fj fw cjL tif bragl

brj

fj KaJt cs lfSF RWyh miHJ brYj.

fj ffhF VghL brj

w g, ffSF brW ghitL fj braghLf

cs khwfis mJ bfhs cjj.

fj MtfF njitahd, fj khf, glf, tiuglf

Matiw nrfj.

thbdh (jft bjhl rhjdf) xgugglfj

bjhlghd brfis nrfj.

nghof, brhbghf elj VghLf brj

bjhgo ga brhbghfSF VghL brj.

8.2.2 fzFf - cUthFjY, fis fljY

j vgJ fj ceho. jid fzFfis
cUthFtJ, fhgJnk kia jU; fj Mt_L; nkY
nkY fLof ntL vw mthid clhF.
tFgiw g fzFfY j ntL vwhY, g
fzFfSF neuoahf fF Kiwia gagLdh ilJL.
vLJfhlhf,
xU tFYs 18 khztf _ uL gd fjij
Kjik ghlkhf gYwd. mtFYs vjid khztf fjij
Kjik ghlkhf vLJ gYtiy ?
fzF xU y Fl fj Kiwf tiuaWfgoUF.
mKiwf gogoahf brwh fhzyh.
fzF / jid fzF vgJ, w Mwiy tsF.
f L. lL M brjhy, clnd ilfhJ.
158

vLJfhL 1
fhny miufh fhRF ehny miufh ffh, vwh fhRF
vjid ffh ?
thij #hyf j fz csd. jid f fzif M
brj mta
fhny miufh, ehny miufh vgjid tiuaWJ bfhf.
fhny miufh vgJ
ehny miufh vgJ

1 1
3
+ mjhtJ
4 8
8
4+

1
33
mjhtJ
8
8

myF Kiwia gagL 33 3 = 33 8 = 11

8
8
8
3
f th bfhLgJjh fzF.
vLJfhL 2
xU %gh vgJ xU igrh vgJ rkkhFkh?
nghJ v nfF il TWf.
xU %gh vgJ 100 igrh vgJ rjhnd?
mgoahdh
1 %gh

= 100 igrh
= 10 x 10 igrh vW vGjyhkh?

10igrh vgJ vts %gh ?

1
vgJ rjhnd ?
10

10 igrh

=%

1 %gh

= 100 igrh
= 10 X 10 igrh

100 igrh

1 1
x
%gh vgJ rjhnd ?
10 10

1
%gh
100

1
%gh vgJ 1 igrhjhnd ?
100

vdnt xU %gh vgJ xU igrhF rk. Kiw xU jtW

UwJ. jtW Uwjh? M v fL of.
159


1 %gh

= 100 igrh rna

100 igrh

= 10 x 10 igrh rna

10 igrh

= 100 igrh = 10 x 10 igrh vg

xU gJ igrhit, kbwhU gJ vifia FwJ vgij mf.

Mfhnt, 1 % = 100ig = 10 x 10 =

1
1
x
vgJ jtW
10 10

1 % = 100ig = 10 x 10 = 10 x 1 % vgJjh rahF

10
vLJfhL 3
gl fhosJ nghy xU miu tl uL rk miu tlf
btobaLfgLsd. btobaLfgl gF, jKs gF
gugs vd j UF vgij fLo.
(bga miutl lij 28 br.. vW itJ bfhL
fzLgh)

btobaLfgl gF Hl gF rkkhf Ugij fhf.

mjhtJ 1 : 1 vw j UF.
vLJfhL : 4
vts u cdh fhLF bryKo.

fho ikagF tiu bry Ko

Vbd ikagFia jho brwh, fho btna tUwh
vWjhnd bghU.
160

 fzF / jid fz gaf

*

w Mwiy tsF.

bghUSzthw tsU.

brayhw kW ntfkhf, gkhf br w tsU.

rghF wid tsF.

fzF / jid fzFfSF fhQ gof

*

tufis J bfhSj.

bfhLfgl tu, nffgl tu vd vgij cWgLJj.

F Kiwid njbjLj.

lij brayhWj.

it, fz tufis izJ rghj.

fzF uhf khWtJ V vW ghngh

xU uridF jtwhf bgWnghJ, urid uhf csJ vW
TWnwh myth. mjfhd fhuzf
*

fzfhd Niyia J bfhshik.

bfhLfgLs tuf bjhlig J bfhshik.

rahd fzL Kiwfis filofhik.

jtwhd t fzLj.

ntfkhf fla KgLnghJ jtW brj.

fzFfis ifahSwnghJ ftf ntoait

* tFF Vg, khztf kdKnfg, Niynfg
fzFfis gagL bfhs ntL.
* wDF, jidF xthj fzFfis brant khlhf.
* jidF xU rth Ltijngh mika ntL.
* mfgoahd fj braghLf jfgl ntL.
fzFfis nrfJ, bjhFJ, tF thahf mltiz brJ,
fj Mtfnyh myJ fj yfnyh itfyh.
fj isahLf
isahLf _ykhf fj fUJfis fWbfhs Kokhdh
misahLfis fj isahLf vnwh. fw fjfUJf
tYbgw itgjfhf UjhY mtiw fj isahLf vW
brhYnth.
161

isahLf _y, vfis gagLJj, totfis mj, kha

rJufis brj nghwitfis mJ bfhsyh.
v isahLf
1. v isahLfSF y vLJfhLfis ghngh. isaho
gagLjgl cfis bghJikgLj TlhJ. xg kikia fhf.
19= 9

1 99 = 99

1 999 = 999

2 9 = 18

2 99 = 198

2 999 = 1998

3 9 = 27

3 99 = 297

3 999 = 2997

4 9 = 36

4 99 = 396

4 999 = 3996

5 9 = 45

5 99 = 495

5 999 = 4995

6 9 = 54

6 99 = 594

6 999 = 5994

7 9 = 63

7 99 = 693

7 999 = 6993

8 9 = 72

8 99 = 792

8 999 = 7992

9 9 = 81

9 99 = 891

9 999 = 8991

bgUf gy cs yff TLj xgjhfnt tUtij fhf.

j wgrfis nkY cW neh bjJ bfhf.
tiw bgU ilia rgh.
35 99 = (35 1). (99 34) = 3465
57 99 = (57 1). (99 56) = 5643
88 99 = (
27 99 = (

). (
). (

} tiw gagL

) = ..........
) = ..........

} jidfLof

III. tffis fhz

112 = 11 11 = (11 + 1 ) 1 = 121
13 2 = 13 13 = (13 + 3) 9 = 169
15 2 = 15 15 = (15 + 5+2)5 = 225
18 2 = 18 18 = (18 + 8 + 6) 4 = 324
12 2 = 12 12 = (12 + 2) 4 = 144
17 2 = 17 17 = (17 + 7 + 4) 9 = 289
19 2 = 19 19 = (19 + 9 + 8) 1 = 361
IV. Lgltiw brJ ghf
1. 32 = 32 32

= 3(32 + 2).4 = (3 34).4

= 1024
162

2. 35 = 35 35

= 3(35 + 5).5 = 1225

3. 44 = 44 44

= 4(44 + 4).6 = (192).6

= 1936

252 = 2(2 + 1)25 = 625

352 = 3(3 + 1)25 = 1225
452 = 4(4 + 1)25 = 2025
ijnghynt bjhlJ brJ ghf.
kharJuf
_W iu, _W uf cs (3 x 3) rJu tiuJ bfhnth. rJu
9 Wflf UFkyth? flf avfis xU Kiwgo
mikFnghJ vfis lUJ tykhfnth, myJ tyUJ lkhfnth
myJ nkUJ Hhfnth myJ UJ nkyhfnth, myJ _iy lf
tahfnth TLnghJ ilF TLbjhif rkkhUf ntL.
rJuf kha rJuf vdgL.
vLJfhlhf
8

51 58 43 48

45 46 53 56

57 52 49 42
47 44 55 54

Jnghy

flf TLbjhif rkkhf tUgo kha rJuf

mikJ Maf cjl brf.

toa tiuf ijj
U nfhLf gl

AB. AC
fhoaJ

ngh

tiuJ

bfhs.

nfhLf nk rkru 24 fis

Ff.
Jnghynt

fis

izf.

vyhfis

izf. nghJ xU gu tisa

ilF.
163

1 10
12 1

12

11

10

a fj isahL
X viz kd idJ bfhf. mjid ulh bgUFf.
bgUf gyDl uil TLf. gyid Ijh bgUFf. bgUf
gyDl Iij TLf. nghJ vd il tUwJ vW TWf.

il xyf viz L Lf. gyf v xiw

fJ tU v idj v vW TWf.
vLJfhL
idj v 4 vW itJ bfhSnth. ehif ulh
bgUF(8). vLl uil TLf (10). gij Ijh bgUF (50). IgJl
Iij TLf (55). 55 xyf v L Lf. gyf v. 5 xiw
fJ 5-1 = 4 vgJ idj vzhF.
fhQ Kiw
cdJ v x vf.
fzgo 2x + 2 Kjgo
5(2x + 2)+ 5 ulh go
= 10x + 10 +5 =10(x+1)+5
gjh lYs (x+1) UJ 1I ff ilgJ x.
8 . 2 . 5 dho dh
dho dh f xU j fw Kiw vW Twyh. f,
khztfSF r VglhJ, khwhf k MtK clhF. J
fwiy tYL. jidia L. bghJ mit tsF. fUJfis
L bfhzJ Mt_L f. kEg, eif, fhuz fha
bjhl, iu J bfhS w, Fj neu gyF w
Mad tswd.
fid elJgt, jFj K MajJl dhgoa jah
bra ntL. gYfhd neu vts mfyh vgjfhd l Uf
ntL. dhf neuoahfnth myJ kiwKfkhfnth Ufyh. rblW
gyf Toa dhf myJ w, f itw dhfshf
mika ntL. dho dh fahdJ ngho kdghik, jdif,
uridfis vbfhS w, CFF gfis bgwjhf mika
164

ntL. dho dh f r Vglhk, eifRit fyJ Uf

ntL. elJgt f fUijg, khztf juiy g eF
bjJ itUf ntL. f gnfghsf crfl Mt
UF nghJ fid iw brjh, L L fid
elj ntL, gnff ntL vw Mt mfF.
dho dh mikj
*

vyh dhfSF rk ms neu kLnk mfgl ntL.

vyh dhfS rk ms fodjiknyna mika ntL.

nf vj FG Mufglnjh mj FGF mf gr
mj FG rahd gyfho kbgQ, mjid bjhlJ
gyF FGF Fiwj kbgQ tHf ntL.

vjid RW itfntL vgjF, xbthU RW vthW

mika ntL vgJ g l Uf ntL. (FiwjJ 3
RWfshtJ Uf ntL )

xU R cs dhfis vif, FGf vif

klFf mika ntL. v.L. xU dho dh f _W
FGf gnfwh, xbthU RY dhf vif
_ klfhfnt mikantL.

ffhd fhy xU tF ntisahf Ufyh.

xU R xbthU FGF xU dh Uf ntL.

jtwhd gYF kbg Fiwfglyh.

njitglh ilaf tfho Ff (Clue) bfhLfglyh.

gaf
lL bragLnghJ khztf fww tsU. k,
Mt, ehl, milw midJ bgUF.

165

dho dh kL mil
ghl : f z F

tF : 5
fhy : 45 l

FG A

FG B

1. ...................

1. ...................

2. ...................

2. ...................

3. ...................

3. ...................

4. ...................

4. ...................

FG C

FG D

1. ...................

1. ...................

2. ...................

2. ...................

3. ...................

3. ...................

4. ...................

4. ...................

RW

FG

t ht oral

A
B
C
D

ghit t
Visual

B
C
D
A

braw
t
Performance

C
D
A
B

dh
1

dh
2

dh
3

_W RWfY bgw bkhj kbg

A
B
C
D
btbgw mf (ju thahf)
166

dh
4

bkhj

dh mil
mil
tht : dh
1
2
3
4
ghit t : dh
1
2
3
4
braw : dh
1
2
3
4

RW 1
tht dh (Oral Questions) nffgL dhfSF cldoahf giy
brhy ntL. Ff vLJbfhL bra TlhJ. FG
cstfSl thJ xUt g Tw ntL.

167

RW 2
glf fhJ mitf UJ dhf nffglyh. xnu
glij fhgJ dhf nffglyh. myJ xU FGF xU glij
fhJ nffis nffyh. FG cstf thJ m xUt
g Tw ntL.
RW 3
nffgL dhfSF giy fla, fhj, vGJnfh
gagL, id flJ, thJ, FG cs ahnuD xUt g
Twyh.
8.2.6 fj Mtf
fj Mtf bghW Ma fjghl Ma Mth.
Mtf cs fUfSF UgntL xW guhkf ntL.
khztf gagLjYF fUia bfhLFnghJ fU tHf gnto
g brjjh bfhLf ntL. mfUfis gagLJ j, vgo
tufis nrff ntL vw brfis khztfSF nrhjidF
Kdnu bjgLj ntL. khzt gagLjYfhd Maj gfis
jfsJ

gnto

Ff

ntL.

nrhjid

Kojl

Mtf

bghWghsl ifbahg bgW bfhs ntL. ma nrhjid

rhiy filoF Kiwfis nf filof ntL.
fj Mtf Ka nehff
* fj fUJfis bjthf J bfhs cjwJ.
* Ma xU l sfij jUtjF vLJ bfhS neuij
Fiwf cjwJ.
* rghF wid tsf cjwJ. fj cikf braKiw
Vilikia rghj cWgLj cjwJ.
* fj cikfis bfhiffis

mwhl thif

gagLj cjwJ.
* fjghlgh khztfSF Mtij cUthl cjwJ.
* brJ fw _y ff cjwJ.
* kdts Fa FHijf Tl braKiwdh Mjha
bgWwd.
168

fj Mtf Uf ntoa fUf

* v fz cs jiyfSF njitgL bghUf kf,
Ff, nfhf, Mk rl, v milf, ijf, juhRf,
ehzaf, vil ff, ms ehlh, fnfh, F^f, milf,
Chart Papers, tiugljhf, Mf, Ra, fW nghwitf v
filf mla bgo, lk bgo, d tLf nghwd.
* Pictures & Photographs - fj nkijf glf, mtf fjF
Ma bjhLf g vGjgl milf.
* fj khf (Models) , Knfhzf, rJuf, cUis, T,
nfhsf nghwit.
* fUgyif - fj tiugl fUf, tz Rzfof, fj
tiugl fUf.Stencils for drawing figures
* br gyif - Bulletin Board
* fj fUJfis kw glfSl bjhlgLJ fUf,
mGjkh, Hydrometer, Cr nghwd.
* Proportioned dividers, slide rules, calculating machines
* msj fUf, Surveying instruments, clinometer,urklkh.
* glfUf (Projection aids), f (Computer),film strip projector,
epidiascope nghwd.
* fj tuf bjhF,
* bra mogilyhd fwYfhd milf.(ABL Cards)
8.2.7 fj yff
fj mf ms gaghLs ghl. Ma xU Fl ghliy
kLnk gagLJj TlhJ. vdnt Ma yf cs jffis gof
ntL. fj yf khztfSF f gaDs xW. khztf,
jf rnjffis Jbfhs gagLwJ. xU ey yf, khztf
kdiy, Mt, ghuhLj nghw ey gfis kiwKfkhf tsf cjwJ.
gf Utif yff Uj ntL.
1. bghJ yf.

2. Jiw yf.

1. bghJ yf vyh ghlF njitahd jff Uf

ntL. MafSF, khztfSF njitahd jff l bgw
ntL. fj fj Kiwf ga f, fj nkijf tuyhW, fj
169

jf nghw jiy cs jffS Uf ntL. kL fj

f, ghl f, nknfh f, fj nkijf fLof ga
f Uf ntL.
2. fjJiw cs yf fj Mtf Tl braglyh.
bghJ yf yfnu bghWghsuhf Ugh. fj Ma j
yfJl bjhl bfhltuhf Uf ntL. a gilf, fj
jf, ghlf lbgw ntL.
fj yf KaJt
* gntW tifahd fjjff, fj fYF fhz
cjwd.
* tFgiw braghLf y neuf fj fw W
ilbtia VgLl thsJ. rnjff vH thsJ.
mrkaf yf f gagLwJ.
* fhynfw a gKiwfis fW bfhs cjwJ.
8.2.8 fsgaz
fsgaz fj fwYF cj. neuoahd mDgtfis bgw,
Kjju brfis bgw cjwJ. k, Mt, kdghF, bjhL
br kdghik it midJ lgLwd.
mf gogJ, gaz brtJ, mfw m, mDgt bgWtjfhd
tf vg. fw mid fsgaz iw br.
ma, bjhEg, bjhrhiyf MatWl fj
izJsJ. mizfL, fol, tf nghw Wtd, itfY
fj braghL izJsJ. J nghw lfis ne
fhQnghJ, neuo mDgt ilwJ. vyh ghl mf fF w
jjahf UjhY thif iznj bragL.
ita fsgaz, jiyik g, TLw kdghik,
thif ffis vbfhS g, bghWik, gaz ntf, u nghw
gfS mDgtK ilwd. fsgaz 3 - 6 ehfSF UgJ ey.
lLj
fsgazF ll ff aikahj xW. y lfSF
bry K mDk bgw ntL. mF Wtd bragL neu, njitahd
gz itfSF xU l Uf ntL.
brY lf ga Ff Kng bjUjh fsgaz
jhf mik.
170

fsgazF lL nghJ ftf ntoait

jFtjF ll ntL.
cz, fhy, gnfghs vifF Vg ll ntL.
* khztfSF njitahd cil, gz (F unjr v mjF
jFj cil)
* kUJt Kj cj bgo
* khztfSF FngL
* thjYfhd tr, l.
8.2.9 g mDgt
fj fUJfis fUJfshfnt fgnjhL kLyhk thif
mj gaghil J bfhs ntL. thif mDgtfis,
Niyfis aghfnt khztfSF VgL bfhLf ntL. j
mDgtfis, Niyfis bjhFJ itJ bfhs ntL.
njitgLnghJ khztfis neuo mDgtij bgw Niyfis cUthju
ntL.

8.3

cq njitnfw ghlbghU / TLj ghlbghU

fj ghl jf fUJfis bghJthd Niynfg

mikfgoUF. itfis kL fgj_y fw KG mil bgW
vW brhy ayhJ. vdnt ghl bghUfis Niynfg kh mikJ
bfhtJ Ma flikahF. vLJfhlhf, ekJ gF ilF fw
fj bghUf flnyhu gF ilf thiy. mNiy mF
ilF bghUfis bfhL fj fw bghUfis cUthbfhs
ntL. j bjhFfgl ghlbghUis cq tsfSnfg bghU
vgjhF. J nghw ghl bghUf bjhFig fj yf myJ
fj kw bjhFJ itfyh.
ghl bfhLfgl ghlbghU, fUJfis cth bfhs
nghJkhd ms yhkY Ufyh. ifahsgl Kiwf, gf
nghJkhdjhf yhk Ufyh. mJnghw rkaf Ma vgF
bjh VgLsnjh mjid <Lbr tif ghlbghUis khaikJ
bfhs ntL.

8.4

xgh FG mikj

y rkaf khztfSF Maf Kiwahd fj tahf

ff ukgLthf. MD j khztfSF cl gY egf
fFnghJ vikahf J bfhthf. Tr jfSF ntoa
171

brfis thg. Jnghw xgh FG fj f fF

khztf Tl fj fUJf ghoJt bgWt. J nghw
fjiy fwiy Mafosha eh CFf ntL.

8.5

CL g (Internship)

fWbfhtjF fWbfhs ((learning to learn)

fFnghJ fngh kdiy vd? fw Niy Vilajhf
csjh? fF JizfUf nghJkhdjh? kL Kiwahf
bragLwjh? vgijbayh fnghuhf UJ ff ntL. xU bra
fwnghJ ilf fhuzf bjahknyna UF. itfis
fsUJjh fWbfhs Ko. fw fUJf, jh bfhifahf (Paper
concept) UF. gfsjh fw KGikahF. vdnt g mDgt
vgJ ahikahj xwhwJ. fWbfhl brafis, fWbfhS
fhynyna g bgWtJ, CLg (Internship training) vdgL. Jnghw
CLg, bjhfa (Professional Course) kL jnghJ csJ. jid
gfY izfyh, vwhY, g fF fj fUJfis
mwhl thif clDFl gagLjgLtjh njityhk UwJ.
g fj Maf fj fUJfis vgobayh
gagLJnwh vgij izJ ff ntL. fwitfis rahf
gagLshuh vgij `bra l (project) bfhLJ kL brayh.
Ma g CLg fiylnyna izfgLsJ.
jid uL gFfshf fyh. 1. cnehFj gF 2.fj <LgLj.
cW nehFj
jDila nehff uL MF. Kiwahd g Ma
fFnghJ cWnehFj. vgo Ma braghL Ujh khztf
fWbfhwhf vgij flJ fWbfhtJ Ma braghL vgo
Ujjh khztf fw dil UjJ vgij flJ mjid
f fWbfhtJ. Ma braghLf vgJ fj , MajgLa
Kiw gagLa fUf g f kLj, bjhlg nghwitf
MF.
nkY tFgiw Maf elij, bkhw, ghugrik
itfS cWnehfgl ntL. cW nehf gF Koj, fj
g <Lglyh. g nghJ fWbfhl fUJfS, CLg
nghJ fWbfhl fUJS, nkY mDgtK ey bjh wiks
KGikahd Maiu cUthF vg Iaiy.
172

fwit
fj kw
nehff - braghLf
fj isahLf
cUthFj - goiyf
v isahL - bgUf isahL
af fj isahL
/ jid fzFf - y vLJfhLf
gaf - goiyf
fzF uhf khw fhuzf
ifahS nghJ ftf ntoaitf
isahL fj
v isahLf
tffis fhQj
kha rJuf
toa tiuf ijj
aa isahL fzF
dho dh
totik - gaf
fj nrhjid rhiy
nehff - fUf - gaf
fj yf
KaJt - gaf
fsgaz
lLj - gaf
TLj ghlbghUf
cUthFj
xgh FG fj
CLg ((Internship)

173

myF-9

fw lghLfS
fj fUJ gkhwK
(Identification of common mistakes and communication in Mathematics)

9.1

mKf

fw R (Span of Learning ) jkj ntWghoF (Individual Difference)

cglJ. vdnt khztf milwfS khWgLwJ. mjhtJ y
rkaf fj fhQnghJ iHf VgLwd. iHfis
Fiwa nrhjidf _y flJ Fiw F nghjidfis nkbfhL
fw FiwghLfis fisayh.
fw lghLfSF bghUjkhd fis bghJgilahf
bfhLjh y rkaf rahf miktiy. jkhd uridfSF
fUJ gkhw _y cfj fis bgwyh.
vLJfL

62
13

j it vGJ nghJ gjh l 7 vd vG xwh l 5

vd vG 75 vd ilia kL rahf FL khzt lghL vd vgJ
bjtjF thiy. Mdh mnj khzt
53
+28
vgj ilia 711 vd vGJnghJjh mt brj iH Kj fzUnj
MuUwJ vgJ wJ. jtid khztnd j fUJfis TW
nghJjh fis bghUjkhf bfhLf Ko. thW fUJ gkhw
Ka gF twJ vd mayh.
j my bghJthf ehF kW Ijh tF khztf br
iHfS mtfhd fS l bgWsd. fhQnghJ
VgoUF iHfis goaL tFgiw thF nghJ mtfhd
fhuzfis mJ bfhs KowJ. mj, j, Ms kW Mw
Mat viy iHf VgLwd vgij dfL bfhlh
bghUjkhd fis tHFtJ vikahLkyth !
174

go : 6
10

10

10

10

10

10
10

go: 6 go 3 cs xgJ gJfUJ

6 gJfis dh 3 gJf
ilF

10
10

go : 7
100

100

100

100

100

100

100

go: 7 go 2- cs 9 WfUJ 8
Wfis dh 1 W
ilF.
100

100

go: 8 go 1 cs 5 MufUJ
5 Mufis dh 0 vdnt,
6000

go : 8
1000

1000

-5867
1000

2.

1000

1000

0133
vd ff ntL.

nkTa fj Kiwia
ifahlh
6832

6832
-4267

-4267

2635

2565
vd sfyh.

vd bga yf UJ a
yfij
fJ
jtW
brwd.

ilia rghf brhyyh.

1

2 5 6 5
+4 2 6 7
6 8 3 2
3. bgUf

678 x 12

678 x 12
356
679
7146

1 356
6 7 8 0
8 1 3 6
176

678 x 2
1356

678 x 10
6780

678 I 2 M bgUFnghJ 13 vw
v 3 I vGL 1 I mLj
yf bgUfYl To vGJj.

nkTa Kiw bgUf braiy

br nghJ iHia jfyh.

4. tFj

>

50
3 150
15
00
0
0

< = 5

= 0

vd vGJwd. 03 = 0 vd
vGJtiy. vdnt < 50F g
5 vd vGJwd.
5. d
1 3 4
+ =
2 2 4

vd vGJj.

vd Mug iy g bfhLjh
{aij tFJ 0 vd vGj itJ
iHia r brayh.
ilia rghf brhyyh

+
5+
3 150=

150
0

+
+
+

vd gl sf mfyh.
6. rkhd d
1 4 vd vGjhk 4
=
3 12
3

myJ 1
12

1 1 2 2
=
=
3 3 2 6

vnwh

vnwh vGJwd.

1 1 3 3
=
=
3 33 9

1 1 4 4
=
=
3 3 4 12

J nghw xU dij xnu vzh

bjhF gFia bgUdh d k
khWtiy vd sFj.

177

4. dfis bgUF nghJ

ekF ilF il Fiwthf
tFF nghJ mfkhf tUtjh
khztf FHgkilwd.
1 1 1
=
2 4 8

1 1 1 4 4
= = =2
2 4 2 1 2

1 1
vgJ miu fhgF MF.
2
4
mjhtJ uo x, eh xU
gFahF

1
4 vgJm miugFia ehF Kiw
2
TLtJ MF. mjthJ
1 1 1 1 4 =2 MF.
+ + + =
2 2 2 2 2

jidna RUa to

1
4 = 2 vd
2

vGjyh.
5. 7 jiy 1 vgij J
7 -I vj vzh bgUdh 1 ilF
7
bfhs khztf ukgLwhf. vd f itJ 7 x 1 = 1 vd sfyh.
7
6. rkhd dij J bfht
ukgLwd.

1 2 3 4 vd
= = =
2 4 6 8
sFj.

djh

bfhL

1 2 3 4
= = =
2 4 6 8

7. jrkd 0.05 bgajh. 0.005

bgajh vd fLog jtW
5
0.05 =
brwd.
100
0.005 =

0.05 =

5
1000

5
50 (xnu gFahf khw)
=
100 1000

50
5 vdnt 0.5 > .005
>
1000 1000

0.5 > .005 vd tiugljh _yK

sfyh.
179

9 . 4 . fj fUJ gkhw (Communication in Mathematics)

9.4.1 mKf
Iagw fwYF fUJ gkhw tif brwJ. mjhtJ, fUJ
gkhw

vgJ

khzt-Ma

cwiy

xU

ezit

VgLjtyjhF. U t fUJgkhw (Two way communication) tifia

rhjJ vdyh. nkY, j _y fw VgL iHfis t brayh.
mjhtJ, iHfSfhd fhuzij iH brj khztnd TWnghJ
bghUjghL cilajhf mikwJ. iHfhd fhuz bjJ lh
iHf L L VglhjthW jfgLtJl bjhlJ fw
eilbgWtjF khztf kdahf CfK crhfK bgWtjF
ttFwJ.
fj fF Ma j khztf fj KGikahd
nj mila ntL vd UtJ aifna. khztf tFgiw
fwiy Mjhutkhf btbfhzt fj fUJ gkhw Ka
gF twJ. nkY fj fUJ gkhw, khzt fw
njitfis J bfhs, fw mil juij zf t
tFwJ.
9.4.2 fj fUJgkhw -tiuaiw
tFgiw braghLfis fngh njitfSF Vg fj braiy
nkbfhs, fw milid kL bra cjtJ fj fUJ
gkhw MF.
9 . 4 . 3 fj fUJ gkhw mta

khztf fw lghLfis myJ iHfis dfL

fw braghLfis mikj.

fw fUJfis idTJ gagLj braghLfis

mikj

FiwF eltoiffhf fw - fj fUfis jahJ

gagLJj

bjhl kL brtjfhd braghLfis jahj.

181

9.4.4 fj fUJgkhw Kiwia gagLJ j

tFgiw bragho izbraghlhf fj fUJ gkhw Kiw
sFwJ.

jid

jeg

brafshf,

FG

brafshf

nkbfhSnghJ fUJgkhw fw ikia VgLJ. tifahd

fUJ gkhw _y khztf KG MSik wid kL bra
aYwJ.
fUJ gkhwij f iz braghlhf nkbfhtjF
tU goiyf cjwd.
i)

jft/ fUJfis nrfj (Gathering)

ii)

xUfikj (Organizing)

iii)

fUJ g (Sharing)

go : 1 fUJfis nrfj (Gathering)

fUJ nrff nkbfhs ntoa brafis

khj

fUJ nrff ll

goj,

cWnehf

kW

ftj

wfis gagL fj fUJfis gl,

tiugl, khf, brhyhl, FpLf _y
btbfhzj.

bghUjkhd kW v gagLjToa
bjh Egij bj brj.

go 2 : xUizj (Organizing)
nrfj fj fUJ rhj tufis
uikf, bkhahf bra, fyjhnyhj
fUJ bjhFid cUthFj vgnj F
xUizjiy FwJ. thW br
bghGJ

khztf

<LgLwd.

jhkhfnt

jf

FGf

IaghLfis

fUJfis btgLJtjF ey thfis

khztf bgWwd.
182

go 3 : fUJg (Sharing)
nrfj fUJfis bjhFj fj bkh
_ykhf jf fUJfis bjJ bfhtjF
iy thgwJ. thW jf fUJfis
wgl bjgjh fj jid lgLwJ
9.4.5 fj fUJ gkhw btghL
fUJ gkhw fj fUid tiuaiw br wid tswJ.
tiuaiw brJ lh fhgJ vikahL myth ! thwhd
kdg bgW nghJ tU braghLfis jhkhfnt gW gHf
khztfilna VgLwJ.
fj fUJ gkhw eilbgWtjh khztf cthF w
mfgnjhL njitnfg btbfhzJ gagLJ wD tswJ.
mjhtJ tifahd elij nfhyf mJ bfhs mj vw iy
btghL MF. khztfns jf fj mit gagL fUJ gkhw
nghw izbraf <LgLtjh fj fUJfis J gagLJj,
fzFfSF tiuaiw cUthFj kW fhz nghw braf w
tsjiy tsikgLJwd. mjhtJ,
1. NHiy Muhj
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

fzFfis tiuaWj
fhz
fj fUJfis xnwhblhW bjhlgLJj
fj fUJfis w ghl fUJfnshL bjhlgLJj
fj fUJfis thif NHnyhL bjhl gLJj.

Ma brafis khztf jhkhfnt gW kdgia

cUthwJ.
9.4.6 fj fUJ gkhw kL
fUJgkhw ga kL tU Kiwf eilbgWwJ.
i)

Mauh kL brj

ii) rgh goa _y kL brj, iii) RakL brj,

kL rhj fj fUJf g khztf ngRwd. mjhtJ
koF cgLjgLwhf. fUJ gkhw khztf
gnfid, gfid Ma kL brJ tfhLj brtjh
khztf milf bgWwd. vbghGJ Manu kL bra
ntLbkgiy. y rkaf rgh goaiy gagL kL
brayh. mjF dh goa nH bfhLfgLsJ.
183

rgh goa - fUJ gkhw

nekiw vizf
jdif, TL
kdghik nghwtiw
btgLj

g fzFfis brj

ia fLoj

Mft
fUJf
mogf tiuJ _wthJ

sFj

bjgLJj

fUJ bj

fjbkh
jft gkhw

glf mltiz
_ykhf brfis
btgLj
tiuaiw vGJj

fUf, VLf

tiuj

cjgl

Knfhz

msf,

v-L

goiyfis

xUizj

brnt

gl tiuj

khzt bga

uLj

ll

FG thj

9.4.7 fj fUJ gkhwij nkgLJ cf

xU fj tFgiw fw fj ffnshL khztf jf
vzfis, sffis, rnjffis t brJ bfhs
fj fUJ gkhw mtkhd xwhF. fj fUJfis khztf
xUtUbfhUt gkhbfhs, jkF fUJ Jsjh vgij
bjgL bfhtJ mta. khztf jid lYF, fhuz
fhafis

mJ

bfhs,

mit

FJ

tF

thf

fUJgkhw mahtakhdJ.
tFgiw Ma - khzt ciuahl kW khzt - khzt
ciuahl khztf mit MHgLJ. fUjhH khzt fj
MtF ttFF. fUJ gkhw nghJ j, g F
bjj, thj, sfkj, vGJj, goj, ftj, cW
nehf kW fUjh Mait fwd.
y (1991) vgt TWgo tF rnjfij nff jaF
khztDF,

mtdJ

rnjfij

vGJ

184

_y

khzt

bjf

thgjh fUJgkhw KGikahf eilbgW vd magLwJ.

fUJ gkhwF khzt bkh Mw Ka fhuahf sFwJ.
fj fUJgkhw iwa NH tFgiw mtakhd xW.
jid cWbr bghUL nkbfhsgl M Kof tUkhW

nehf kW gafis goaLj

jFj ghlbghUis d fhQj

khztf Mtij Lj, fw fj Jiz

fUfis cUthFj

khzt brafis tiuaWj

mJ bfhs mj wid Lj
nekiw vzfis tsj

jFj fw NHiy cUthFj.

9.4.8 fjfUJ gkhw tiff

fjfUJ gkhw tht, vGJ t, irif t kW
fhgLJj t vd ehF tifgL.
tht fUJgkhw
fij TWj, nf nfl kW gyj, flikl Toa kW
flikgw nefhz, FGthj kW xgilfis thj Ma
ff _y tht fUJ gkhw eilbgW.
vGJ t fUJgkhw
g fzFf brj, btobahl jf (Scrap Book) jahj,
xU koila milf jahj (folios), bral nkbfhs kw
vGJ nj vGJj _y vGJ t fUJ gkhk fG .
irif t fUJgkhw
irif _y fUJfis gkhw fj FpLf ttFF.
fhgLJj t fUJ gkhw
fUJfis glfh g brJ mj _y fUJ gkhw
ftJ khztf kd eF g
9 . 4 . 9 tFgiw ff fUJ gkhw ga fnzhlf
fj fUJgkhw FJ gy Mf nkbfhsgLsd.
mt y Mf Kofis nH fhngh.
185

1982- nkbfhl M khztf fzF fhz tU

goiyfis fj fUJ gkhw mogil mikJsd.

khzt Kij m

fz jrka vd bjJ bfhs ntL ?

tfis mDkhj

fhQ goiyfis Ko brj

fhQj

nkTa goiyfSF bghUjkhd dhfis Ma cUth

khztfis nfgj _y khztf it jhnk fla ntL.
Ma nfF dhf, tU dhfSF ilagjhf
mikj ntL.

khztDF

fzF

fhz

Vfdnt

vd

bjUF?

khztDF fzF Jsjh?

khzt ajhf vd ff ntL?

a jidfis khzt vthW cUthFtJ?

khzt jhkhf il fhQ tiu Ma nfia vikgL

nff ntL. khztid Ma CfgLj ntL.
1997M ML nkbfhsgl M tU jftf bgwgld.
tFgiw Maf 93.3% neuij jhnk fgjF, 1.6% neuij
khztf il id a brytwd. vdnt fj tFgiwahdJ
Ut gkhwJF l xU t gkhwkhf csJ. khztf Ma
sF fUJfis vj j khwK VWbfhS iy csJ.
W jHf midJ muR kW muR cj bgW gfY
jid

br

jkhf

gilghw

Kiw

(ALM)

mKfgLjgLsJ.
2007M ML nkbfhsgl M fj tFgiw FJ
tU jftf btlgLsd.
186

d vw fUJ Mugg khztSF ffglJ. uhkw

MuggfY efw Mug gfY d ffglJ.
tFgiw ehF goiyf cW nehfglJ.
go 1
ghl mKf (ghlfUJfhd mKf Mauh eljglJ)
go 2
ghlbghU (ghlfUij Ma khztUF sFj)
go 3
s TWj (khztf g fzFfis fUgyif brj (m)
jkJ Fngo vGJj
go 4
ghl Koj (fw fit Ma bjhFj)
go 3- Ma nfl nff midJ Vfdnt tiuaWfgl
id TWjkhf mikjd. khztf jid lYfhd
dhf mikaiy.
9 . 4 . 1 0 fjfUJ gkhw jilf
(Lim) vw fjayh 2006 M ML fj fUJ gkhw
khfis cUth bragLJt tU jilf Ugjhf
Tsh.

Ma xU fUij khztDF a itf mjid ga KG

sfij jhnk mf ntL vd khj.

jnghija nj ika mQFKiw, Ma ika fjYF

fhuzkhf mikwJ.

fod ciH kW g Ma uL kLnk KGfwYF cj

vw bghJthd eif

giHa fj Kiw mf ehl cila Maf a

cfis Ugik

fUJgkhw nghJ tFgiw vG xia Ma

Ughik

9 . 4 . 1 1 fj fUJ gkhw Mf TWf

fj fUJ gkhw Mug gf eilKiwgLjgL nghJ
ebd f khztid brwilwJ. tU tiurl Mug
g fj tFgiw fUJ gkhw eilbgWtij sFwJ.
187

tYL braf
(Rich Mathematical Tasks)

fUJ gkhw
(Communication)

(Lesson Focusing)
ghlika fUJ
fUJ jid
(Mathematical Thinking)

NH
(Environment)

gFgh / kL
(Analysis / Evaluation)

khztf
bfhlduh?

fj

fUij

khztf mDkhdK
bghUS xwhf csdth?

fw fUf
fij Tw

ghlgF

khztf mDkhdij tFgiw

Ma thf l mj

fzF fhz
thj
xgil

jhkhfnt ghlgF dhF il fhz

khztfis mDkj

bral

ghlgF sfF, bjF gntW

cfis ifahSj

xUKid ko mil

khztf fj it Tw mDkj

g milf

btobahl jf

fLof

khztf fLoj F, tiuaWj

KoF cs ilbtia Ma uj
ahj fUJfis vLJfhLf _y J
bfhS tif Ma dhfis
cUth khztfis nrhj.
khztf vLJfhLf Tw mDkj
Ra koF khztid Mt_l
bkh Mw tFgiw fUJ gkhwF Ka gF twJ. fj
FpLf, sf tiu glf, ttotglf, tiuglf Mait nkgl
J t tFwJ. vdnt fUJgkhw _y fj ghlJl izj
k f, fj jik, kW FG braf nkgL fj thifnahL
bjhlila ghl vw vz khztUF tsu Ma bgUgfhw ntL.
188

fwit

4 kW 5 tF khztf fhQnghJ br
fj iHfS mjfhd fS

fj fUJ gkhw

tiuaiw

mta

kL

tiff

jilf

MfTWf

fw braf

fj g nghJ khztfl fhzgl fj

lghLfis, mjid f ifahl fis
goaLf.

fj fUJ gkhw gafis goaLf

189

myF-10

kL
(Evaluation)
10.1 mKf
fj kL xU bjhlf MF. xU fj fUmyJ
xU fj my Ko eljgLw xU W nrhjid kLnk kL
my. J fjij fwnghJ fj yif bjhlahf my
Muhw xU bra MF.
Evaluation is any systematic continuous process of determining,
- the extent to which specified educational objectives previously identified and defined
are attained.
- the effectiveness of the learning experiences provided in the class room
- how well the goals of education have been accomplished.
Encyclopedia of Education Research
Evaluation is relatively a new technical term introduced to designate a more comprehensive concept it measures which was implied in conventional test and examination.
kL = msL + k wdh
Evaluation = Measurement + Value judgement vW FLj bghUJ.
nkY, f Fnfhf, fw mDgtf, kL _W
brafSF ilna cs cwid fl gl wghf
sFwJ.
f Fnfhf

fw mDgtf

190

kL

* _W goiyfS xWbfhW bjhlilaJ.

* kL vgJ fw mDgtf Fnfhf mogil mika
ntL.
* fw - fj kL xU aghd goiy MF.
khztf ghll fWbfhS fUJf ms
nghJkhdjhf, jukhdjhf, taJF Vilajhf mika ntL. jid
msL brJ, njitnfg braghLfis khaikJ bfhs kL
gagLwJ.
khztf fW bfhS w, Kndw, w ts, Mt,
kdg, fw wid gagLJ Mw, fhuzfhaij Muh w,
fYF KobtLF w tiw g MuhJ KobtLf gagLwJ.
vj msF fj cikfis mwhl thif gagLJwhf,
vd, nk tFF nj bgw jF bgWshuh vd za bra kL
gagLwJ.
fj ff mLJ tUw xU Kakhd braghL
kLjyhF. fngh vj Kiw (method of teaching)fjh ga mf
UF vgij ghJ KobtLf gagLwJ. ghlgF cs
fod gFfis flJ, mjid ff wj fj Kiwid
njbjLf gagLwJ.
lLj vgJ kLj bjhl fthf mikwJ vgnj
bj.
10.2

ey nrhjid gf

xU ey nrhjid vbdd gfis bgUf ntL vgij

fhngh. Fnfhf brtnd iwntwgldth, vgij fgJ kL.
nrhjid _y mbraghL vj msF iwntsJ vgij fla
ntL. t xU ey nrhjid vthW mika ntL vgij fhngh.
xU nrhjid dhf nrhf ntoa TWf mogil
mikUf ntL. khztflUJ vghw fw btghLfis
tutiHF tif mikUf ntL. nkY khztf mthw,
jidahw, ehl, gW, Ez nghwt btghLfshf
UF tz dhf mikj ntL. khzt jdJ wik ia
bkJfhl nrhjid xU thghf mika ntL.
xU nrhjid
1. Vilik (Validity), 2. egfjik (Reliablity)
3. wta jik (Objectivity) bgUf ntL.
191

10.2.1. Vilik: (Validity)

vj
wid
myJ
gig
msja
ntL
vgij
KiygLndhnkh, mjid rahf, Jakhf, vnyhU VWbfhw
tif nrhjid mika ntL. vbjj TWfis nrhf fUndhnkh,
mjid bghUgLjhk mjF wghd gfis nrhgjhf mikj TlhJ.
dh mik, bkh, bghU aiy vwhY khztfSila g
(Response) rahf UfhJ.
vLJfhlhf,
1. U vf bgUFbjhif15. mt xW 5 v kbwhU v ahJ.
2. U vf bgUFbjhif 15 v, mbtf vdbdd?
ulhtJ dh, vghj g dh ilfhJ. J nghw
dhf jfgl ntL. ij wj dh (Open Question) vW
TWnth.
10.2.2. wtajik (Objectivity)
xU nrhjid, nrhjidahs kdiyia rhuhk mika ntL. xU
dh il eF tiuaWfgoUj ntL. xU lYF xU
Fl Jyf kLnk Ugjhf mikj ey. xU nrhjidahs gntW fhy
ilbtf msL brjhY myJ gy nrhjidahsf xU nrhjidia
msL brjhY kL khwhk Uf ntL. kL bragLw nghJ
nrhjidahsf jkJ kdiyF Vg kbgf bfhLfgLw Niy
Ujh nrhjid wta jik cilajhf UfhJ.
Vilik jiy vLJfho bfhLfgLs Kj dhit ah
kL brjhY, vjid ng kL brjhY g khwhk UF vgij
mf.
10.2.3 egfjik (Reliability)
xU ey nrhjid vgJ xU tFF vnghJ eljglhY xnu Koit
bjhlahf ju ntL. xU Fl tFF uLF nkgl Kiwf
Fl nrhjidfis eldhY KofSilna cs bjhl jik
ms mfkhf Uf ntL. mjhtJ kbgf khwhk Ujh
mnrhjid egfjik mf vW Twyh. kbgf, fhy, l,
klhsfis bghWJ khwhk Uf ntL.
10.2.4 kLj gaf
* fiyl njitgL khw ghlbghU njitnfg khw,
fj Kiwf UggLw khw, f, fh, nf,
bghUf khw, ghl iz / w braf UggLw khw
f thf / nkyhik njitgL khw, kLj
njitgL fhynfg khwf njitia ff.
192

* njitahd khwfis cF eilKiwgLj

* fF Kiw khztfSF Vilajhf mikwjh vwa
* khztf vj msF fj ghlbghU miliy bgWsh
vgij ma.
* ghlbghU msit vj msF Tl myJ Fiwf ntL
vgij ma.
* fzF ghl khztfSF VgL lghLfis, ffis
fla
* khztf wikfis zf
* wiknfg nkgofis njbjLf
* mtf Ug, vz, wiknfg ntiyia njbjLf.
* khztfSF vj msF ghlfUJf, gf bfhLfglyh
vgij ma kL gagLwJ.
10.3

nrhjidfS, njfS

xU a fiylij cUthF nghnj kLj Kiwfis ll

ntL. fw fj mDgtfis lLnghnj kL lij
cUthf ntL. khztf KGikahd Kndwij ma njitahd,
Kiwahd EQffis flJ ko nrfgl ntL.
bgUghY f kLj fF nehff m rhj
fUJfshfnt UF. vdnt tiw nrhjidf brtj _y kL
brayh. nkY it mj (Knowledge), j(Understanding), Ms(Application),
Mw (Skill) Mat mogilnyna mikUF.
fw, fj, kL vW _W fshf ekJ f Kiwid
fyh.
fj (Teach-Test-Teach) f-nrh-f vgJ ikahjJ.
fw ff cs Fiwfis JKiw nrhjidf _y flJ
fisayh. nrhjid tiff tUkhW.
1. wik nrhjid (Ability Test)
2. g nrhjid (Practice Test)
3. mil nrhjid (Achivement Test)
4. Fiwa nrhjid (Diagnostic Test)
5. Kd nrhjid (Prognostic Test)
nrhjidf milnrhjid, Fiwa nrhjid g thf fhngh.
193

10.3.1 mil nrhjid (Achievement Test)

mil nrhjid vgJ khztf, fw ghlgF vj msF
mil bgWshf vgij ma cj nrhjidahF. thu, khj, gUt
njhW eljgL nrhjid MF. jdogil jnghJ khztfis nk
tFF mDtjh iyah vgJ khfgLwJ.
10.3.2 Fiwa nrhjid (Diagnostic Test)
fUJfis J bfht VgL lghLfis, ffis
flJ mFiwfis nrhjid brJ ghlfUJf milit bgw
itgnj nrhjid nehfkhF. ghlfUJfis fWbfht f
(Fiw) vgnj ju, fU mil iy(Achivement)-Fiw vgjy. vwhY,
fw FiwU, mil iyY Fiw UF vg Iaiy. Mf
Fiwid FtjF gy tf cL. mtiw flJ brayhu (Action
Research) brJ njitglh fj Kiwfis khaikJ Fiwfis f
eltoif vLf ntL.
fj

Fiwa
nrhjid

Fiw F
nghjid

mil
iy

Fiwa
nrhjid

Fiw F
nghjid

Fiwa nrhjidia gFgh brwnghJ jjna xbthU khztD

vj fU vthW jtW brwh vgij gFjhJ Fiw F nghjidF
ll ntL. xnu jtiw gy khztf brUjh Ma, fj
Kiwia khaikf ntL. khztf Fiw mogil jikia
flJ Fiw F nghjidF ll ntL.
10.3.3 Fiwa nrhjid goiyf
1.

khztfSF bj brj my vbdd fUJf, fw

Fiwf fw vdgij bj brj ntL.

2.

fw VgL fUJ Fiwfis, tifgL bfhSj ntL.

194

3.

xbthU tifyhd FiwghLF 3 myJ 5 dhf jahf ntL.

4.

cjhuzkhf 4 fUJf VgL fw FiwghLfis fljjhf

bfhnth. mfUJf fw FiwghLfis fl tif 4 x 3=12
dhf myJ 4 x 5=20 dhfis jahJ bjhFf ntL.

5.

dhfis tirgLjhk, fyJ dhjhis jahf ntL.

6.

cjhuzkhf
FiwghLf

dh v

1
2
3
4

1, 5, 8
2, 7, 9
4, 10, 12
3, 6, 11

7.

nrhjidia khztfl elJj ntL.

8.

khztf ilfis (Jyff) r, jtW vW kL Fj

ntL.

9.

khzf Jyffis mltiz gL gFjhj ntL.

10.3.4 gFjh mltiz

Fiwa nrhjidF bj bragl khztf vif 11 vW
itJbfhnth
(A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. I, J, K)
iHf

fUJiH
fw iH

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

10

12

11
















X


X














X
X

X


X
X
X

X
X

X

X

X









X








X





X
X


X
X

X






X

X

X


X
X

X

X
X
X
X
X

X




X
X
X

X



X

X

X





X


X


X
X
X
X
X
X

7
3


X
X


X


195





X

X

2
6
7
4
5
7
7

xU fU mfgoahd jtW fUjh m FiwghL csJ

vdyh.

xU fU Xnu xU jtWjh fJsJ v mJ rjgtrjh

fUfyh vd fU bfhL mfU fw FiwghL csJ
vd bfhtiy. j bghUnl xU fU dhf vif
3, 5, 7. vd vLJbfhnwh.

mltiz cjl vj fUid fF nghJ ftd brYj

ntL vgij mayh.

FiwF nghjidF VJthf lLtjF gFjh cjwJ.

10.4

nrhjidfS kLjY (Test & Evaluation)

nrhjid vgJ xU f eilbgwjh ? iyah ? vgij mJ

bfhs cj. nkY vj msF eilbgWsJ vgjid ma cj.
j mogil f mLj fl fF ll cj. nrhjid
vgJ xU f bjhlahf eljgLtJ. f Kndwij ma
cj br. fid elJgtnu nrhjidia elJth. fhy tiuaiw
vgJ ilahJ. bgUf vw fUid fgjhf bfhnth bgUf rahf
bragljh vgij cW brj ntL. bgUf rahf bragljh
vgij cW brj ntL. vj ms wil bgwWshf vgij ma
Ko brj dnu mLj myid ff khf Ko.
uL _W myFfis izJ nrhjid brayh. jid
njf vw jiyY bfhLfyh. nj Kofis bfhL, nk tF
khwF llyh. J ghlbghU milid fla gagLwJ.
kL vgJ mso kig ghJ KoF tUjiy FF.
w tsia ma cj. bjhlahf eilbgW. j _y Fiwfis
fla aY. nkY. FiwF nghjidF ll cj. jnrhjid
brJ bfhs kL gagLwJ.
10.5

kL fUf

khzt bragL j, rahf, mHfhf, bghUjkhf, ntfkhf, bkJthf brj

nghw gf. fj gaghil J ghuhL jik, uF jik, Mt,
kw jfis goj, bjJ bfhs ntL vD Mt tiwbayh
msja jFj fUfis flj ntL. mitf y cWnehFj,
rghF goa, ju msnfh, f FngL, u gntL, nrhjidf, njf
vgdthF
196

10.5.1 cWnehFj
jgl Kiw xU khztidnah myJ tFignah myJ xU
braiynah TJ ftJ ghitL Ffis bjhFgJ cW nehf
KiwvW Twyh. Kiw KGtJ eg jFjJ my vwhY, jid
csa Kiwahf VW bfhLsd.
10.5.2 rghF goa
xUt elij myJ ghl VgL Fl vyh ffis
kwJlhk Uf goa jah brJ bfhs ntL. J ghlF ghl
khW, MaUF Ma khWgL. xbthU fahf r ghJ M / iy
vW cW nehal FJ bfhs ntL. ilf bgw Jyfiy
kL brayh.
10.5.3 ju ms nfh
J rghF goaiy fhoY J nkgl msL fU vdyh.
xU jgia ma mjfhf xJfgl l jFj vzh FLj.
vLJfhlhf.
v

g
1

1.

goiyfis mikj

2.

fis Kiwgo Lj

3.

fzL w

kbg
3
2

10.5.4 f FngL
xU bra myJ cik ff bjhF vW jid Twyh.
ffis FLnghJ brhj U btWF l bragl ntL.
khztf nehff, gHftHff, U btWf, kdnghF tiw
J ma gagL.
10.5.5 u gntL
kL Kiwdh nrffgl khzt Kakhd gf
midij KiwgL jahj br Fig u gntL vdyh.
khztf f Kndw, ghl Mt, jwikf Kjatiw
UJ bgwyh.
kL fUf g csa ghl thf, bjthf, Jakhf
sfgLsJ.
197

10.6

njf tiff
njfis _W tiffshf fyh.
1. vGJ nj (Written Test)
2. thbkh nj (Oral Test)
3. braKiw nj (Activity Test)

10.6.1 vGJ nj
khztf fw milfis vGJ nj _y nrhfyh. Ma
dhjhis jahJ bfhLf ntL. khztf ilfis iljh
vGa Ma mj iljhis U kbg goa jah bra
ntL.
vGJ nj dh tiffis tUkhW tifgLjyh.
bgUdh / fLiu dh (Essay Type) FiwjJ xU gf ms thd
il juntL
W dh (Short Answer Questions) xU g kLnk il ju ntL
f W dh (Very Short Answer Questions) xU thaf rahd
giy vGJj ntL
* dh tot

Question Form

* uj tot Completion Form

* ASSO

Association Form

* ANALOG

Analog Form

jid ghl myFF, khztf jjikF Vg ghlF VwthW

khaikJ bfhsyh.
vLJfhLf
i

dh tot : (Question Form)

1. tl gu fhQ Nu vGJf.
2. 2x - 5 = v, x = ?

ii

uj tot : (Completion Form)

1. xU tl Mu U klF .........................................
2. rJu gu A = .........................................
198

iii

bjhlgLJj Kiw ASSO (Association Form)

1. fl cUtf gufis fhf:
= .........................................................

= .........................................................
= .........................................................
= .........................................................
iv

Analog Form
uL uhfSF ilna cs bjhlig Mjhukhf bfhL kw

n#ho fhlij u
1. rJu : a 2 .............................. : r 2
2. tha iy > w iy = el ......................................... = yhg

wta dh (Objective Type)

xbthU dhF xWF nkgl ilf bfhLfgoUF.

mt rahd ilia njbjLf ntL.

1. rah / jtwh (Alternative responses)
2. gil dhf (Multiple choice items)
3. bghUJj (Matching Type)
4. tifgLJj (Classification Type)
5. d h F

bjhlila

Jyff

gy

bfhLfgoUF.

mgoaUJ rahd giy njbjLj (Master List Type)

I. rah / jtwh
ftf ntoait
* tha mik bjthf Uf ntL.
* rblW KobtLf Koahjgo mikj ntL.
* rahd dhf vif jtwhd dhf vif
rkkhf mikj ntL.
199

Fiwf
* khztf ilna jjikF l ilahJ.
* gjF mf th iy.
(vLJfhL)
vyh gfh vfS xiw vfns. rah jtwh ?
gil dhf

II.

* xbthU dhF 4 (m) 5 ilf bfhLfgLj ntL.

* xnu xU rahd il kL Uf ntL.
bghUJj

III.

xbthU dhFkhd bghUjkhd giy flJ mjFa vGJ

Fpil vGj.
* xbthU dhF rahd giy njbjLJ bghUJf.
* mjKs thafshf mikj ntL.
* gjfhf g njitia l xW mfkhf Uj ntL.
* dh vQUY, il vGJUY Uf ntL.
tifgLJj

IV.

rgjyhjtiw bjLj. bfhLfgLstW xW

bghUjyhk UF. vLJfhL.
itf xW mj cwF bghUjhJ. mjhtJ,

Kjik F got (Master List Form)

V.

bfhLfgl goaUJ rahdtiw njbjLJ uf.

rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.

r 2 ,

1
bh, lb, ( R + r )( R r ), ab
2

dh
i)

tl gu : ..................................................

ii) Knfhz gu : ......................................

10.6.2 thbkh nj
J xU Kiw rhuh nj Kiw.
xU fUJF bjhlghd gy dhfis nfL rahd giy tutiHgJ
vghj ilfis bgWtjF VwthW dhf nffgl ntL. fF
200

nehf mF bjhlghd ltlkhdtiw id Tj, FLj,

bjhlghd tuij nrhgJ rhakhwJ. kdghl br wid
nrhgjF Vw xU fUahF.
ftf ntoait
1. dhf RUfkhf bjthf mikj ntL.
2. ghlgFfSF rk KaJt mfgl ntL.
3. ghugr dhf dt ntL.
4. wDF bjhlghd dhfis kLnk nff ntL.
5. jgl Kiw eilbgw ntL. (FGthf nff TlhJ)
6. dhgoa KTona jah brJ bfhs ntL.
7. Rating Scale I nrhjidfUahf gagLjyh.
8. y nff kLnk nfL kL braTlhJ.
1 0 . 6 . 3 brat nj (Activity Test)
xU fUij vj brat ffglnjh mnj brat Kiw
myJ mjF izahd brat Kiw kLnk nrhf ntL.
ghugr bragl ntL.
10.7

myF nrhjid (Unit Test)

myF nrhjid xU tif mil nrhjidna. khj nrhjid,

gUt nrhjid (fhyhL, miuahL, MoW) nghwitfS mil

nrhjidf bghJthf ffgl ghlgFf midY khztf
mil iyia nrhF tif dhf mikf bgW. gUt
nrhjidf _y KGikahf khztf mil iyia nrhf ayhJ.
Mdh ffgl ntoa fjghl gFfis W W gFfshf
J bfhL, xbthU myif fj fUJfis KGikahf
fW bfhlhfsh vd m tif myF nrhjid mikfgl
ntL.
nrhjid MaUF fj vj msF bt bgwh vW
ma cj. gad tu (Feed back) jUwJ. J cUthf nrhjidahf
(Formative list), bjhF nrhjidahf (Summative List) gagLwJ. RU
l(Spiral) bjhlila fj nghw ghlf J Kd (Pretest)
nrhjidahf gagLwJ.
201

myF nrhjid goiyf

1. nrhjidia ll
2. dhfis jahj
3. iljhfis nrfJ kL brj.
nrhjidia ll
xbthU ghl myY nrhjidfhd Fnfhfis ltlkhf
khd brj ntL. f Kakhd gFfS, J fUJfS
nrhjid lbgw ntL.
MuhJ goF gHf, tiuaiwfis mogilf UJ tUF
w, bfhiffis njhWF w Kjad nrhjid lbgw
ntL. xbthU myF Kojl mjfhd Fnfhf KGik
bgwdth vgij nrhjidf btgLj ntL.
dhfis, ghlgF F, mF yhk jukhd dhfis
bj brJ tirgL, ey gaid jU tif mikf ntL.
lL nrhjidia mikf ntL. my Fnfhf, dh tif
vif Matiw ll ntL. nrhjid KaJtij
bghWJ bkhj kbgfis gL bra ntL.
10.8

nehff mogil gL (Weightage to Objectives)

vLJfhlhf,
v

fgj Fnfh

kbg rjj

kbg

1.

mj (K)

30

2.

j (U)

40

10

3.

Ms (A)

15

4.

Mw (S)

15

100

25

xU nrhjid jh f vikahd dhfis kLnk bj brJ

ida TlhJ. mJ nghynt vyh dhfS fodkhf mika TlhJ.
dhf 30% fodkhf, 30% vikahf, 40% iliyY UF
gr khztf wid eF nrhf Ko.
202

10.8.1 dhtiffhd gL (Weightage to the difficulty level)

v

dh tif

kbg rjj

kbg

1.

vaJ

30

2.

iliy

40

10

3.

fod

30

100

25

nrhjidF khztf vts neu vLJbfhthf vW lL

Uf ntL. vts neu nrhfgLthf vgij mUf ntL.
vdnt vjid dhf nffgl ntL vgjF xU jFj iyahd tiu
J kLnk my. myF Vg, ghl jikF Vg, khaikJ bfhsyh
fhuz fhafis KiwgL bfhs ntL.
10.8.2 dh tiffhd kbg gL (Weightage to different types of questions)
t.v

dh tiff

dhtif
kbg

dhf
vif

kbg

rjj

1.

bgUdh

10

40%

2.

Wdh

24%

3.

f Wdh

16%

4.

wta dh

20%

11

25

100%

bkhj

J nghynt vj ghlgF khztfSF nrhjid brnwhnkh

mghlgF vbjj gF vts KakhdJ vgij lL mJ
Ka dhf kbg rjjij njitnfg khaikJ tHf
ntL.
nrhfgl ntoa wf mj (K), j (U), Ms (A) Mw (S)
xbthY vjid dhf, dhf jik ghlbghU
KaJt g Ma eF mJ, mj mogil myF nrhjidjh
jahj ntL.

203

dhjh totik

myF nrhjid
t.
v

nehf
ghlgF

204

fUij mj

vGJ Kiw

mik

xLj

nfl j
j

j
(understanding)

mj (Knowlege)
bg

. .t bkh bg
1
2

(1)

(1)

. .t bkh bg

mj

5 = 20%
25

Mw
(Skill)

. .t bkh bg

3(1)

bkhj

. .t bkh
2

(1)

(1)

4
5

2
1

(1)

3(1)

(1)
(1)

F
bg- bgUdh
- Wdh
. - fW dh
.t-wta dh

Ms
(Application)

1
2

(1)

tF VI
fhy 30 l

10

milF - dhf vif

mil yhjJ /kbg

j 7 = 28%
25

Ms

10 = 40%
25

Mw 3 = 12%
25

25

10.9

fj jah ntWik

fj - xU fUJ br f ghl; fUJf khztf mil

uhf mika thiy. K ntWghL UF. w khztf,
ja khztf vbwyh Uf th mf csJ.
wik mogil khztfis FGfshf J jahf
njfis lL eljyh. w khztf wDnfwthW lf,
mfgoahd fzFf, fyhd fzFf, mfgoahd braKiw
ntiyf, mtf Matiw bfhLfyh.
nj ms j Ugtf, m, Mw, Kd Mat
wjJ. Mdh, mtf y bky fnghuhf Ug. tfSF cik
fhuzfis flJ Niyia kh mikjhnyh, Cf bfhLjhnyh
bkJthf fngh ey kbg bgWt.
Maiu rhj y fhuzfshY khztf nj mil iy
Fiwa thsJ.
fF ghlF Fnfh iy vd Mafns gy rka
vQwd.
mtru mtrukhf (ghl Rik vW T) ghlbghUis fgJ,
Ma KndghL yhikna MF.
fUJfis, nfhghLfis, ylhfnth myJ fh
totkhfnth mikfhk fW bfhLgJ.
gKiw gfSF llhik nghw fhuzfsh khzt nj
mil Fiwayh. y rkaf thfij rhJ nj mil iy
Fiwa th csJ.
10.9.1 beKiwf
f Fnfhf iwntW tz ghlbghUS, fj
KiwfS mika ntL, kLj Fnfh midJ brtnd
iwntsdth vgij ff ntL. vj fw gFia nrhf
idnjhnkh mgFia eF tiuaWJ bfhs ntL.
nrhjid br Kiwid nj bra ntL. vGJ njth? th
t njth? brKiw njth? vgij Ko brJ bfhs ntL.
nj neuij zJ bfhs ntL. dhf
vifia zf ntL. dh Kiwf, iljh tiw
jahJ itJ bfhs ntL. dhtotik got (Blue Print) jahJ
itJbfhs ntL. nj Kofis vthW M bra ntL vW
lL bfhs ntL. f Fnfhf mogil nehf
205

iwntWwjh vgij M br tif nj Kofis M bra

ntL.
dhjh xnu tifahd dhf xnu l Uf ntL. (bgU
dh, W dh, fW dh, wta dh) dhf fbjthf,
vikahf Uf ntL.
* dhf khztf jidia Ltjhf mika ntL.
* mit nrhgitahf Uf ntL.
* ilf vGJtjfhd
FlgoUf ntL.

Ff

kW

bjthf

* dh mik (Suggestive) ilfis L tif Uf TlhJ.

10.10 njid elJj
njit elJtjfhd l, mktjfhd VghL, fhnwhl tr,
btr nghJkhdjhf Uj ntL. nj neu nghJkhd msF
bfhLfgl ntL.
rhjhuzkhf 80% khztf midJ dhfSF ilaf
vts neu MF vgij fzL fhymsit zf ntL.
khztfSF njF njitahd Ffis tHf ntL.
nkghitahsfis 20 khztfSF xUt j af ntL.
10.10.1 iljh jahj
khztf iljhfis kL brtjF Ma KTona
dhfSfhd rahd giy jahJ itJ bfhs ntL.
iljh go kbg (Step Mark) tHfgLtjfhd FWfis
KTona jahJ itJbfhs ntL. kL brnghJ U
btW bragl ntL. xU Ma kL brj iljhis kbwhU
Ma kL brjh kbg ahr bgUghY Uj TlhJ.
iljhis kL brj khztf kbg goa jah
bra ntL. khzt Kndw mif milia g brJ
bgnwhfSF bjf ntL. mtfSF tfhLjYF ll
ntL.
10.10.2 khzt Kndw mif jahj
fahL KGtjFkhf f braghLfY f w
braghLfY khztf Kndwij mifahf jah brJ
bgnwhfSF mf ntL. khztfSF bgnwhfSF
njitahd miufis tfhLjYfhd Fia bfhLf
ntL.
206

khzt Kndw mif (Progress Report)

khzt Kndw mif
g : .........................................................
khzt bga : .........................................
Kj nj

t.

ghl

v
1

My

fzF

ma

r_f ma

bgw
kbg

tF
ruhr

ulh nj
bgw
kbg

ruhr
juiy
clf
ifntiy
bghJm
tiuj
Rj
goj
jiyikg
fhy jtwhik
Ma
ifbahg
jiyik
Ma
bgnwh
ifbahg
207

tF
ruhr

_wh nj
bgw
kbg

tF
ruhr

10.11 brayhuh
a cikfis fltjfhd xU t brayhuh. a
bfhiffis a gaghL tfis jdh bgw Ko. Dr. S.M.Corey
vgt fw - fj Kiwfis ey Kiw J bfhtjF vj
Niy, btia bgw Ko vgij mJ bfhs J gagLwJ
vW tiuaWwh. P.M. Cooks vgt Muh vgJ xU neikahd
rhykhd mthjkhd cikid fl t vW tiuaWwh.
Muhfis uL tiffshf fyh. mit 1) mogil myJ
Mjhu Muh (Fundatamental or basic) 2) brayhuh myJ gaghlhuh
(Applied)
brayhuh
Dr.S.M. Corey vgt f KjKiwahf brayhuh vw fUij
gagLdh. brayhuh csa kW r_f csa Jiwf UJ
bjhl Ufyh. bgUghY brayhuhid Maf, g
Kjtf, thfdf mtut braf gf ey Kndw
bgw gagLJwhf.
tiuaiwf
Corey. SM.
Action Research is a process for studiying problems & practitioners scientifically to
take decision for improving the common practice
Black Bell
Research concerned with school problems carried on by school personne to improve the practice in action research
Mr. Threte
A.R. is organised investigative activity aimed towards, the study of concentrative
change of given endeavour by individual or group concerned with change of improvement.
brayhuh fw - fj MafSF tFgiw ffis
f gagLwJ. fw milfis caj gagLwJ.
1 0 . 1 1 brayhuh gf
* f Kndwfis KiwgLJtjF gagLwJ.
* dr thif VgL ffis f gagLwJ.
208

* ffSF

eilKiw

it

ma

tkhf

fla

gagLwJ.
* bjh <LgL egnu brayhuh brwh.
* eilKiw

gfis,

Kndwfis,

khwfis

KiygL bragLwJ.
10.11.2 brayhuh Fnfhf
* brayhuh mfykhdJ kW MHkhdJ.
* g thf wikahf bragl cjwJ.
* tFgiw braghLfis Kndw cjwJ.
* g thf VgL ffSF fhz cjwJ.
* g thfd, Kjt, nkyfhf, Maf tf ma
kdghikia tsl cjwJ.
* Ma khztfl cs Rju kdnghF JbfhSj
VgL ffSF fhz gagLwJ.
* fw - fj wDilajhf mika gagLwJ.
* fw mil iyia tsl gagLwJ.
10.11.3 brayhuh goiyf
* fiy flj.
* fiy tiuaWj.
* fYfhd fis gFjj.
* brayhuhfhd fUJnfhis cUthFj.
* fUJnfhfis nrhgJ.
* Kofis bjhFJiuj.
10.11.4 brayhuh gaf
* g ntiy Niyia caj cjwJ.
* tFgiw fw -fj Kiwfis Niynfg khaikJ
bfhs cjwJ.
* tFgiw fYfhd elij, fLghL, Fiwj tUif g
tWfhd f bgw ttif brwJ.
* g thfF nkyhik VgL ffis f cjwJ.
* giHa Kiwfis a Kiwfis Fl cjwJ.
* khztf Mtfis cal cjwJ.
* gfhd eilKiwfis nkikgLl cjwJ.
209

fwit

ey nrhjid gf

kLj gaf

nrhjidfS njfS

mil nrhjid

Fiwa nrhjid

nj / kL ntWghLf

nj / nrhjid ntWghLf

kL fUf

njf tiff

myF nrhjid

dhjh totik

jah ntWik

nj beKiwf

njid elJj

iljh jah

khzt Kndw mif

brayhuh

nenfhL tiugl
- nenfhL tiuj
- rh, btLJil fhQj
- nekhw, v khw - bjhl

212

izf
dhjh flik
dhjh m, M, Ma _W fis bfhlJ.
2 kbgf bfhl dhf mla gF, m MF.
4 kbgf bfhl dhf mla gF, M MF.
10 kbgf bfhl dhf mla gF, MF.
- m

(kbgf

40)

20 dhf nffgL
xbthU dhF kbg 2 MF.
midJ dhfSF ilaf ntL.
10 dhf, ts myF 1, 2, 3, 4 kW 6 Kj 10 tF tiuyhd
ghlfUJ nffgL.
10 dhf ts myF 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 MatUJ nffgL.
- M

(kbgf

40)

- M, U gFfis bfhlJ.
gF - I - 8 dhf ts myF 1, 2, 3, 4 kW 6 Kj 10
tiuyhd ghlfUJ nffgL.

VnjD 5 dhfSF ilaf ntL.

gF - II - 8 dhf ts myF 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 MatUJ

nffgL.
VnjD 5 dhfSF ilaf ntL.
xbthU dhF kbg 4 MF.
213

kbg 2 0

U dhfSF ilaf ntL.

xbthU dh vY U dhf myJ mogil
bfhLfgoUF.
xbthU dhF kbg 10 MF.
cs 4 dhfS ts myF 7, 8, 9 & 10 UJ
nffgL.
bghJFf
1.

2 kbg dh, fzFfshf U mjF jFj ilid,

fzF myhj dhfshf U FiwjJ Ugoiyf (2
fUJf) bfhlitahf Uf ntL.

2.

4 kbg dh, fzFfshf U mjF jFj ilid,

fzF myhj dhfshf U FiwjJ 4 goiyf (4 fUJf)
bfhlitahf Uf ntL.

3.

10 kbgf dhfSF rW thf njitahd ms

ilaf ntL.

214

dh tiu

TWf

M
gF I

gF II

mj
Knowledge (K)

j
Understanding (U)

Ms
Application (A)

Mw
Skill (S)

bkhj

20

bkhj
kbgf
16

11

38

26

56

39

34

24

144

100

16

mfkL - kbg gL
1.

jhnd fw fUf (Self learning Kit) kW

2. xgilf (2)
ts ghlbghUUJ (1)
g ghl ghlbghUUJ (1)

3. dho-dh ff (2)
g(1)
Wtd (1)

4. Fl fj fUJfSF VnjD uL
fw fUf cUthFj, gagLJ j
g sf vGJj.

5. fj nkbfhS g
myFnj elJj
dh tiu jahj
dhjh jahj
ilFfS kbg gL
kbg goa
kbg goaYF fbt goa jahj
ikanghF msitf k flJ
gFgh F vGJj
tiugl sf

mj gaghLf g xU fLiu tiuf

25
215

216
-

2( 4)

1 ( 2)
1 ( 2)
1 ( 2)
-

1 ( 2)
-

4( 2)

mw hl t hif
fj
gaghL

a fj
a

brKiw t oa

6-8 t F
( ghlgFf 2,4.6,7)

9 M t F
( ghlgFf 4,9,10,11)
10M t F
( ghlgFf 10,11)
crh
f j

fj t h
fw
t ha
fzFf

f w nkghlila
fiyl w braf

f w Fiw ghLfS,
fUJ gkh w K
kL
bkhj

II

III

IV

Content - 1

Content - 2

VI

VII

VIII

IX

. - W dh

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

F.

ghl gFf

myF

4( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

5( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

F.

1( 10)

1 ( 10)

bg.

j (U )
U nderstanding

F.-FW dh

bg.

mj (K )
K now ledge

1 ( 10)

1 ( 10)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 (2 )

1 ( 2)

5 ( 4) 2( 10) 4( 2)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

2( 4)
-

bg

F.

Ms (A )
A pplication

bg.-bgUdh

8
( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

dhjh t ot ik - Kt iu -I

4( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

F.

1 ( 10)

1 ( 10)

bg.

M w (S)
Skill

144

18

16

16

18

12

12

12

10

12

k
bg

217

1 ( 2)

br Ki w t o a

6-8 t F
( g hlg Ff 2,4.6,7)

9 M t F
( g hlg Ff
4,9,10,11)
10M t F
( g hlg Ff 10,11)

crh f j
j

IV

C ontent - 1

C ontent - 2

1 ( 2)

4( 2)

f w nkg hli la
f i yl
w bra f

f w
Fi w g hLf S,
f UJ g kh w K

kL

bkhj

VIII

IX

2( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

F.

4( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

5( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

F.

1( 10)

1 ( 10)

bg .

j (U )
U nderstanding

F. -FW dh

bg .

mj (K )
K now ledge

. - W dh

t h a
f z Ff

1 ( 2)

VII

VI

III

f j
t h
fw

1 ( 2)

a f j

II

mw hl t h i f
f j
g a g hL

g hl g Ff

myF

5 ( 4)

8
( 2)

2( 10)

1 ( 10)

1 ( 10)

4( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 (2 )

1 ( 2)

4( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

F.

1 ( 10)

1 ( 10)

bg .

M w (S)
Skill

bg . -bg U dh

1 ( 4)

1 ( 4)

2( 4)
-

bg

1 ( 4)

F.

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

Ms (A )
A pplication

dhj h t ot i k - Kt i u-II

144

18

16

16

18

12

12

12

10

12

k
bg

Ma gla nj
ulhML

kh dhjh - I
neu : 3 k neu

kbgf : 100
- m

midJ dhfSF ilaf.

xbthU dhF 2 kbg
1.

fj rKjhagaf uoid TWf.

2.

tiuaW : kh, kh

3.

Xd cWfis vLJ vGJf.

20 x 2 = 40

-3m, 6m, 7m, -5m, -2b2, -2m2

4.

tuf nrfj Kjiy tuf g WF tiuf.

5.

ruhr fhf.
10, 30, 20, 50, 70.

6.

w ehfuf vwh vd?

7.

xbthU brtfK rtf, xbthU rtfK brtftW vJ r ? V?.

8.

xU bghUis %.7000F WbfhLg juF 3% bgWwh v bgw

bjhif vts?.

9.

RUFf : (2 x 2 + 5 x 9) (3 x 5)

10.

y=3 vw rkgho tiugl vthW mik ?

11.

mrh c goiyf ahit?

12.

Kj vGJbrh cF vLJfhL jUf.

13.

th fw bghU ahJ?.

14.

th fw Ma g VnjD ehid TWf.

15.

STAR c tiuaW.

16.

fj fjiy ghfToa fhuf ehid TWf.

17.

f fiyl Kiwrhuh braghLfSF ehF vLJfhLf

jUf.
218

18.

vf bgU bgh.t., W bgh.k. fhQ bghGJ khztf br

iHfis FLf.

19.

ey nrhjid gf ahit?

20. myFnrhjid goiyfis TWf.

- M
gF - I
IJ dhfSF kL ilaf
21.

5 x 4 = 20

rjj tha gaghoid tf.

22. v fj nfhit, afj nfhit kW gYW nfhitfis

vLJfhLfSl sFf.
23. f :

p + q = 10
pq = 2

24. fl tufSF l yf fhf.

35, 45, 62, 73, 47, 62.
25. xU fia %.44,000 F w 12% el VglJ v, f
tha iyia fzLf.
26. ABCD vw rhrJu AC=8 br., c = 80 o mss rhrJu tiuf.
27. xU ntiyia 15 ehf brJ Kof 20 Mf njitgLwd. mnj
ntiyia 12 ehf Kof D vjid ng njitgLwhf?
28. izfu

_iy

lf

ms

br.

kW

br.

mtilnaahd xU nfhz ms 65 o tsf bfhL gl tiuf.

gF - II
IJ dhfSF kL ilaf

5 x 4 = 20

29. nefjYF, crh fjYF cs ntWghLfis goaLf.

30. fUJ tiugl cia X vLJfhL _y sFf.
31.

th ika fw gofis t.

32. th Kiw fwYF toa ghljiyUJ vLJfhL jJ

sFf.
219

33. ftd<Fa khztf vifia Fiwg Mua gF

ahJ?
34. fj Mtf Ka nehff ahit?
35. bjhlfg khztf tFj bra vbfhS lghLfis
vLJfhLfSl TWf.
36. nrhjidF, njF ilnas ntWghLfis TWf.
-
U dhfSF ilaf

2 x 10 = 20

37. m) 10 12 mss X miw jiuF bk nghl xU rJu lUF

%.12.50 j vd brythF? vw fzid STAR cia
gagL fhf.
myJ
M) x + 2 y 6 = 0 vgj nenfhL tiuJ mj rhid fLof
nkY rhid thghL gagL ilia fLoJ rghf.
38. m) afj ehF mogil braf VgL bghJthd iHfis
Muhf.
myJ
M) bra Muh gf, goiyf kW gafis sFf.

220

Ma gla nj
ulh ML

kh dhjh - II
neu : 3 k neu

kbgf : 100
- m

midJ dhfSF ilaf.

xbthU dhF 2 kbg

20 x 2 = 40

1.

j gf uoid TWf.

2.

X v UklF 25 -ljhia gagL vGJf.

3.

6m 2 + 7 m 9 UJ 2m 2 m + 4 I ff.

4.

ikanghfsitf ahit?

5.

KfL fhf.

6.

mKiw toa - tiuaW.

7.

rhrJu gf uoid TWf

8.

%.5000F MLF 4% j 2 MLf ilF jto vts?

9.

tFf : ( x 2 5 x + 6) ( x 2)

10.

_wh fhtl mik U f mRufis vGJf.

11.

gl sf cF X vLJfhL jUf.

12.

JUbrh cF X vLJfhL jUf.

13.

wj th gf ehid TWf..

14.

th ika fw khzt gF ahJ?

15.

ftd <Fa khztf ah?

16.

STAR c thf vd?

17.

f fiyl Kiwrhuh f braghLf nehff ahit?

18.

fUJ g - tiuaW.

19.

wtajik - tiuaW.

5, 6, 3, 5, 10, 5, 8, 5, 8.

20. nrhjid tiff ehid TWf.

221

gF - II
IJ dhfSF kL ilaf
21.

5 x 4 = 20

%gh 2000F 10% toj ulhLf ilF jtoF, TL

toF ilnas ahrij fhf.

22. X <yf v yff TLj 10. mj vUJ 10 I

fjh yff l kha v ilwJ. mj viz fhf.
23. Xd cWf, ntd cWf Matiw vLJfhLfSl sFf.
24. bfhLfgLs fbt gut mltizF rhur fhf.

ilbt

10-20

20-30

30-40

40-50

50-60

fbt

60-70 70-80
4

25. tl ehfu Ka g ahJ? xU braghL _y mjid sFf.

26. PQRS vw rtf PQ = 6 br., QR = 4.5 br. , P = 75o , Q = 65o gl
tiuf.
27. fhf.
2x + 3 y = 7
3 x y = 6

28. fj jah ntWik FJ F tiuf.

-
U dhfSF ilaf
37. m)

2 x 10 = 20

afjYs tha fzFfSF STAR cia gagL

fj goiyfis tf.
myJ

37. M) dho

dh

gaf

ahJ?

fia

vthW

eilKiwgLjyh?
38. m)

gcW nfhitf kh, kh, bfG, cW, go Mat VgL

bghJthd iHfis Muhf.

myJ
38. M) kL fUf tiffis TW mtiw tf.
222

fiybrhf
Kj vGJ brh c
afj
afj rkghL
afj nfhit
gFgh
fzF fhQj
gaghL
TL ruhr
xgil
fUJnfh
ftd <Fa khztf
Ruhr
ruhr yf
cikrh thaf
<UW nfhit
ikanghfsitf
ilbt
tifgLj
bf>(Fzf)
mrh cf
fUJ gkhw
gkhw jilf
fjfUJgkhw
fzLj
fUJ tiugl c
fUJd
iy jik
khf
TLw fw
isnjwf
gilghw
TL fbt
tuf nrf
go
Efj
223

Acronyms Strategy
Algebra
Algebraic Equation
Algebraic expression
Analysis
Answer the problem
Application
Arithmetic mean
Assignment
Assumption
At-risk Students
Average
Average Deviation
Axioms
Binomial Expression
Central Tendency
Class interval
Classification
Co-efficient
Cognitive Strategies
Communication
Communication barriers
Communication in mathematics
Computation
Concept Mapping strategy
Concept webbing
Consistency
Constants
Co-operative Learning
Corollaries
Creativity
Cumulative Frequency
Data Collection
Degree
Differential Calculus

neKf fj
gut
f Kiw
My vGJ a tot
tuf nrfghs
rkghL
mDkhj
kLj
rahd viy
cik
FLg iy mif
Efiyf
Kj iy msf
ut afa
xU koila milf
fbt
fUJfis nrfj
tfho
rkuw
xUikjik
bfhif
glsf c
kiwKf nefhz
jkj ntWghL
jftf
cL
xUizj mil
fUjh
nffiz c
JU brh c
fw ayhik
fw njitf
Xd cWf
xUgo (nea) rkghL
vGJUf
jUf
viy
gKf tifgLj

Direct instruction
Dispersion
Elimination Method
English Alphabet lower case letters
Enumerator
Equation
Estimation
Evaluation
Exact limit
Facts
Family Budgeting
Fine arts
First order measures
Fluid Dynamics
folios
Frequency
Gathering
Guide
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
Hypothesis
Imagery Strategy
Indirect Oral Interview
Individual difference
Information
Input
Integrated Achievement
Interpretation
Interrogation strategy
Keyword Strategy
Learning Disabilities
Learning needs
Like terms
Linear Equation
Literals
Logic
Lower bound
Manifold classification
224

fj yhd bjhl
fjTWf
fj cUf
gut msitf
iliyas
nkjha mrh cf
kd tiugl
KfL
ffhj
XUWnfhit
Xus ja khztf
vfj nfhit
xUfikj
btpL
mik Kiw
xghFG fw
tl sfgl
ljhf
gYWnfhit rkghL
gYW nfhit
ciunfhf
Kjiy tuf
th ikafw
th
bral
fhkhd yf
fhkhd
dhgoa
juv
gFjthj
fhuz fha kj
tYLj
gnf
fUbghUf
id sh brj
tYL braf
khTW

Mathematical communication
Mathematical Statements
Mathematical symbols
Measures of dispersion
Median
Meta Cognitive Strategies
Mind mapping
Mode
Monitoring
Monomial Expression
Nominal Students
Numerical Expression
Organizing
Output
Pattern approach
Peer Tutoring
Pie Diagram
Place holders
Polynomial Equation
Polynomial expression
Postulates
Primary data
Problem based learning
Problem solving
Project
Quartile Deviation
Quartiles
Questionnaire
Rank
Rationalization
Reasoning
Reinforcement
Representation
Resources
Review the Solution
Rich mathematical tasks
Sample
225

br bjhF
ulh iy tuf
jhnd fw
Ra nrhjid
RanehF mQFKiw
Ra dh
fUJg
xj jik
va tifgLJj
ilntis R
iHj tisnfhL
ml
fw R
juyf
a
crh fj
upLKiw
gJiu
bjhFj c
mltizgLJj
FpLf
fj mQFKiw
fj Kiw
fj c
cW
njwf
jid Xl
msL fUf
btgil jik
rtf
_Wnfhit
ntdcWf
nk viy
khf
fh jik
d
tha fzFf

Scrap book
Secondary data
Self Learning
Self-check
Self-directed approach
Self-question
Sharing
Similarity
Simple classification
Size of the class interval
Smoothed Curve
Space
Span of learning
Standard Deviation
Statistics
Strategy Instruction
Substitution Method
Suggestion
Summarizing Strategy
Tabulation
Tally marks
Teaching Approach
Teaching Method
Teaching Strategy
Term
Theorems
Thought process
Tools
Transparency
Trapezium
Trinomial
Unlike terms
Upper bound
Variables
Visualization
Webbing
Word problems
226

nknfh f
1.

Mathematics and its History (Second Edition), John Still will, Springer
International Edition

2.

Activity Based Learning - A Report on an Innovative Method in TN, SSA,

Anandalakshmi . S.

3.

Sucessful Teaching in Secondary Schools Sterling. Eurasia Publishing House

(Pvt) Ltd. New Delhi, Callahah. G.

4.

Methods of Teaching Educational Technology, Discovery Publishing, New Delhi,

Chodaverepu Jalaja Kumari and Digumarti Bhaskara Rao (2004)

5.

Learning by Doing. Etienne Benson Four Keys to undergraduate research in your

Laboratory.

6.

Evaluation, 2007, NCERT Materials

7.

Primary Science and Numeracy. Hatfield : Association for Science Education

Feasey, R. and Gallear, B.

8.

The Internet in School. London : Cassell Education, Grey, D. (1999).

9.

Multimedia in Action Vikash Publishing House Washington, James. E. Shuman

(1998)

10. Active Assessment. : David Fulton in Association with Millgate House Publishers, Naylor, S., Keogh, B. and Goldsworthy, A. London .
11. Mastery of Teaching Skills, Discovery Publishing, New Delhi, SBJR Chowdary
Nagaeswararao and D. Bhaskarea Roa, (2004)
12. Methods and Techniques of Teaching. Sonali Publications, New Delhi,
Singamanenai Nageswara Rao, Peethala Sreedhar, Diyumarti Bhaskara Rao
(2004)
13. Successful Teaching in Secondary Schools Eurasia Publishing House Pvt Limited,
New Delhi, Sterling. G. Callahan
14. 1000 Ideas for Primary Science. Lodon : Hodder & Stoughton Wood, D. (1998)
15. sfa Kjyh ML fa kL - 2006. jehL wj
iy gfiyfHf, fa g, bjhEg f tshf, o,
brid -25
227

16. fgtid njhWngh, ca bjhlfiy tFf 2007 -08 khy l

aFduf, midtUF f af, brid, jehL
17. brat fw jhnd fw - (Kj _W tFfSFait) Ma
ifnaL 2005. midtUF f af kW Maf Muh
g aff, brid-6.
18. nja fiyl totik (2005)
19. g K gUt f. gf# K. 1998.
byR nrth rf, fh uhk - 624 302
20. Intel Teach to the Future, Intel Innovation in Education Intel Corporation
www.educationinindia.net. Coral Oho. Martinez and Jane Krauss (2004).
21. Learning by Doing. A teacher role in learning by Doing Method.
http :// www.qscc.gld.edu.au.
Measurement in Science years 1 to 10 source Book Module.
22. www.primaryresources.co.uk A website that provides ideas for a range of acitivity ideas for worksheets and
ideas for assessments.
23. http://www.nea.org/bt/Lstudents/1-1-q-9. html.
Learn more about Active Learning.
23. www.mathumd.edu
ts Ma f gla go - fja f -2001 , jehL ghl
Wtd, brid - 6.
fzF ghlf, jehL ghl fHf, brid -6.
xwh tF (1999)
ulh tF (2001)
_wh tF (2001)
ehfh tF (1999)
Ijh tF (2000)
Mwh tF (2003)
VHh tF (2004)
vlh tF (2005)
xgjh tF (2003)
gjh tF (2004)
228