Ferroelectric RAM FRAM Seminar Report

Seminar Report 03 FRAM
INTRODUCTION:
A ferroelectric memory cell consists of a ferroelectric
capacitor and a MOS transistor. Its construction is similar to
the storage cell of a DRAM. The dierence is in the
dielectric properties of the material !et"een the capacitor#s
electrodes. This material has a high dielectric constant and
can !e polari$ed !y an electric %eld. The polarisation
remains until it gets re&ersed !y an opposite electrical %eld.
This ma'es the memory non(&olatile. )ote that ferroelectric
material* despite its name* does not necessarily contain
iron. The most "ell('no"n ferroelectric su!stance is
+aTiO3.
A Ferroelectric memory cell consists of a ferroelectric
capacitor and a MOS transistor. Its construction is similar to
the storage cell of a DRAM. The dierence is in the
dielectric properties of the material !et"een the capacitor#s
electrodes. This material has a high dielectric constant and
can !e polari$ed !y an electric %eld. The polarisation
Dept. of ,S- M-S,-* .uttippuram 1
remains until it gets re&ersed !y an opposite electrical %eld.
This ma'es the memory non(&olatile.
Data is read !y applying an electric %eld to the
capacitor. If this s"itches the cell into the opposite state
/0ipping o&er the electrical dipoles in the ferroelectric
material1 then more charge is mo&ed than if the cell "as
not 0ipped. This can !e detected and ampli%ed !y sense
ampli%ers. Reading destroys the contents of a cell "hich
must therefore !e "ritten !ac' after a read. This is similar
to the precharge operation in DRAM* though it only needs to
!e done after a read rather than periodically as "ith DRAM
refresh.
FRAM is found mainly in consumer de&ices and
!ecause of its lo" po"er re2uirements* could also !e used
in de&ices that only need to acti&ate for !rief periods. FRAM
allo"s systems to retain information e&en "hen po"er is
lost* "ithout resorting to !atteries* --3ROM* or 0ash.
Access times are the same as for standard SRAM* so there#s
no delay(at("rite access as there is for --3ROM or 0ash. In
addition* the num!er of "rite cycles supported !y the FRAM
components is nearly unlimited4up to 50 !illion
read6"rites. FRAM com!ines the ad&antages of SRAM (
"riting is roughly as fast as reading* and -3ROM ( non(
&olatility and in(circuit programma!ility
FRAM Technology
7hen an electric %eld is applied to a ferroelectric
crystal* the central atom mo&es in the direction of the %eld.
As the atom mo&es "ithin the crystal* it passes through an
energy !arrier* causing a charge spi'e. Internal circuits
sense the charge spi'e and set the memory. If the electric
%eld is remo&ed from the crystal* the central atom stays in
position* preser&ing the state of the memory. Therefore* the
FRAM memory needs no periodic refresh and "hen po"er
fails FRAM memory retains its data. It#s fast* and doesn#t
"ear out8
To increase the memory capacity* the cell si$e must
al"ays !e reduced* and the design* process* and materials
ha&e !een impro&ed aggressi&ely for this purpose.
ferroelectric RAM products /FRAMs1 are the most ad&anced
of the 0ash challengers. The pioneer* Ramtron International
,orp. /,olorado Springs* ,olo.1* has !een selling FRAM chips
since 599:. Their memory capacities are lo"* ho"e&er* the
largest !eing :;<.!4still a small fraction of the
multimega!it chips oered !y the ma=or 0ash memory
ma'ers. In current commercial FRAMs* the interconnects
that lin' indi&idual transistors into circuits are 0.; >m "ide
and operate at 3 ?. )arro"er interconnects are desira!le so
that memory cells may !e made smaller and !e pac'ed in
greater num!ers onto an I,. Ramtron#s FRAMs are made !y
Fu=itsu @td.* To'yo* "hich also sells its o"n FRAM products*
mostly as em!edded memory in microcontrollers and smart
cards.
The !iggest hurdle for FRAM de&elopers is to ad&ance
the manufacturing technology to smaller geometries and
lo"er &oltages. RAD at Ramtron is aiming at 0.3;(>m
interconnect "idths and 5.B(? operation. And last
)o&em!er* TeCas Instruments Inc. /Dallas1 announced that
it had !uilt a <DM! FRAM in a standard 0.53(>m ,MOS
process* using technology licensed from Ramtron.
At the core of an FRAM cell is a capacitor %lled "ith a
ferroelectric crystalline material* usually a lead($irconium(
titanate /3ET1 compound .-ach unit cell /a crystal#s !asic
!uilding !loc'1 of a ferroelectric material has a permanent
electric %eld around it. That#s !ecause the geometric center
of all the electrons in the unit cell is at a dierent spot from
the geometric center of all the protons. It#s as though t"o
small particles "ith e2ual and opposite charges are
separated from each other !y a short distance4in short* it
is an electric dipole.
Many materials form electric dipoles. +ut "hat sets
ferroelectric materials apart from other dipolar materials is
that millions of dipoles* in a region called a domain* line up
to point in the same direction. 7hen an electric %eld is
applied in the opposite direction* the dipoles 0ip o&er so
that they again point in the direction of the electric %eld.
-ach unit cell of 3ET is shaped li'e an elongated cu!e.
At each of the cu!e#s eight corners is an atom of leadF in
the center of each cu!e face is an oCygen atomF and in the
interior of the cu!e is an atom of either $irconium or
titanium. This last has t"o sta!le positions* eCplains Mi'e
Al"ais* Ramtron#s &ice president of FRAM productsG HOne is
near the cu!e#s top face and the other is near the !ottom.H
Apply an electric %eld and the atoms in the interiors of
all the unit cells in the ferroelectric material mo&e in the
%eld#s direction. Remo&e the %eld and the atoms stay put.
The positions of the atoms in the cu!es store the !it of
data* a !inary 5 or 0.
To read a !it* an electric %eld is applied. If the atoms
are near the cu!e H0oorsH and the electric %eld pushes
them to the top* the cell gi&es o a current pulse. This
pulse* representing a stored 5 or 0* is detected !y a sense
ampli%er. ,ontri!uting to pulse amplitude are the
mo&ements of the interior atoms in the crystals of the
ferroelectric material and the capacitor itself. If the atoms
are already near their cu!es# Hceilings*H they don#t !udge
"hen the %eld is applied and the cell gi&es o a smaller
pulse* due only to the electric charges stored on the cell
capacitor.
Reading an FRAM cell destroys the data stored in its
capacitor. So after the !it is read* the sense ampli%er "rites
the data !ac' into the cell* =ust as in a DRAM.
The FRAM in fact is li'e the DRAM in e&ery "ay !ut
oneG the DRAM cell#s capacitor is of a nonferroelectric
material* usually silicon dioCide. 7hen data is stored as
charge on the DRAM cell#s capacitor* the charge lea's a"ay
into the silicon su!strate almost immediately4unless it is
re"ritten se&eral times a second. That re2uirement dri&es
up po"er consumption* and of course "hen the po"er is
turned o* the charge stored in the capacitors 2uic'ly
disappears.
+ecause the !asic operation and structure of the FRAM
and the DRAM are so similar* Al"ais eCpects that FRAMs "ill
e&entually run as fast as DRAMs "ith the
same memory capacity and cell si$e. TeCas
Instruments is interested in FRAMs for
em!edded applications4for eCample* for on(
chip storage of the operating instructions for
digital signal processors and microcontrollers.
Memory Basic
FRAM oers a uni2ue set of features relati&e to other
memory technologies. Traditional mainstream
semiconductor memories can !e di&ided into t"o primary
categories (( &olatile and non&olatile. ?olatile memories
include SRAM /static random access memory1 and DRAM
/dynamic random access memory1. They share the property
that they lose their contents after po"er is remo&ed from
the electronic system. RAM type de&ices are &ery easy to
use* and are high performing* !ut they share the annoying
2uir' of losing their mind "hen the lights go out.
)on&olatile memories do not lose their contents "hen
po"er is remo&ed. Io"e&er all of the mainstream
non&olatile memories share a common ancestry that
deri&es from ROM /read only memory1 technology. The
disad&antage is that read only memory is not easy to "rite
it#s impossi!le. All of its descendants ma'e it &ery diJcult
to "rite ne" information into them. They include
technologies called -3ROM /almost o!solete no"1* --3ROM*
and Flash. ROM !ased technologies are &ery slo" to
"rite.Another disad&antage is that ROM !ased memories
"ear out after !eing "ritten a small num!er of times* and
use a large amounts of po"er to "rite.
FRAM oers features consistent "ith a RAM
technology* !ut is non&olatile li'e a ROM technology. FRAM
!ridges the gap !et"een the t"o categories and creates
something completely ne" (( a non&olatile RAM.
FRAM SPECIFATION :
DM+ FRAM )on&olatile Memory Module
FeaturesG
Organi$ationGD !an's KL 3:' KL 3: !its
Iighest densityG Ferroelectric Memory o&er ::.D'!6mm
50 year data retension at B;o ,
Mnlimited read 6"rite cycles.
Ad&anced high relia!ility ferroelectric process
SRAM A DRAM ,ompati!le
N0ns Access time
530ns ,ycle time.
-2ual access A cycle time for Read and 7rites.
LO POER OPERATION:
:.N? to 3.<? operation .
5;mA Acti&e ,urrent.
5;microA stand !y ,urrent.
The latest 3:(M!it ferroelectric RAM highest density
RAM reported has !een de&eloped !y Toshi!a ,orp. This
FRAM uses a ne" chain cell structure that lin's together
eight memory cells .-ach cell has a ferroelectric capacitor
and %eld eect transistor in parallel and not in series.The
3:M!it FRAM is made on0.:micron processing *"hich
pro&ides 5.BN;s2uare micron cell si$e on a 9< s2uare
millimetre die.
APPLICATIONS:
FRAM is faster than 0ash memory*!ecause it is fast
memory "ith a &ery lo" po"er re2uirement* it is eCpected
to ha&e many applications in small consumer de&ices such
as personal digital assistants /3DAs1* handheld phones*
po"er meters* and smart card* and in security systems.
A smart card is a plastic card a!out the si$e of a credit
card* "ith an em!edded microchip that can !e loaded "ith
data* used for telephone calling* electronic cash payments*
and other applications* and then periodically refreshed for
additional use. . A Smart ,ard is an I, card that contains a
microcomputer* storage circuit* and RF circuit. The
ferroelectric RAM /FRAM1 has !een de&eloped as a
non&olatile memory that satis%es the a!o&e re2uirements.
An FRAM em!edded in an @SI must operate as a lo"(&oltage
peripheral logic I,. 7e ha&e de&eloped a ne" FRAM sensing
scheme that can read !it(line potentials close to the O)D
potential.
,urrently or soon* you may !e a!le to use a smart card toG
Dial a connection on a mo!ile telephone and !e charged on
a per(call !asis
-sta!lish your identity "hen logging on to an Internet
access pro&ider or to an online !an'
3ay for par'ing at par'ing meters or to get on su!"ays*
trains* or !uses
Oi&e hospitals or doctors personal data "ithout %lling out a
form
Ma'e small purchases at electronic stores on the 7e! /a
'ind of cy!ercash1
+uy gasoline at a gasoline station
Fu=itsu has de&eloped Smart ,ards and other high(
security de&ices that use secure ferroelectric RAM /FRAM1
memory. This type of memory has an anti(tampering
function and is used to 'eep the 'eys and parameters
needed for encryption6decryption algorithms* modify the
'eys and parameters for application ser&ices* store a high(
speed calculation ta!le for encryption6decryption systems*
and support a %re"all !et"een applications.
,ontactless Smart ,ards in particular ha&e rapidly
come into "ide use !ecause they are easy to use* can
perform high(speed processing* and can !e used in a "ide
&ariety of applications. In 'eeping "ith this trend* Fu=itsu
has produced &arious FRAM(em!edded /ferroelectric(RAM(
em!edded1 @SIs for ,ontactless Smart ,ards.
,urrent applications for FRAM memory products can !e
di&ided into the follo"ing four categoriesG
Data collection and logging
con%guration storage
non&olatile !uer
SRAM replacement A -Cpansion
Da!a Collec!ion " Logging
FRAM allo"s system designers to "rite data to
non&olatile memory faster and more often (( a luCury not
aorded to users of --3ROMs.
Data collection consists of the ac2uisition and storage
of data* "hich must !e retained in the a!sence of po"er
/not temporary or scratchpad in nature1. These are
systems* or su!systems that ha&e the primary function of
collecting data that &aries o&er time. In most cases* a
history of the changes is important.
End system applicationsG metering /electric* gas* "ater*
0o"1* RF6ID* instrumentation* and certain automoti&e
application such as air!ag controllers.
Con#g$ra!ion S!orage
FRAM helps system designers o&ercome the "oes of
sudden po"er loss !y pro&iding the 0eCi!ility to store
con%guration information in real time (( not =ust on po"er
do"n.
,on%guration storage deals "ith the trac'ing of a
system as it changes o&er time. The goal is either to restore
its state on po"er up* or to identify the cause of an error. In
general* data collection is often the function of a system or
su!system* "here as con%guration storage is a lo" le&el
engineering function regardless of the system type.
End system applicationsG laser printers and copiers*
industrial process control* net"or'ing* ca!le modems and
set top !oCes* and "hite goods
Non%ola!ile B$&er
FRAM can store operating data 2uic'ly* !efore transmitting
or storing in other non&olatile media.
In this case* information is !eing sent from one
su!system to another* this information is critical and should
not !e lost if po"er fails. In some cases* the target system
is a larger storage de&ice. FRAM* "ith its fast "rite and high
endurance allo"s the user to store data !efore it is sent on
to another system.
End system applicationsG industrial systems and in !an'ing
systems such as ATM machines* future applications "ill
include hard dis' dri&es "ith non&olatile caching.
SRAM Re'lacemen! " E('ansion
FRAM#s fast "rite and non&olatile features allo"
system designers to com!ine SRAM and --3ROM into one
de&ice* or simply eCpand SRAM.
In many cases* a system uses multiple memory types.
FRAM oers the a!ility to perform ROM* RAM* and --3ROM
functions "ith one de&ice* sa&ing space* po"er and
sometimes cost. The most common eCample is an
em!edded microcontroller "ith eCternal serial --3ROM.
FRAM can replace the --3ROM* and oer additional SRAM
functionality to the micro as "ell.
End system applicationsG all(in(one memories tend to occur
in porta!le applications* and in any system using lo"(end
/resource poor1 microcontrollers.
FUTURE APPLICATIONS:
APPLICATIONS OF FRAM ON AUTOMOTI)E
APPLICATIONS:*
Today#s passenger automo!iles and truc's oer
increased electronic content and this trend is eCpected to
accelerate. 7ith some ;; million passenger &ehicles sold
"orld"ide in :00: and numerous applications that can
!ene%t from FRAM technology* the automoti&e mar'et is
certainly &ery attracti&e for FRAM. The a&erage lo" end
auto has %&e to ten electronic control units "hile a luCury
car may ha&e %fty to siCty. Recent introductions include
impro&ed A+S systems "ith traction control* continuously
&aria!le transmissions* electronic shift* dynamic sta!ility
control* and digital radio platforms. In the coming years*
ne" electronic applications "ill include adapti&e cruise
control "ith collision a&oidance* D?D players "ith car
na&igation* and control !y "ire /C(!y("ire1* and crash
recording /!lac'(!oC1 technology. Additional sophisticated
net"or' technologies "ill continue to impro&e !ehind the
scenes automation and performance.
The challenge of handling and storing data is a
per&asi&e theme in the proliferation of automoti&e
electronics. One implication is that increased data handling
results in an increase in the fre2uency of data updates.
-Cisting memory choices are often inade2uate in managing
the fre2uent updates. FRAM* "ith fast "rite and eecti&ely
unlimited endurance oers uni2ue !ene%ts for data
handling and storage intensi&e applications. ,onse2uently
it is eCpected to !e "idely adopted in automoti&e
applications in the coming years.
The real o''or!$ni!ies +or FRAM:
+elo" are some of the applications for "hich
automoti&e de&elopment engineers are e&aluating or
designing "ith FRAM products today.
Air,ag
A principle feature of air!ag and restraint systems in
the near future "ill !e crash recorders* commonly 'no" as
!lac'(!oCes. The automoti&e !lac' !oC "ill !e integrated
into the air!ag or restraint system* it is unli'ely to !e a
separate assem!ly such as the aircraft !lac' !oC. This
architecture is attracti&e !ecause the sensor data that is
critical for a crash recorder is largely a&aila!le to the
controller or can !e accessed &ia !usses already in place
such as ,A).
A crash recorder is a data logger. It may !e called on
to collect data fre2uently o&er a long period of time in a
circular !uer* or to respond &ery 2uic'ly !ased on sensor
readings. Ideally the crash recorder "ould oer !oth
capa!ilities. In this rugged en&ironment the data must !e
stored in a true non&olatile memory as any form of !attery
!ac'up "ill present crash sur&i&a!ility challenges.
Technologies such as Flash face performance pro!lems as
they pro&ide "rite endurance "hich is limited "hen it
comes to long term data collection and they are far too
slo" to store data in the moment of impact. ,rash statistics
sho" high percentages of serious crashes result in a po"er
outage during the crash* therefore data must !e stored
instantly and in a non(&olatile state* !efore po"er lea&es
the &ehicle and data is lost. Ramtron is a mem!er of the
I--- 35<5< committee to de%ne a standard for Motor
?ehicle -&ent Data Recorders /M-?DR1. As a result "e ha&e
gained &alua!le insight into data recorder re2uirements.
Today crash recorders are !eing designed "ith FRAM
products from 5<.! to <D.!* typically "ith a S3I interface
such as the FM:;<D0.
Telema!ics-na%iga!ion
Telematic functions are increasingly part of a high end
&ehicle electronics pac'age. These systems pro&ide
dynamic maps that allo" routing to !e ad=usted !ased on
traJc patterns or other criteria. FRAM memories are used
today in such system to store na&igation "aypoints*
!oo'mar's etc. 5<.! memories are commonly used in this
application. @ast year Matsushita selected Ramtron#s FRAM
for its in(car na&igation system. The 5<. FM:;,5<0Ps fast
read6"rite and high(endurance features pro&ide Matsushita
mo!ile automoti&e de&ices "ith a distincti&e resume play
function. The FM:;,5<0 stores scene changes and uni2ue
user data upon po"er do"n* ena!ling the user to continue
"here they left o "hen the unit is po"ered !ac' up.
En!er!ainmen!
Digital car radios are gaining in popularity. Such radios
can do"nload station information and store it in non&olatile
memory. The uncertainty of changes in this data ma'es it
ris'y to use a limited endurance memory such as --3ROM.
A common "or'(around is to maintain such do"nload data
in RAM and "rite it "hen po"er is turned o. This re2uires
the use of a large capacitor "hich can maintain po"er on
the --3ROM "hile it is "ritten. 7hile ineCpensi&e* these
capacitors are physically !ul'y and undesira!le in e&er
shrin'ing electronic radios. Matsushita designed a 5<.
FRAM into their in(car entertainment systems. The
FM:;,5<0 sa&es system !oard space !y eliminating
components and allo"ing a reduced capacitor si$e* "hich
"ould not !e possi!le "ith alternati&e memory solutions.
Ins!r$men! Cl$s!er
Instrument clusters pro&ide &arying capa!ilities. The
presence of a lo" density non&olatile memory is common*
and trac'ing elapsed miles often leads to fre2uent "rites.
The pro!lem of intermittent data errors is fre2uently
eCperienced !y users in this application* possi!ly
associated "ith electrical noise interfering "ith slo"er
"riting non&olatile memories. A D.! FRAM such as the
FM:D,0D has !een used in such instrumentation "ith great
success and pro&ides ro!ust operating and data integrity in
a noisy en&ironment.
Tire Press$re
Automo!iles are adopting tire pressure sensing
technology in order to mitigate the ris's associated "ith
dri&ing "ith under(in0ated tires. Today this technology is
implemented !y sensing rotational dierences !et"een
tires and inferring tire pressure. Future systems "ill li'ely
in&ol&e direct sensor technology that can measure tire
pressure. A natural eCtension of this data generation is
logging. A historical record of tire pressures could present
compelling documentation in determining lia!ility should
tire pressure contri!ute to an accident. Tire pressure logs
might !e implemented in the car and also in the tire* and
FRAM is an ideal solution for this application gi&en its
unlimited a!ility to "rite in lo" po"er en&ironments* such
as that of a tire(!ased historical logger.
ABS * S!a,ili!y Con!rol
A+S has e&ol&ed from its !asic form to include traction
control and more recently to include sta!ility control.
Traction control uses the "heel slip information already
produced !y A+S sensors to regulate po"er to pre&ent
spinning tires due to slippery conditions. Sta!ility control is
a more sophisticated &ariety "here po"er is regulated to
each "heel depending on dri&ing conditions. +ased on
speed* turn radius and road conditions the rotation of
indi&idual "heels is managed. Such systems are &ery
sophisticated and in&ol&e learning algorithms. To use a
FRAM for eCample in this application "ould !e more
suita!le for users since FRAM allo"s for unrestricted
updates of system data. ,urrently temperatures for FRAM
are speci%ed to B;, and A+S system electronics must
normally operate at 5:;,* ho"e&er the road map for FRAM
products includes meeting these temperature
re2uirements.
Po.er Train
@i'e sta!ility control* po"er train management
systems are e&er more adapti&e and can !ene%t from a
non&olatile memory that can !e updated 2uic'ly and often.
Also li'e A+S* these systems operate at 5:;, and "ill
depend on a future generation of FRAM products* most
li'ely :;<.! parts rated at 5:;, or higher.
AD)ANTA/ES:
5. FRAM allo"s systems to retain information e&en "hen
po"er is lost* "ithout resorting to !atteries* --3ROM* or
0ash.
:. Access times are the same as for standard SRAM* so
there#s no delay(at("rite access as there is for --3ROM
or 0ash.
3. @o" po"er consumption * lo" &oltage operation and
high "rite endurance ma'e it superior than other non(
&olatile memories li'e --3ROM A F@ASI
D. It is less eCpensi&e than magnetic memories "hich
re2uire D eCtra mas'
DISAD)ANTA/E:
5. 3resent high cost .
:. @o" density compared to DRAM A SRAM.
FUTURE OF FRAM:
De&elopment of FRAM in full range of densities
and operating temperatures to support automoti&e data
handling and storage applications "ill %nd a "ide &ariety of
applications as said a!o&e.
In addition* the FRAM technology can easily !e
com!ined "ith logic and miCed signal technologies to oer
more cost eecti&e integrated solutions in the future.
CONCLUSION
The !iggest o!stacle to large memories is their large
po"er consumption* particularly for "ireless applications.
+ut FRAMPs ad&antage is the lo" po"er consumption
compared to other ne" memory technologies * and hence
economic. The "ide range of applications it has in case of
SMART cards and data storage applications* together "ith
the future automoti&e applications ma'e it one of the !est
memories among the ne" memory technologies among
ferromagnetic and o&onic memories.
REFERENCES
Information Technology Maga$ine
httpG66""".ieee.org
httpG66""".eetu'.com
httpG66""".sa&emy%les.com
ABSTRACT

FRAM is a type of non(&olatile read6"rite random
access semiconductor memory. FRAM com!ines the
ad&antages of SRAM "riting is roughly as fast as reading*
and -3ROM non(&olatility and in(circuit programma!ility.
FRAM /ferroelectric RAM1 is a random access memory that
com!ines the fast read and "rite access of dynamic RAM
/DRAM1 ( the most common 'ind of personal computer
memory ( "ith the a!ility to retain data "hen po"er is
turned o /as do other non(&olatile memory de&ices such as
ROM and 0ash memory1. +ecause FRAM is not as dense
/can not store as much ata in the same space1 as DRAM and
SRAM* it is not li'ely replace these technologies. It is fast
memory "ith a &ery lo" po"er re2uirement* it is eCpected
to ha&e many applications in small consumer de&ices such
as personal digital assistants /3DA1* handheld phones*
po"er meters* and smart card* and in security systems.
FRAM is faster than 0ash memory. It is also eCpected to
replace --3ROM and SRAM for some applications and to
!ecome a 'ey component in future "ireless products.
CONTENTS
I)TRODM,TIO)
FRAM T-,I)O@OOQ
M-MORQ +ASI,S
AD?A)TAO-S A DISAD?A)TAO-S.
A33@I,ATIO)S OF FRAM.
/a1,MRRR-)T A33@I,ATIO)S
/!1FMTMR- A33@I,ATIO)S
,O),@MSIO)
AC0NOLED/MENT
I eCpress my sincere than's to Pro+1 M1N
Agnisarman Nam,oo!hiri /Iead of the Department*
,omputer Science and -ngineering* M-S,-1* Mr. Sminesh
/Sta incharge1 for their 'ind
co(operation for presenting the seminar.
I also eCtend my sincere than's to all other mem!ers
of the faculty of ,omputer Science and -ngineering
Department and my friends for their co(operation and
encouragement.
ANUS2A1R1C

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