page 7.

CHAPTER 7
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Transmit information-bearing message or baseband signal voice-music
through a Communications Channel
Baseband = band of frequencies representing the original signal
for music 20 Hz - 20,000 Hz, for voice 300 - 3,400 Hz
write the baseband message signal mt $ M f 
Communications Channel
Typical radio frequencies 10 KHz ! 300 GHz
write ct = Ac cos2fct

ct = Radio Frequency Carrier Wave

Ac = Carrier Amplitude
fc = Carrier Frequency
Amplitude Modulation AM
! Amplitude of carrier wave varies  a mean value in step with the baseband signal mt

st = Ac 1 + kamt cos 2fct

Mean value Ac.

31

page 7.2
Recall a general signal

st = at cos 2fct + t

For AM

at = Ac 1 + kamt
t = 0 or constant
ka = Amplitude Sensitivity

Note 1 jka mtj 1or 1 + kamt 0

2 fc w = bandwidth of mt

32

page 7.3

AM Signal In Time and Frequency Domain

st = Ac 1 + ka mt cos 2fct
j 2fct + e,j 2fc t

st = Ac 1 + ka mt e

st = A2c ej2fct + A2c e,j2fct

+ Ac2ka mtej2fct
+ Ac2ka mte,j2fct
To nd S f  use:
mt $ M f 
ej2fct $ f , fc
e,j2fct $ f + fc 
expj 2fc tmt $ M f , fc
exp,j 2fctmt $ M f + fc 

S f  = A2c f , fc  + f + fc 
+ Ac2ka M f , fc + M f + fc 

33

page 7.4

st = Ac 1 + ka mt cos 2fct

= A2c 1 + kamt expj 2fct + exp,j 2fct
If kamt 1, then

! Overmodulation
! Envelope Distortion

see Text p. 262 - Fig. 7.1

max value of kamt = Percent Modulation
Look at AM signal in frequency domain

S f  = A2c f , fc  + f + fc 
+ ka2Ac M f , fc  + M f + fc 
where M f  = FT of mt

34

page 7.5
Example 1 p. 265 - Single Tone Modulation

mt = Am cos 2fmt

fm = 1 KHz message frequency
st = Ac1 + ka mt cos 2fc t
st = Ac1 +  cos 2fmt cos 2fct
 = kaAm 1
= Modulation Factor Percentage
Draw st for  1

Amax = Ac1 + 
Amin
Ac1 , 
max , Amin
= A
A +A
max

min

Rewrite st using trig identity

cos cos = 12 cos ,  + 12 cos +  with = fc;

st = Ac cos 2fct + 2 cos 2fc + fmt

+ 2 cos 2fc , fm t

S f  = A2c f , fc  + f + fc 
+ A4c f , fc , fm + f + fc + fm 
+ A4c  f , fc + fm  + f + fc , fm
35

= fm

page 7.6

st 2 = power into 1  jS f j2

Carrier Power
Positive and
Negative Frequencies 

2 A4c


Upper Sideband
Power

= Ac8

2 2

2 A22
A
c
2 4 = c8


Lower Sideband
Power
USB + LSB Power
Total Power

2
2
2 A2c = A2c


A2c 2 + A2c 2
8
8
A2c + A2c 2 + A2c 2
2
8
8

2
= 2 + 

Example
Carrier
Power
A2c
2


Modulation

100

Modulation
Audio
Power
USB + LSB
A2c 2
4

100
100
100
100

100
50
20
0

50
12.5
4
0

36

Total
Power
2
2 + 2 A4c

Audio Power
Total
2
2 + 2

150
112.5
104
100

0.33
0.11
0.04
0

page 7.8
Generation of AM Waves - P. 267
Square Law Modulator 3 stages: Adder, Non-Linearity NL, Bandpass Filter BPF

For this example, we use non-linearity v2t = a1v1t + a2v12t

Here v1t = Ac cos 2fct + mt
z

! v2t = a1Ac 1 + 2aa2 mt cos 2fc t

1
+a1mt + a2m2t + a2A2c cos2 2fct


The rst bracketed term is desired AM wave at carrier fc with

ka = 2aa2
1

Remaining terms are at baseband or 2fc and are ltered out by BPF. BPF has center
frequency fc bandwidth 2w. The cos2 term has components at baseband and at 2fc because
cos2 = 12 1 + 2 cos 2  with = 2fct
37

page 7.10
Given v2t nd V2f 

Curve

v2t = a1Ac cos 2fc t

2a2Acmt cos 2fct
+a1mt

a
b
c

+a2m2t
+a2A2c 12 1 + cos 2
2fct
|

d
e

cos2 2fc t

V2f  = a1 A2c f , fc + f + fc

+2a2Ac M f , fc + M f + fc 
+a1M f 
+a2FT m2t
+ a22Ac f  + f , 2fc  + f + 2fc
2

Assignment

Text: p. 384, p. 7.1, p. 7.3, p. 269 Ex. 2

38

page 7.11
Generation of AM Waves Continued - P. 269-270
Switching Modulator
Same as square law except non linearity is now: !


v2t = v10t

v1t 0
v1t 0

v1t = Ac cos 2fct + mt

= ct + mt
Assume jmtj

Ac

Thus v2t = v10t cctt 00

Thus switch diode on and o at rate fc
diode on only when ct 0

v2t = Accos2fct + mt gpt

where gpt is a unipolar square wave at fc.

39

page 7.12
Recall Fourier Series ELEC 260 p. 106

f t with period T

f t = ao +

n=1

ao = T1

T=2

,T=2

an = T2
bn = T2

2nt
an cos 2nt
+
b
n sin
T
T

T=2

,T=2
Z

T=2

,T=2

f tdt
f t cos 2nt
T dt
f t sin 2nt
T dt

Consider gp t with period T0 and frequency fc = 1=T0

ao = T1
o
an = T2
o

1
dt = T1 T2o = 21
,To =4
o
To =4

2 To sin 2nt
cos 2nt
dt
=
To
To 2n
To
,To =4

To =4

1 sin 2nTo=4 , sin , 2nTo=4

= n
To
To
"

1 2 sin n =
= n
2


n = 1; 5; 9 : : :

,2
n

n = 3; 7; : : :

40

,To
4

!

2
n

n = 2m , 1; m = 1; 2; 3; : : :

To

9
=
;

n,1
= 2,n1, 1
2

page 7.13
Relabel m ! n
1
n,1
gpt = 12 + 2 2,n1, 1 cos 22nT, 1fc t with fc = 1=To
o
n=1
"

write gpt as Fourier cosine series see ELEC 260

1 ,1n,1
1
2
gpt = 2 + 
cos 2fct2n , 1
n=1 2n , 1
X

v2t = Ac cos 2fct + mt gpt

= Ac cos 2fct + mt 12 + 2 cos 2fct + : : :
= A2c cos 2fct + mt 2 cos 2fct + m2t + : : :
4 mt A cos 2f t + : : :
= A2c 1 + A
c
c
c


| z

4
= AM wave with ka = A

unwanted components
at frequencies removed from fc

41

page 7.14
Demodulation of AM Waves
Square Law Demodulator
No good unless mt

Ac i.e.  modulation very low see P. 271 - Skip this

Envelope Detector - P. 272

42

page 7.15

7.2 P. 274 - Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Modulation DSBSC

Carrier ct = Ac cos 2fct does not carry information ! waste of power
in mt = 1 max at 100 modulation
Recall Power
Power in ct 3

! Suppress the Carrier

AM: sAM t = 1 + mt ct

= ct + mt ct ka = 1
DSB: st =
mtct
= Ac cos 2fct mt
S f  = 12 Ac M f , fc  + M f , fc 
Phase reversal when mt 0.

43

page 7.16
DSBSC

st = ctmt
= Ac cos 2fct mt
= A2c exp,j 2fct + expj 2fc t mt
Recall shifting property

mt $ M f 
expj 2fc tmt $ M f , fc 

S f  = A2c M f + fc + M f , fc

Single tone modulation

mt = Am cos 2fmt

M f  = A2m  f , fm  + f + fm
M f , fc = A2m f , fm , fc + f + fm , fc
M f + fc = A2m f , fm + fc  + f + fm + fc

44

page 7.18

3.5 Generation of DSBSC Waves - P. 276

DSBst = ctmt
= Ac cos 2fct mt
Balanced modulator

s1t = Ac 1 + kamt cos 2fct

s2t = Ac 1 , kamt cos 2fct
st = s1t , s2t
= 2ka Ac cos 2fct mt
= 2ka ctmt

45

page 7.19 P. 277 To produce DSB signal st = mtct

Ring modulator mixer multiplies mt with ct.
For positive half-cycles of ct
D1 and D3 conduct, D2 and D4 open
point a connected to point b
point c connected to point d
current through T2 primary proportional to mt.
For negative half-cycles of ct
D2 and D4 conduct, D1 and D3 open
point a connected to point d
point b connected to point c
current through T2 primary proportional to ,mt.
Use square wave ct to avoid problems with diode o sets.

46

page 7.20
Ring Modulator

st = ctmt
1
n,1
= 4 2,n1, 1 cos 2fct2n , 1 mt
n=1
mod
Square Wave Carrier
X

Compare ct here with gpt on page 7.12.

Here ct range ,1 to +1, no DC term
gpt range 0 to 1, with DC term.

S f  = C f  M f  =
z

1 ,1n,1
X

S f  = 4
n=1 2n , 1

,1

C M f , d
C f 
|

f , fc 2n , 1 + f + fc 2n , 1 M f 

2

For n = 1

S f  = 24 f , fc + f + fc  M f 
1 4
=
  , fc +  + fc  M f , d
,1 2
= 24 M f , fc + M f + fc 
Z

For n = 2 : : :
n = 3:::
47

page 7.20A
Superheterodyne Receiver
Since fc varies from one signal to the next, the receiver is designed to convert all fc to a
xed frequency fIF . This way we can use the same lter and detector for any signal at any
fc.

RF
540-1600 KHz AM Broadcast
LO
995-2055 KHz
IF = LO - RF 455
KHz
Example Consider CFAX at 1070 KHz
Here LO = 1525 KHz
SUM = 2595
IF = LO = RF = 455 KHz DIF = 455
Mixer outputs sum and di erence frequencies
thus another station at 1980 KHz image frequency will also be received since
LO = 1525 KHz
RF = 1980 KHz
RF-LO = 455 KHz
Image is ltered out by RF AMP lter
Homodyne receiver uses zero frequency IF, i.e. LO=RF, IF=0

48

page 7.20X
General I-Q receiver - demodulator
applies for any signal, AM, DSB and others.
Input signal

st = atcos 2fIF t + t

= xt cos 2fIF t , yt sin 2fIF t
Output signals I = xt and Q = yt.
Exercise - show this using algebra

49

page 7.23
DSBSC Demodulation
Costas Receiver
same as general I-Q receiver with extra feedback signal
Two coherent detectors

Output

One LO cos2fc t + 

1 A cos mt
2 c
1 A sin mt
2 c

Other LO sin2fct + 

Here fc = f = fIF .
Phase discriminator output et is a DC control signal

et =

1 A cos mt
1 A sin mt

2 c
2 c

2
2
= A4c m2t cos sin = A8c m2t sin 2

The DC control signal is used as a feedback signal to reduce

TP 11 = cos 2fct cos2fct + 

TP 19 = cos 2fct sin2fct + 
TP 13 =

50

page 7.24
Costas receiver in more detail
Costas receiver is same as general I-Q receiver with extra feedback signal et = I
Q used
to adjust oscillator frequency f to be close to fIF . In general fIF 6= f .
IF input signal sIF t = mt cos2fIF t +

in .

From table 3 page 626,

2 cos sin = sin ,  + sin + 
2 cos cos = cos ,  + cos + 

TP 11 = mt cos2fIF t + in cos2ft + `

= 21 mt cos2fIF , f t + in , ` + cos2fIF + f t + in + `
TP 19 = mt cos2fIF t + in sin2ft + ` 
= 12 mt sin2fIF , f t + in , `  + sin2fIF + f t + ` + in 
TP 13 = 12 mt cos 2fIF , f t + in , `
TP 12 = 12 mt sin2fIF , f t + in , `

51

page 7.25
Costas receiver continued
De ne 4f = fIF , f
 = ` , in

et = TP 12
TP 13

= 41 m2t cos24ft ,  sin24ft , 
= 18 m2t sin44ft , 2
Using sin cos = 12 sin
2

et = 0 if 4f = 0 and  = 0
If et 6= 0, then VCO will be adjusted so that et = 0
After LPF 5Hz

eLP t = 18 sin44ft , 2

m2t
Average Value
|

= DC Control Signal
For small 44ft , 2 = x; sin x  x.
Thus eLP t ' 44ft , 2

52

page 7.26

P. 283 - Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing

Combine two independent DSBSC modulated waves on the same frequency fc
with two modulations m1t m2t
To achieve this we use two carrier waves at fc but 90o out of phase

st = Acm1t cos 2fc t + Acm2t sin 2fct

To receive the two independent modulations m1t m2t use the general I-Q receiver. The
I-Q receiver contains two separate DSBSC demodulators with local oscillators carriers 90o
out of phase, cos 2fct and sin 2fc t.
For this to work, we need to have the local oscillators to have frequency fc exactly the same
as the frequency of st.
Note that st is in the general format with xt = m1t and yt = ,m2t.

53

page 7.28
Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing - continued
We will show that there is no mixing of the two modulations, even though the carrier
frequency is the same

vt = st cos 2fct

= Acm1t cos 2fc t cos 2fct
+ Acm2t sin 2fct cos 2fct
cos2 = 12 1 , cos 2 
cos sin = 12 sin 2
vt = 12 Acm1t 1 , cos 4fc t
+ 12 Acm2t sin 4fc t
After LPF

vot = 12 Acm1t

54

page 7.29

P. 284 - Single Sideband Modulation

In DSBSC, the two sidebands carry redundant information thus we can eliminate one sideband to get SSB-SC usually referred to as SSB.
SSB with carrier is called SSB-AM
We begin with frequency domain description of SSB
1. Single tone modulation mt = cos 2fmt
2. General modulation mt
Looking only at positive frequencies

mt
AM
DSB-SC
SSB

55

page 7.31

3.9 Generation of SSB Waves

1 - Filtering Frequency Discrimination
2 - Phase Discrimination general I-Q transmitter
1 Filter Method
Produce Modulator + Filter

Need sharp lter to pass USB and reject LSB

e.g 8-pole crystal lter at 10.7 MHz not practical
Upconvert to desired carrier frequency

Assignment 4 P. 388 P. 7.4  16, 19a, 20a

56

page 7.31A
2 General I-Q transmitter

st = xt cos 2fct , yt sin 2fct

57

page 7.32
text P. 288

Time Domain Description of SSB

st = A2c mt cos 2fct  m^ t sin 2fct

, For upper sideband

+ For lower sideband

m^ t = Hilbert transform of mt see notes p. 3.3-3.4

,90o Phase shift for all positive frequencies
+90o Phase shift for all negative frequencies

H f  special kind of lter"

Recall H f  = ,j sgn f p.3.3-3.4
ht = 1=t
1 m 
m^ t = mt ht = 1
d
,1 t ,
M^ f  = M f H f 
Z

= ,j sgn f M f 

58

page 7.33
Single tone modulation for SSB
Example 3 - P. 291
If mt = Am cos 2fmt
m^ t = Am sin 2fmt
st = A2c mt cos 2fc t  m^ t sin 2fct
,
= Ac2Am cos 2fmt cos 2fc t + sin 2fmt sin 2fc t
,

Recall cos   = cos cos + sin sin , thus

st = Ac2Am cos 2fc  fmt

st is a single tone at frequency fc  fm . See also text gure 7.3 1 p. 266

59

page 7.34
SSB - Time $ Frequency Domain

st = A2c mt cos 2fct  m^ t sin 2fct

M^ f  = M f H f  = ,j sgn f M f  p. 7.32
S f  = A2c M f  12 f f , fc + f + fc g
 , j sgn f M f  21j f f , fc , f + fc g
= A4c M f  f , fc
+M f  f + fc 
 sgn f M f  f , fc
,

+ sgn f M f 

f + fc 

= A4c M f , fc + M f + fc 

sgnf , fc M f , fc +, sgnf + fc M f + fc 

= A2c M f , fc; f , fc 0; f

fc

similarly

S f  = A2c M f + fc; f + f

,fc

0; f

60

page 7.36

P. 293 Demodulation of SSB

cLO t = cos 2fct

,
st = A2c mt cos 2fct + m^ t sin 2fc t
vt = st cos 2fct
= A2c mt cos 2fct cos 2fct
,
+ A2c m^ t cos 2fct sin 2fct
cos2 = 12 1 + cos 2 
cos sin = 12 sin 2
Ac mt + Ac mt cos 4f t +, Ac m^ t sin 4f t
vt =
c
c
4
4
4
Message Signal
Unwanted Terms
|

This assumes no phase or frequency error in local oscillator CLO t

61

page 7.37

Demodulation of SSB with Frequency Error

CLO t = cos 2fc + 4f t

,
st = A2c mt cos 2fct + m^ t sin 2fct
vt = st cos 2fc + 4f t
= A2c mt cos 2fc + 4f t cos 2fc t
,
+ A2c m^ t cos 2fc + 4f t sin 2fct
cos cos = 1 cos ,  + cos + 
2
cos sin = 12 sin +  , sin , 
= 2fc + 4f t = 2fct , = 24ft
vt = A2c mt 12 cos 24ft
,
+ A2c m^ 2t sin 24ft + Double Frequency Terms
After LPF, v0t is an SSB signal on a low frequency carrier 4f .

62

page 7.38

Carrier Plus SSB Wave

st = Ac cos 2fct + mt cos 2fc t , m^ t sin 2fct
Carrier
USB
= Ac + mt cos 2fct , m^ t sin 2fct
= at cos2fct + 
|

where at = Ac + mt 2 + m^ t 2

at = output of envelope detector

=

A2c + 2Acmt + m2t + m^ 2t

If Ac

at =

jmtj and Ac

jm^ tj
recall 1 + x1=2 ' 1 + 1 x
2

A2c + 2Acmt
s

= Ac 1 + A2 mt
c
= Ac 1 + A1 mt = Ac + mt
c


c
Thus at = mt+ DC bias term as long as A
Ac

63

jmtj
jm^ tj

page 7.39 Superheterooyne Receiver for USB

To tune in 2 change LO to 10.559 MHz

SIG -LO = 10.559 - 10.104 = 455 Khz
Tunable lter to eliminate image frequency
could also choose LO = 9.645 MHz for Station 1.
Question: Can we demodulate LSB with this receiver?

64

page 7.40
In practice it is not cost e ective to lter at frequencies much greater than 10.7 MHz. This
is because the lter skirts cannot be made steep enough .
Typical Crystal Filter Spec.

Typical Voice Audio signal 300 Hz - 2600 Hz

If 2300 Hz passband centered on audio
then -60 dB attenuation will be at 400 Hz in opposite sideband.

65

page 7.50
Summary of modulation types, assuming the message jmtj 1
AM
st = 1 + kamt cos2fc t + 
DSB
st = mt cos2fct + 
USB
st = mt cos2fct +  , m^ t sin2fct + 
FM

st = cos 2fct + 2kf

m d

= cos 2fct + t = cos it

PM
st = cos 2fct + kpmt

For mt
AM mt
DSB st
USB st

Am cos 2fm t with Am = 1

1 + ka cos 2fmt cos2fct + 
cos 2fmt cos2fct + 
cos 2fmt cos2fct + 
, sin 2fmt sin2fct + 
FM st = cos2fct + fkf sin 2fmt
m
PM st = cos 2fct + kp cos 2fm t
=
=
=
=

66