Topic 3 The Voice of the Genome

2.3.1
Organelle Structure and function
nucleus enclosed in double membrane with pores
contains chromosomes with genes made of DNA to control protein
synthesis
ribosomes made of RNA and protein
free in cytoplasm or attached to RER
site of protein synthesis
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
interconnected sacs with ribosomes attached
transport proteins to other parts of cell
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
synthesis of lipids and steroids
mitochondria
double membrane inner folded into cristae
site of later stages of aerobic respiration
centrioles one pair found in animal cells
made of protein microtubules
involved in spindle formation and cellular transport
lysosomes digestive enzymes wrapped in membrane
breadown of unwanted structures or old cells
nucleolus dense body in nucleus
synthesis of ribosomes
2.3.2
!roteins synthesised on the ribosomes of the RER are moved to other parts of the cell through the
cavities of the endoplasmic reticulum"
#he Golgi apparatus is a stac of membrane$bound sacs formed from fused vesicles from the ER"
!roteins are modified here and pacaged in vesicles" Some proteins e"g" enzymes and hormones are
released from the cell"
See Figure 3.9 on page 101.
2.3.3
#he cells described above% with membrane$bound organelles are eukaryotic"
Organisms with euaryotic cells are classified into & ingdoms' Animals% !lants% (ungi and !rotoctists"
#he )
th
ingdom is the !roaryotes% with prokaryotic cells which'
are smaller than euaryotic cells
have no membrane$bound organelles
have no nucleus
have circular DNA% not associated with protein
have small rings of DNA% called plasmis
always have a cell wall
To compare prokaryotic ! eukaryotic cells" see Figures 3.# an 3.$ on pages 9$ ! 100"
2.3.#
*itosis is a type of cell division% which retains the full or diploid number +,n- of chromosomes"
.n humans% a cell with &/ chromosomes divides to form , identical daughter cells% each with &/
chromosomes"
1
0efore nuclear division% a copy of each chromosome is made by semi$conservative replication of the
DNA" Each double heli1 is called a chromati"
#hese stages are part of the cell cycle'
i
n
t
e
r
p
h
a
s
e
23 +first gap phase- synthesis of cellular proteins and organelles
S +synthesis phase- replication of DNA
2, +second gap phase- synthesis of spindle proteins

i
%
i
s
i
o
nmitosis +nuclear division- separation of the , DNA helices maing up the chromosome
cytoplasmic division cleavage of a single cell into two daughter cells
2.3.&
*itosis% with identical daughter cells% ensures genetic sta'ility $ important for'
gro(th' development from a single cell to a multicellular organism
repair' regeneration of lost or damaged parts or replacement of old or damaged cells
ase)ual reprouction eg budding in Hydra% vegetative reproduction in plants
2.3.*
4ell division is a continuous process% but & stages of mitosis +nuclear division- can be described'
prophase chromosomes condense +get shorter and thicer-
microtubules are organised into a spindle by the centrioles
nuclear membrane breas down
metaphase the centromeres of the chromosomes attach to the spindle at the e5uator
anaphase centromeres split
spindle fibres pull chromatids to opposite poles
spindle breas down
telophase chromosomes unravel
two nuclear envelopes form
2.3.+
#he se1 cells or gametes are adapted for se1ual reproduction"
O67* large cell% incapable of independent movement
wafted along oviducts by cilia and muscular contractions of the tubes
cytoplasm contains protein and lipid food reserves
surrounded by a 8elly$lie coat the ,ona pellucia which hardens after one
2
sperm penetrates ovum preventing any others entering
S!ER* smaller than the ovum and motile +it can move-
long tail for swimming% powered by energy released by mitochondria
head contains acrosome +pacage of digestive enzymes- to brea down the zona
pellucida
2.3.$
At fertilisation +in the oviducts- the sperm nucleus enters the ovum and fuses with its nucleus
forming a ,ygote"
#he diploid number is restored and the cell contains genetic information from both parents"
2.3.9
2ametes are produced in the ovaries and testes of animals by meiosis which'
produces haploi cells +contain half the number of chromosomes found in a body cell' one of
each homologous pair-
creates genetic %ariation among offspring
During meiosis% pairs of homologous chromosomes line up at the e5uator"
As either of the pair can end up at either pole +ranom assortment-% genetically variable gametes
are produced"
2.3.10
(uelled by nutrients from the ovum% the zygote divides rapidly to form smaller cells the embryo
remains the same size"
After 9 divisions% there are : totipotent stem cells each could form a total human being"
After ) days% a 'lastocyst +a hollow ball of cells- is formed'
the outer cell layer forms the placenta
the inner are pluripotent em'ryonic stem cells +each can form most% but not all
cell types-
As the embryo develops% cells ifferentiate and become more specialise"
*ost lose the ability to develop into a wide range of cell types% but some don;t' they are multipotent
stem cells"
2.3.11
Stem cells% isolated from embryos could provide new cells% tissues or organs for transplantation"
Opinion varies according to the status accorded to a human embryo"
A significant number of people consider the use of an embryo for research purposes morally and
ethically unacceptable"
7< research is regulated by the =uman (ertilisation and Embryology Authority +-F./-
0ills passed in ,>>3 and ,>>, allow ?spare; embryos from .6( treatment to be used as a source of stem
cells for research into serious diseases"
2.3.12
#he specialised function of a cell depends upon the proteins it synthesises ie which genes are
e1pressed"
#ranscription of a gene is initiated by 01/ polymerase and transcription factors binding to a
promoter region +section of DNA ad8acent to gene-"
3
01/ polymerase @ transcription factors 2 transcription initiation comple)
Some transcription factors are always present in all cells"
Others are only synthesised in certain cells at a particular stage of development% often in an inactive
form% which is later activated by signal proteins"
Signal proteins may act directly by entering the cell or indirectly through a secon messenger"
See Figure 3.33 on page 122.
#he gene remains switched off until all the transcription factors% in their active form% are present"
#ranscription of a gene can be prevented by protein repressor molecules% which prevent attachment of
the transcription initiation comple)"
2.3.13
Sometimes the gene for an enzyme re5uired for the metabolism of a particular substrate can be
e1pressed only when that substrate is present +inuction- eg galactosiase and lactose in
proaryotes"
See core practical on this topic.
2.#.1#
Differences in phenotype between members of a population are caused by'
genetic mae$up +genotype-
the en%ironment in which the individual develops
Some are due completely to genotype eg blood groups and show iscontinuous %ariation' they
fall into discrete categories with no overlap"
Others are influenced by 'oth genotype an en%ironment and show continuous %ariation eg
human height% sin and hair colour% cancer"
See Figure 3.3$ on page 12+"
=uman
height
average height has increased in the past 3)> years for various reasons"
a person may have genes for being tall% but not achieve their potential height
because of malnutrition"
Sin
and
hair
colour
the pigment is called melanin and is made from tyrosine in a reaction
catalysed by the enzyme tyrosinase.
melanin is made by melanocytes activated by melanocyte3stimulating
hormone 45S-6.
76 light increases the amount of *S= and the number of *S= receptors on the
melanocytes"
melanin +pacaged as melanosomes- transferred to neighbouring sin cells and
surrounds the nucleus% protecting the DNA from harmful 76 light"
variation is sin colour is affected not only by e1posure to 76 light% but also by
the number of *S= receptors in sin cells"
al'inos have a gene mutation preventing the production of melanin they have
white sin% white hair and no pigment in their iris and retina"
some animals have mutant alleles for tyrosinase so that the unstable enzymes
only wors in cooler areas' e1tremities are darer"
2.3.1&
4ancer occurs when the rate of cell multiplication is faster than the rate of cell death"
#his causes the growth of a tumour"
4
4ancer is caused by en%ironmental damage to DNA from
physical factors such as 76 light and asbestos
chemical carcinogens such as those in the tar in cigarette smoe
viruses may trigger cancer by altering the DNA
4hemicals called raicals are produced by the cell metabolism and can damage DNA"
(resh fruit and vegetables contain antio)iants to destroy radicals"
#he cause may also be genetic" About )A of cancers are due to an inherited gene"
#he progression through the cell cycle +23% S% 2,% *- is controlled by'
oncogenes which stimulate the cycle" *utations can result in the cycle being continually
active and lead to e1cessive cell division and tumour formation
tumour suppressor genes which stop the cycle" *utations mean there is no brae on the
cycle and control is lost"
.f tumours are not removed% cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and
lymphatic systems" #his is called metastasis"
2.3.1*
A genome is all the DNA of an organism or species"
.n ,>>3% the =uman 2enome !ro8ect published a woring draft of the se5uence of bases in human
cells" Bor continues to identify specific genes and establish their function"
Detailed information about the genome 9> >>> &> >>> genes
average human gene contains 9>>> bases
non$coding se5uences +8un DNA- maes of )>A
3"& millions locations of single nucleotide
polymorphisms
.dentification of new genes
breast cancer gene
total colour blindness gene
genes analysed for mutations causing disease
.dentification of new drug targets
a molecule that a drug interacts with
identification of genes allows identification of
drug targets
!reventative medicine and improved
drug treatment
variation in base se5uences may account for why
some people e1perience side effects from drug
therapies
identification of mutations associated with a
particular disease allows patient to mae lifestyle
changes or adopt preventative drug therapy
7nderstanding basic biology
receptor proteins in the sense of taste
post$production processing of proteins
.nvestigating evolution
repeat se5uences replicate and insert themselves
into the DNA modifying% reshuffling and creating
new genes
comparisons with the genome of other organisms
establishes evolutionary pathways
!art of the budget for the =2! has been set aside to address the ethical% legal and social issues which
may arise from the pro8ect'
5
should health insurance companies have access to information about genetic predisposition of
potential clients to particular conditionsC
when% and on whom should predisposition tests be carried outC
who eeps this information confidentialC
should scientists have the right to patent particular se5uencesC
how will treatment made possible by the pro8ect be paid forC
is it acceptable to destroy embryos found to contain mutant genesC
is it acceptable to select embryos on the basis of desirable characteristicsC
inserting genes into embryos +germ line gene therapy- presents many riss
should genes be transferred between species for transplantation purposesC
Topic # 7lants an 8limate 8hange
2.#.1
Bater is a polar molecule' the hydrogen end is slightly positive and the o1ygen end is slightly
negative" #he positive end of one molecule is attracted to the negative end of another $ hyrogen
'oning"
#his cohesion +attraction between lie molecules- is important in transporting water through plants"
.t also creates surface tension useful for supporting organisms eg pondweed% pond saters"
=ydrogen bonding affects the properties of water eg it e1plains why water is li5uid at normal biological
temperatures"
.t also means that the amount of energy re5uired to raise the temperature of water is high" #his avoids
large changes of temperature inside living organisms"
9onic substances eg Na4l and polar molecules eg sugars issol%e in water" #his is vital for chemical
reactions to occur and for the transport of substances in living organisms"
Bater is often a reactant eg in hydrolysis reactions and photosynthesis"
Bater e1pands as it freezes" #he density of ice is less than li5uid water% so ice floats enabling
organisms to live in li5uid water under ice in frozen ponds and laes"
!lants also re5uire inorganic ions% absorbed through the roots and transported in the 1ylem'
Nitrates
7sed by cells to manufacture amino acidsDproteins% nucleic acids% A#! and growth
substances"
4alcium .mportant constituent of cells walls and affects the permeability of the cell membrane"
*agnesium Re5uired for chlorophyll production a deficiency results in yellowing of older leaves"
2.#.2
See Figure #.& on page 1#$ the ultrastructure of a generalised plant cell"
4ompare this with Figure 3.$ on page 100 the ultrastructure of a generalised animal cell"
:rganelle 8omments
4ell wall Rigid structure composed mostly of the polysaccharide cellulose"
(ully permeable to salts and water"
4hloroplasts 4ontain mi1ture of pigments +chlorophyll-" Site of photosynthesis% where
solar energy is converted into chemical energy"
6
Amyloplasts Storage vacuoles containing insoluble starch grains"
#onoplast #he membrane surrounding the large% central vacuole"
6acuole 4ontains cell sap' a concentrated solutions of salts% sugars% pigments"
.mportant in determining osmotic properties of the cell"
!lasmodesmata (ine thread of cytoplasm lining neighbouring cells"
!its !oints in the cell wall with only a thin layer of cellulose where
plasmodesmata are found"
*iddle lamellae #he region between cell walls of neighbouring cells which cements them
together" 4ontains pectins eg calcium and magnesium pectates"
2.#.3
See Figure #.+ on page 1#9 showing the structure of and glucose"
Starch and cellulose are two important polysaccharies in plants"
Starch 8ellulose
*ade up of glucose monomer" *ade up of glucose monomers"
4ontains 3%& and 3%/ glycosidic bonds ie
there is side$branching"
4ontains 3%& glycosidic bonds only ie no
side$branching"
7sed as a storage carbohydrate" 7sed as a structural carbohydrate to form
the cell wall"
Binds into a spiral shape" Remains as a long% straight chain"
=ydrogen bonds form between the O= groups of ad8acent cellulose chains" A bundle of about E>
cellulose molecules lined in this way creates a microfi'ril"
#he microfibrils are wound around the cell at different angles and stuc together with a polysaccharide
glue made of hemicelluloses and pectins"
#his composite structure maes the cell wall strong and fle1ible"
2.#.#
#o compete effectively for light% plants must grow tall" #his presents two problems'
they must be mechanically supported
they must be able to transport water and inorganic ions up to the leaves
;ylem %essels do bothF sclerenchyma fi'res assist with support"
Gylem vessels +together with phloem sieve tubes- form %ascular 'unles"
#he sclerenchyma fibres are found on the outside of the bundle"
7
Hoo at Figure #.13 on page 1&# and now the location of the vascular bundles in the stem"
#he polymer lignin gives strength to the structures and renders them waterproof"
0ecause plants fibres are long and thin% fle1ible and strong% they have been used by humans for
thousands of years eg for clothing% rope% floor coverings% paper"
E1tracting fibres is called retting bacteriaDfungi% enzymes and in some cases caustic alali breas
down the polysaccharides holding the fibres together% leaving the more resistant fibres intact"
!lant fibres are used to absorb heavy metals and oil spillages" #hey can be combined with plastic to
form 'iocomposites"
2.#.&
;ylem %essels Sclerenchyma fi'res
made up of large cells with thic cell
walls
form a column of cells to transport
water and inorganic ions
waterproofed and strengthened by the
polymer lignin laid down in spirals or
rings
dead tissue formed from previously
living cells
elongated cells
sole function to provide support and
mechanical strength
cell wall heavily thicened with lignin
which provides great tensile and
compressional strengthI
dead tissue formed from previously
living cells
Itensile strength means it doesn;t brea easily on stretchingF compressional strength means it
doesn;t bucle easily"
2.#.*
Bater evaporates from the surface of the spongy mesophyll cells and diffuses down the iffusion
graient through the stomata of the leaves" #his is called transpiration"
Bater in these cells is replaced from the 1ylem% lowering the hyrostatic pressure at the top of the
vessel" #his results in water being drawn up from below' the transpiration stream.
0ecause of hydrogen bonding causing cohesion between water molecules% water moves up the stem
in a continuous column' the cohesion3tension theory. #hic 1ylem walls prevent them from
collapsing"
#here is ahesion +attraction between unlie molecules- between the water and the 1ylem walls" #he
narrow 1ylem vessels have a high surface area to volume ratio so that the high adhesive forces hold the
column of water within the tube"
#he rate of transpiration increases as'
temperature increases
windspeed increases
humidity decreases
surface area and number of stomata in leaf increases
when stomata are open ie in sunlight
2.#.+
!ractical on e1tracting fibres from nettles and testing their strength +Activity &"/-
2.#.$
!lants contain many antibacterial compounds eg allicin in garlic" *any medicines are derived from
plants eg aspirin from willow bar% morphine from poppies"
.n 3EE)% Dr Billiam Bithering published A Treatise on the Foxglove" =e bought the recipe for a
herbal cure for oedema +accumulation of fluid in the tissues- from a patient and used it on an
unpredictable ?hit and miss; basis as a treatment for the condition"
8
=e began with a low dose and increased it until the patient suffered side effects" An amount slightly
less than this was considered the ideal dose"
#he e1tract from the fo1glove plant% Digitalis purpurea% is now mareted as a drug called igitalin
and is used to treat heart disease"
New drugs are now tested e1tensively before mareting it can tae over 3> years"
!re$clinical testing Haboratory and animal testing
4linical testing . Small group of healthy volunteers assess how the body deals with the
drug
4linical testing .. Small group of volunteer patients are treated to assess effectiveness"
4linical testing ... Harge group of patients divided into two for double$blind trial ie
neither doctor nor patient nows if they;re given the drug or an
inactive placebo"
2.#.9
!ractical on the antibacterial properties of plants" 4/cti%ity #.+6
2.#.10
A seed contains an embryonic plant with its own food supply% inside a protective coat"
Bhen conditions are suitable +(ater% o1ygen% (armth-% they re$start growth' germination" #hey
absorb water through the micropyle causing the cells to e1pand and rupture the seed coat"
Bater triggers metabolic changes' growth substances are activated and enzymes +amylase% maltase%
lipase and protease- are released to digest stored food"
Seeds are vital to the survival of a plant as they'
protect the embryo by means of a lignified seed coat +testa-
aid dispersal to avoid competition with the parent plant
provide nutrition for the new plant
Bhen the o%ule in a flowering plant is fertilised by the nucleus in a pollen grain% it develops into a
see" #his happens inside the o%ary% which develops into a fruit"
#he embryo plant consists of three parts'
a young root +raicle-
a young shoot +plumule-
one or two seed leaves +cotyleons-
Some seeds store food in enosperm tissue rather than in the cotyledons"
Some seeds germinate as soon as conditions are suitable" Others are dormant and must be activated by
eg'
an e1tended period of chilling
intense heat
mechanical abrasion or microbial degradation of the seed coat
a minimum period of light
chemical action in an animal;s gut
9
Seeds are adapted for dispersal'
5etho /aptation .)ample
Bind Small light seeds with wings or parachutes sycamore% dandelion
Animal =ooed fruits% succulent fruits burdoc% blacberry
Bater (ibrous seeds coats with lots of air coconut% waterlily
Self E1plosive rupture of seed coat +dehiscence- peas% laburnum
2.#.11
Seeds +particularly of cereal crops- are useful in animal and human iets" 4arbohydrate polymers and
oils also have ma8or industrial uses"
<ses of starch <ses of oils
#hicening agent' when heated% starch granules
absorb water and thicen the li5uid
+gelatinisation- eg custard% wallpaper paste"
Bith little water and high temperature and
pressure% starch ?puffs; into an e1panded
structure eg cereals% corn snacs% pacaging"
Dried% cross$lined starch is a super$absorbent
used in nappies and tampons"
Other uses include glues% plaster% hair mousses
and antiperspirants"
Bidely used in cooing"
4an be used as a fuel eg castor oil J peanut oil
were both used to power the first diesel engine"
=ydrolysis of oils with alali produces fatty acid
salts +soaps- and glycerol +used in paint
manufacture"-
Sustaina'ility means we can eep using the resources in the long term without harming the
environment"
#he use of oil$based plastics and fuels is not sustainable as'
they release carbon dio1ide and contribute to global warming
oil reserves will eventually run out
they generate non$biodegradable waste
0urning plant$based fuels also produces carbon dio1ide% but it was recently absorbed when the plants
grew" =owever% there are still problems eg'
paper bags are less strong than plastic bags and disintegrate when wet
degradation of waste re5uires aerobic organisms% so little happens in deep landfill sites
closer to the surface% methane +a greenhouse gas- is often produced
2.#.12
/rtificial selection involves choosing plants with advantageous features and then breeding them eg
by self$pollinating or saving seeds from one year to plant during the following year"
#his has gone on for thousands of years% but is a very slow process"
10
New plants are produced by spontaneous mutation% which may be induced by chemicals or radiation"
*any die% but some are fertile and useful"
.f a plant doesn;t normally self$pollinate% in'reeing epression can occur' a loss of size% yield and
fertility"
#wo inbred lines can be crossed resulting in hy'ri %igour' plants more vigorous than either parent"
=ybridising two different species of plants is possible' wheat currently used in bread maing was
produced in this way"
.n the 3K:>s% genetic moification was developed% allowing specific characteristics to be rapidly
introduced to a species a faster and more efficient method of artificial selection"
A plant is genetically modified by introducing a new gene using an infective 'acterium or %irus% or
by shooting into the plant minute pellets co%ere in =1/.
/nti'iotic resistance marker genes are used to identify successfully modified cells% which are
then micropropagate to produce parent plants"
See Figure #.#0 on page 1+*.
2.#.13 ! 2.#.1#
/rguments for /rguments against
.mproved plant 5uality eg tomatoes with !2
inhibited% which stay firmer for longer"
.ncreased yield of crops eg by reducing
competition with weeds in ?Roundup Ready
crops;"
#hese are plants which have been modified to
contain a resistance gene to glyphosate% so that
competitors are destroyed% but they remain"
So long as food is clearly labelled% people have
the choice of eating 2* products% or not"
4reation of antibiotic resistant microbes by
using marer genes"
Altered genes creating to1ic or allergenic
substances in the plant"
#ransgenic plants or plants to which resistance
genes have been transferred could prove very
difficult to manage and eep under control"
.ncreased herbicide use to control resistant
crops"
4ompanies hold patents for the 2* crops and
developing countries can;t afford them"
2.#.1&
#he atmosphere is a thin layer of gases e1tending 3>>m above the Earth;s surface" .t eeps the Earth;s
average temperature stable and suitable for living organisms"
3" #he Sun radiates energy +mostly visible light- and the Earth absorbs some of it"
," Earth warms up and radiates infra$red bac into space"
9" Some is absorbed by greenhouse gases and the atmosphere +and the Earth- is warmed"
#he main greenhouse gases are'
water vapour
carbon dio1ide
methane
nitrous o1ide
4(4s"
Although methane absorbs more infrared radiation than carbon dio1ide does% it breas down 5uicer
and there is less of it"
8ar'on io)ie 5ethane
Relative abundance 9"E 1 3>
$,
3": 1 3>
$&
11
2reenhouse factor 3 ,>
Sources respiration in plants%
animals and decomposers
increased combustion of
fossil fuels
anaerobic decomposition eg
in bogs% paddy fields%
landfill sites
digestive system of cattle
incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels
=ow levels might be
controlled
Reduction in deforestation
and burning of trees
Reduced combustion of
fossil fuels eg in aircraft%
oil and coal based power
stations% cars and public
transport"
better waste recycling
using methane as a biofuel
+burns to produce two less
serious greenhouse gases-
2.#.1*
See Figure #.*$ on page 20* for a full diagram of the carbon cycle"
#wo factors are liely to be mainly responsible for the imbalance in the carbon cycle and the increased
levels in carbon dio1ide concentration'
combustion of fossil fuels' coal is formed over millions of years from plants which
photosynthesised converting 4O, into carbohydrate" .t remains as a carbon sin until the 4O, is
released bac into the atmosphere through combustion"
deforestation' mature forests are stable releasing the same amount of 4O, through respiration
+and decay- as they absorb in photosynthesis" 4utting the trees down and either burning them
or leaving them to decay adds 4O, to the air"
Other minor factors affecting 4O, levels'
.ncrease in acid rain eroding limestone
.ncorporation of into calcium carbonate shells in marine organisms
6olcanoes producing carbon dio1ide
4arbon dio1ide levels are not rising as fast as calculations predict" #his may be because'
increased levels stimulate photosynthesis
more is dissolving in the ocean
more is stored as organic compounds in the soil
A 'iofuel eg wood% straw% dried chicen litter is any source of energy produced% directly in plants or
indirectly in animals% by recent photosynthesis"
#his provides a rene(a'le energy source and is car'on io)ie neutral. Bhen combusted%
there is no net increase in 4O, levels% unless transporting the biofuel involves combustion of fossil
fuels"
.n 0razil% alcohol produced from the refining of sugar cane is added to petrol to mae gasohol"
*ethane produced from anaerobic fermentation of human sewage or animal slurry is an effective
biogas"
0eafforestation involved planting young trees which% because of rapid growth% absorb a lot of 4O,
for photosynthesis" As the forest matures% in will no longer be a net absorber"
=owever% as higher temperatures and increased 4O, levels stimulate photosynthesis'
12
there will be more food and therefore more animals respiring
more respiring microbes develop
2.#.1+
!ractical on investigating how carbon dio1ide may affect global warming +/cti%ity #.236
2.#.1$
Evidence for global warming comes from a range of sources" Hoo carefully at the graphs and tables of
data on pages 3K>$3K) you need to be able to describe and analyse them"
T.57.0/T<0. 0.8:0=S
Some have been ept since the 3E
th
century they are useful although not as accurate as current data"
7./T >:GS
4limate information for up to 3,>>> years ago can be obtained by studying plant and insect remains%
the decay of which has been slowed or stopped by the anaerobic or acidic conditions in a peat bog"
7ollen 6ast amounts of pollen% protected by a tough outer layer can be carbon dated to indicate
the species of trees which grew in a particular period of time" Since different species
flourish in different environmental conditions% information on the climate at that time
can be discerned"
>eetles On the same basis% climatic information can be obtained from the e1oseletons of
preserved bog beetles% which responded to climate change faster than plants"
=.1=0:8-0:1:?:G@
#he study of tree rings gives a clue to past climatic conditions" Each year a new layer of 1ylem is laid
down' wide vessels in spring% narrower vessels in summer" #he wider the ring% the more the tree grew
more than liely because the conditions were warmer or wetter"
98. S/57?.S
0ubbles of air trapped in ice can be analysed to estimate carbon dio1ide levels" #he ratio of different
o1ygen isotopes gives an indication of the temperature at that time"
A combination of information from these sources helps provide evidence to support the various
theories on global warming which have been proposed"
2.#.19
Actual data gathered can be e)trapolate to predict future changes" Bhile a straight line graph is
easy to e1trapolate% a curve is best dealt with by a computer"
#hese predictions don;t account for change in the future period of time eg reductions in carbon dio1ide
emissions% or increased levels due to better living conditions in developing nations"
2lobal warming due to increased carbon dio1ide levels is only one factor which may affect climate
change"
Other include'
other greenhouse gases eg methane% 4(4s and nitrous o1ide
aerosols e1tremely small li5uid particles in the atmosphere
cloud cover
the fraction of the earth covered with ice and snow and the conse5uent reflection
*odelling climate change is done by computer on programmes which tae all these factors into
account and predict the interaction between them"
13
Several ma8or climate moels are in use% but they differ +one predicts a fall of )
>
4 for the 7< and
another a rise of )
>
4- and have limitations due to'
limited data
limited nowledge of how the climate system wors
limited computer resources
failure to consider all factors affecting climate change
changing trends in snowDice cover and 4O, emissions
2.#.20
#he ma8or aspects to climate change are'
changing temperatures
changing rainfall patterns
changing seasonal cycles
#hese affect living organisms in the following ways'
D.S#R.07#.ON O( S!E4.ES
A community is a group of species found in the same place at the same time" 4limate change affects the
balance between species' some flourish and become dominant in the new conditions% others die" .f
they are mobile% or have good seed dispersal the distribution of the species may change" !ests and
diseases may also spread to new areas"
E1amples are described on pages 3:& and 3:)"
/?T.0.= =.V.?:75.1T an ?9F. 8@8?.S
!lant growth is determined mainly by the rate of photosynthesis" #his is affected by the interaction
of a number of factors such as temperature% car'on io)ie concentration and light intensity
according to the la( of limiting factors"
Overall% crop production in cooler climates will benefit from climate change% whereas warmer tropical
regions may suffer from poorer yields"
Spawning% hatching and growth rates in animals eg trout are often cued by temperature" .n these fish%
growth ceases when a critical temperature is reached% so global warming could result in underweight
organisms"
.n reptiles% the male'female ratio could be affected% as this is determined by temperature"
7henology is the study of natural events in the lives of animals and plants eg time of flowering%
fruiting% egg laying% hatching% migration" #hese events are fre5uently related to seasonal change"
Hife cycles of organisms are intricately related eg hatching of marine worm eggs to coincide with a high
level of phytoplankton" #he eggs hatch in response to day length +photoperioism- while the
phytoplanton grow in response to temperature" A mismatch in timing could result in a lac of food
supply for the worms"
2.#.21
#he rate of metabolic reactions is controlled by en,ymes% which are temperature dependent"
A reaction occurs when the substrate binds with the acti%e site of the enzyme forming an en,yme3
su'strate comple)"
#he lielihood of this happening depends on a collision occurring between the two molecules and this
is determined by their kinetic energy ie how fast they are moving"
7p to a certain point% increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction" #he inetic energy of
substrate and enzyme molecules is increased% they collide more fre5uently and more ES comple1es are
formed"
After the optimum temperature +at which the rate of reaction is highest-increasing temperature
causes the atoms in the enzyme to vibrate" 0onds holding its 9D structure in place brea" #he active
site changes shape so that the substrate no longer fits in the enzyme is enature"
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2.#.22
!ractical on the effects of temperature on the development of brine shrimps" 4/cti%ity #.1$6
2.#.23
4limate change is a controversial issue with ma8or political and economic implications"
*a8or decisions on eg reducing 4O, emissions need to be determined at governmental level and with
international agreement eg the <yoto !rotocol"
Bhile scientific method aims to be ob8ective% the evidence in this case is limited% arguably imprecise
and open to differing interpretation by different people"
0usiness interests% political manoeuvring% cultural and ethical issues all influence the way conclusions
are drawn and action implemented"
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