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Eletron Theory of Metals
Eletron Theory of Metals
UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
UNIT III(A)
ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS
Basic Definitions:
(i)
Random Velocity (Vran)
(ii)
Drift Velocity (Vd)
(iii)
Mean free path ()
(iv)
Relaxation time ()
(v)
Mobility ()
(vi)
Current density (j)
Classical free electron theory:
Postulates, Electrical conductivity Ohms law (jE), Electrical conductivity in terms of
mobility ', temperature dependence of Electrical Conductivity , Merits and Demerits,
problems.
Quantum free electron theory:
Postulates, Electrical conductivity
Fermi-Dirac distribution function:
Properties, Fermi energy, Graphical representation of Fermi-Dirac distribution function, problems
Density of Energy states and Carrier Concentration
Electron Scattering and resistance
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
mv
(1)1
(2)
(3)
(4)
dv
mv
= eE
dt
v=
e
E
m
In steady-state, the velocity acquired by free electrons in presence of electric field is a Drift velocity ' vd ' .
Hence eq.(4) can be written as,
vd =
e
E
m
(5)
The negative sign indicates that the direction of force is opposite to the direction of the applied electric field.
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
If ' n ' is the number of conduction electrons per unit volume, then the charge per unit volume is
given by ' ne ' . Now current density ' J ' in terms of charge density and drift velocity is given
by
J = nevd
e
J = ne
E
m
ne 2
J =
E
m
The above equation is of the form, J = E (Ohms Law)
where ' ' is called electrical conductivity.
(6)
ne 2
(7)
m
Equation (7) shows the electrical conductivity in terms of number of free electrons ' n ' which
explains that with the increase in electron concentration ' n ' the conductivity ' ' increases.
v
i.e. = e
We know that mobility ' ' is given by = d
E
m
Hence,
Rearranging Eq.(7) as
We have
= ne
= ne
(8)2
It is clear that the electrical conductivity depends on two factors, the charge density ne and the mobility. These two quantities depends on
temperature. In metals, n is constant and decreases slightly with temperature and hence with increase in temperature, the conductivity
decreases. In semiconductors, the exponential increase in n with temperature is responsible for increase of conductivity with temperature. In
insulators n remains constant and above certain temperature increases exponentially resulting in dielectric break down. Resistivity of the
material of the conductor is given by,
1
1
m
=
=
=
ne
n e 2
3
Acccording to this model, the specific heat of metals is given by 4.5R whereas the experimental value is nearly equal to 3R. Also according to
this theory the value of electronic specific heat is equal to 3/2R while the actual value is about 0.01R only, where R is Universal gas constant.
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
Solved problems:
1) Calculate the mobility and the relaxation time of the electron in copper obeying classical laws.
Given data
Density of copper
= 8.92 x 103 kg / m3
Solution:
i)
ii)
Resistivity of copper
Atomic weight
Avogadros number
We know that
= ne ,
ne
1
ne
Relaxation time, = m
2
ne
9.1 x 1031
= 2.43 x 10-14 s
8.456 x 1028 x 1.6 x 1019 x 1.73 x 10-8
dp
dt
(1)
(2)
(3)
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
But according to de Broglie, every material particle is associated with a wave whose wave length is given
by
h
p
p=
h
2
x
2
or p =
p = hK
(4)
(5)
eE =
d hK
dK
=h
dt
dt
dK =
eE
dt
h
The above equation represents that the origin of a K space moves through a distance dK on time dt on
application of external field.
In steady state dK = K and dt = the average collision time.
Hence
K =
eE
(6)
(7)
h
K
m
h eE
=
m h
v =
eE
m
If represents ' n ' the electron density then current density J in terms of electron density is given by
J = n ( e ) v
ne2 E
m
ne2
=
E
m
=
J =E
ne 2
m
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(8)
Page 7
UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
kT
Where EF is called Fermi Energy, which is a constant for a given system.
Case (i): At absolute temperature i.e. T = 0K and for energies below the Fermi energy level i.e. E < EF,
the above equation(1) results as shown below
F ( E) =
1
1
=
=1
1 + exp ( ) 1 + 0
(2)
Equation(2) says that, the probability of finding an electron in the energy level below the Fermi level is
maximum.
Case(ii): At absolute temperature i.e. T = 0K and for energies above the Fermi energy level i.e. E > EF,
equation(1) results as below
F (E ) =
1
1
= =0
1 + exp ( )
(3)
Equation(3) says that the probability of finding an electron in the energy level above the Fermi level is
Zero. From this we conclude that the Fermi energy level is the maximum possible energy level that an
electron can occupy at absolute temperature. In other words, at absolute temperature, all energy levels
below the Fermi energy level are completely filled whereas all energy levels above the Fermi level are
completely vacant.
General case: At temperatures other than absolute zero i.e. T > 0K, and in the energy level equal to
Fermi level i.e. E = EF, equation(1) results as below
F ( EF ) =
1
1
= = 0.5
1 + exp ( 0 ) 2
(4)
From equation(3) Fermi energy level may be defined as it is the energy level for which the probability
of finding an electron is half at temperatures greater than absolute zero.
Graphical representation of Fermi distribution function:
F(E)
1
F(E)
T = 0K
T = 0K
0.5
EF
T > 0K
EF
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
Solved Problems:
1) Find the temperature for which there exists 1% probability of an electron occupying an energy
level at 0.5eV above the Fermi level.
Soln:
Given
1
E EF
1 + exp
kT
F(E) = 1%
E = (EF + 0.5) eV = (EF + 0.5) x 1.6 x 10-19 J.
k = 1.38 x 10-23
1
( E + 0.5 EF ) x 1.6 x 1019
1 + exp F
1.38 x 1023T
2) At what temperature we can expect a 10% probability that electrons in silver have an energy
which is 1% above the Fermi energy? The Fermi energy of Silver is 5.5eV.
Soln:
Given
1
E EF
1 + exp
kT
1
( 5.555 5.5) x 1.6 x 1019
1 + exp
1.38 x 1023T
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
nC =
Z ( E ) F ( E ) dE
(1)
energy band
The number of energy states having energy values between E and E + dE is given by
Z ( E ) dE =
n2 dn
(2)
2
n2 h2
En =
8ma 2
We know that
(3)
8ma 2
En
h2
(4)
1/ 2
8ma 2
n= 2
h
(5)
E 1/ 2
1/ 2
1 8ma 2 h 2
dn = 2
2 h 8ma 2
(6)
(7)
1
dE
E1/ 2
1/ 2
2
1 8ma 2 h 2
= 2
2 h 8ma 2
1/ 2
1 8ma 2
dn = 2
2 h
1
dE
E 1/ 2
1
dE
E 1/ 2
(8)
Now substituting the values of n & dn from equations (5) & (8) in eqn(2), we have
1/ 2
8ma 2 1 8ma 2
1
dE
Z ( E ) dE = 2 E 2
1/ 2
2 h
2 h E
8ma 2
= 2
4 h
3/ 2
8m
E 1/ 2 dE
3/ 2
3
1/ 2
(9)
2 a E dE
4 h
But according to Paulis Exclusion principle two electrons of opposite spin can occupy each state
and hence the number of energy states available for the electron occupancy is given by
Z ( E ) dE =
Z ( E ) dE = 2 x
8m
4 h2
3/ 2
a 3 E1/ 2 dE
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
4
3/2
( 2m ) a3 E1/ 2dE
h3
(10)
Eqn(10) represents the Density of energy states in a given volume a3. Therefore the density of energy
states per unit volume is given by
4
3/2
i.e., Density of states
(11)
Z ( E ) dE = 3 ( 2m ) E1/ 2 dE
h
We know that the probability of occupancy of an electron in the given energy state is given by
1
(12)
F (E) =
E EF
1 + exp
kT
Substituting the values of Z(E) & F(E) from equations (11) & (12) in Eqn (1), we have
4
1
3/2
nC =
2 m ) E 1/ 2
dE
3 (
h
E EF
Energy band
1 + exp
kT
nC =
4
3/2
2m )
3 (
h
Energy band
E 1/ 2
1
dE
E EF
1 + exp
kT
(13)
Equation(13) is the expression for Density of charge carriers or carrier concentration in a given metal
at any temperature.
ELECTRON SCATTERING AND RESISTANCE OR SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:
The main factors affecting the electrical resistance in solids are temperature and defects or
impurities present in the solid.
According to Matthiessens rule, the total resistivity of the material is given by
Ni
Cu
n
temperatures T where n 3 to 5 which implies that as T 0, 0 where the material behaves
as a superconductor.
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UNIT III(PART-A)
2008-2009
As
Ge
Sn
Ga
x (1 x )
Zn
QUESTIONS:
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