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9.1 INTRODUCTION
The most common type of plate girder is an I-shaped section
built up from two flange plates and one web plate, as shown in Figs. 9.1
and 9.2. The moment-resisting capacities of plate girders lie somewhere
between those of deep standard rolled wide-flange shapes and those of
trusses. Plate girders can be welded (Figs. 9.2 to 9.5), riveted, or bolted
(Fig. 9.6). Riveted plate girders are practically obsolete. Very few bolted
plate girders are designed nowadays. Therefore, we cover only the design
1. Connections are less critical for plate girders than for trusses,
particularly statically determinate trusses. In a statically
determinate truss, one poor connection may cause the collapse of
the truss.
2. Fabrication cost of plate girders is less than that of trusses.
3. Plate girders can be erected more rapidly and more cheaply than
trusses.
4. Depth of a plate girder is less than the height of a comparable truss.
Consequently, plate girders need less vertical clearance than
trusses. This makes them very attractive for multilevel highway
bridges.
5. Plate girders generally vibrate less than trusses under moving
loads.
6. Painting of plate girders is easier than painting of trusses. This
means less maintenance cost for plate girders.
In contrast, plate girders in general are heavier than trusses, especially
for very long spans.
Plate girders basically carry the loads by bending. The bending
moment is mostly carried by flange plates. In order to reduce the girder
weight and possibly achieve maximum economy, hybrid plate girders are
sometimes used. In a hybrid girder, flange plates are made of higherstrength steel than that of the web. Or, in a tee-built-up plate girder, as
shown in Fig. 9.4, the two T sections are made of higher-strength steel
than the connecting web plate. Design of hybrid plate girders is also
covered in this chapter. Allowable bending stress for hybrid girders is
limited to 0.60Fy (ASD F1).
(9.1)
(9.2)
Deeper girders are generally used when the loads are heavy (for
example, when they need to carry large column loads in high-rise
buildings). Very shallow girders with 1/25 < h/L < 1/15 are used as
continuous plate girders.
In design of plate girders, we should design the plate girder with
several different values of the web depth-to-span ratios and find the total
weight of the plate girder for each case. By drawing the total weight
versus h/L ratio, we can obtain an economical (practical approximate
optimum or minimum weight) solution for our design. Of course,
repetitive manual design of plate girders is quite cumbersome and timeconsuming. However, with the aid of the interactive program (to be
discussed in Sec. 9.12), the final design can be achieved quickly. Totally
automated optimum design of stiffened plate girders is rather
complicated due to the highly nonlinear nature of the problem.
Abuyounes and Adeli (1986, 1987) present algorithms for minimum
weight design of simply supported steel homogeneous and hybrid plate
girders. Adeli and Chompooming (1989) present minimum weight
Figure 9.8
Squeezing of the web
due to bending of the
girder during tensionfield action
Fyf
Fyf
Fyf Fyf
Fyf Fyf
Figure 9.9
During the postbuckling behavior of the web plate, the bending
curvature of the plate girder produces compressive forces in the web
plate, as shown in Fig. 9.8. This figure shows a portion of the plate girder
located between two neighboring sections. Due to the deflected shape of
the girder, the compressive force F1, acting on the top compression
flange and the tension force F2 acting in the bottom tension flange create
compressive forces F3 on the web plate. This plate should have sufficient
buckling strength to resist the compressive forces F3. To satisfy this
requirement, according to ASD G1, the web depth-thickness ratio should
not be greater than 1, which is a decreasing function of the yield stress
of the compression flange Fyf.
h
14,000
1 =
tw
[ F yf ( F yf + 16.5)]1 / 2
(9.3)
The variation of 1 with Fyf is shown in Fig. 9.9. This equation is derived
from a stability analysis of the web plate, taking into account the effect
of residual stresses but without including the transverse stiffeners. For
closely spaced stiffeners that is, when spacing of the transverse
stiffeners a is not greater than 1.5 times the distance between flanges
the limiting ratio 1 is increased to 2.
h
2,000
2 =
tw
F yf
when a 1.5h
(9.4)
The variable 2 is also shown in Fig. 9.9. Note that the difference
between 1 and 2 increases with an increase in the yield stress. For
high-strength steel, 2 is much larger than 1.
To satisfy the second criterion, we should have
tw
V
hFv
(9.5)
where V is the shear force and Fv is the allowable shear stress given in
ASD F4.
Fv =
where
Fy C v
2.89
0.40 F y
for
380
h
>
tw
Fy
(9.6)
45,000k v
Cv =
Fy (h / t w ) 2
190 k v
h / t w Fy
5.34
( a / h) 2
4.00
5.34 +
( a / h) 2
4.00 +
kv =
10
when Cv 0.8
(9.7)
when Cv > 0.8
Note that Cv is the ratio of shear stress at buckling to the shear yield
stress (Salmon and Johnson, 1996). For hybrid girders, Fy in Eqs. (9.6)
and (9.7) is the yield stress of the web steel.
We can increase the allowable shear stress by relying on the
postbuckling behavior and tension-field action of the web plate, provided
that the following conditions are met (ASD F5 and G3):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(9.9)
(9.10)
(9.11)
The last two conditions are somewhat arbitrarily chosen limits on the
panel aspect ratio a/h to facilitate handling during fabrication and
erection. When the effect of tension-field action is taken into account, the
allowable shear stress is given by (ASD G3)
11
Fv =
Fy
1 Cv
0.40 F y
C v +
2
2 1/ 2
2.89
1.15(1 + a / h )
(9.12)
Note that the second term within the brackets is the tension-field
contribution.
One may select the web thickness based on the first criterion
[Eqs. (9.3) and (9.4)] and then check for the second criteron [Eq. (9.5)].
In this case the maximum computed shear stress (fv)max must be less than
the allowable shear stress Fv.
( f v ) max =
Vmax
Fv
ht w
(9.13)
(9.14)
and the maximum shear stress in the web is less than the allowable shear
stress given by Eq. (9.6). Equation (9.6) can be specialized for the case
of no stiffeners. For very large a/h, Eq. (9.8) yields k = 5.34. Substituting
this value of k into Eq. (9.7) and the resulting values into Eq. (9.6), we
finally find the following equation for the allowable shear stress when
intermediate stiffeners are not needed:
83,150
(h / t w ) 2
Fv =
152 F y
h / tw
0.40 F y
when
when
12
h
tw
>
380
Fy
when
548
Fy
<
h
548
tw
Fy
(9.15)
h
380
tw
Fy
M max
Fb
(9.16)
In this equation, S is the elastic section modulus with respect to the major
axis and Fb is the allowable bending stress given in the ASD F1 and
13
I = 121 t w h 3 + 2b f t f (h / 2 + t f / 2) 2 + 122 b f t 3f
I 121 t w h 3 + 2 A f (h / 2) 2
(9.17)
where bf is the width of the flange plate, tf is the thickness of the flange
plate, and Af = bf tf = area of the flange. The elastic section modulus is
then approximately equal to
S =
t h2
I
I
= w + Af h
d /2 h/2
6
(9.18)
By equating Eqs. (9.16) and (9.18) and solving for Af, we find an
equation for the preliminary estimate of the area of the flange.
Af = bf t f
M max t w h M max Aw
Fb h
Fb h
6
6
(9.19)
bf
tf
14
190
(9.20)
Fy / k c
4.05
kc =
(h / t w )
0.46
h
tw
h
tw
> 70
(9.21)
70
190
Fy / k c
tf
(9.22)
Substituting Eq. (9.22) into Eq. (9.19) and solving for tf, we obtain
Fy / k c
tf =
190
M max t w h
6
Fb h
1/ 2
Fy / k c
Af
=
190
1/ 2
(9.23)
15
A h
760
h
970
Re when
>
F ' b Fb 1.0 0.0005 w
tw
A f t w
Fy
Fb
(9.24)
A
12 + w 3 3
Af
Re =
2 6 + w
A f
16
1 .0
(9.25)
where Fyw is the web yield stress, = 0.60Fyw /Fb 1.0, and Fb is the
allowable bending stress after the lateral-torsional buckling has been
considered, when it is assumed that the entire member is made of the
grade of the steel used in the flanges. This equation is intended to
account for the effect on the strength of a hybrid girder with a web of
low yield strength. Equation (9.25) is applicable only when the area and
grade of steel in both flanges are the same. Otherwise, a more
complicated analysis is required. For nonhybrid girders, Re = 1.0.
If reduction of the allowable bending stress is necessary, we
should check if the computed bending stress is less than the reduced
allowable bending stress.
fb =
M max
S
< Fb'
(9.26)
17
Ast =
a
F yw f v
a2 / h2
1
Dht w (1 C v )
2
2 1 / 2
2
h (1 + a / h ) f ys Fv
(9.27)
D=
(9.28)
18
Figure 9.10
Plan of portion of a plate
girder with a pair of
stiffeners
ts
Fy
(9.29)
(9.10)
(9.11)
19
d.
f
f b Fb = 0.825 0.375 v
Fv
F y 0.60 F y
(9.30)
The last requirement should be met only when the design of the
web plate is based on tension-field action. In this case, due to large shear
stresses in the web, the maximum tensile stress which acts at an angle to
the girder axis could be considerably larger than the maximum tensile
stress parallel to the girder axis. In lieu of a lengthy analysis for finding
the maximum tensile stress based on the combined shear and tension
stresses, ASD G5 requires that Eq. (9.30) be satisfied, in which fb is the
maximum bending tensile stress due to moment in the plane of the girder
web. According to ASD Commentary G5, the interaction equation (9.30)
need not be checked in the following two cases.
1. fv 0.60Fv and fb Fb
2. fv Fv and fb 0.75Fb
The two end panels adjacent to the supports are designed without
the advantage of tension-field action. They are expected to act as anchor
panels for the neighboring panels with tension-field action. For these two
panels, the computed shear stress should not exceed the allowable shear
stress given by Eq. (9.6).
20
to the depth of the web plate in order to have close bearing with the
flange plates. They are designed as columns with a cross-sectional area
which includes a centrally located strip of the web.
For end bearing stiffeners, the width of the central strip of the
web is taken as 12 times the thickness of the web (Fig. 9.11). Therefore,
the effective area for checking the axial compressive stresses is
Aeff = 2 Abs + 12t w2
(9.31)
(9.32)
21
f cb =
P
Fa
Aeff
(9.33)
22
VQ VA f (h + t f )
=
I
2I
(9.34)
where Q is the first moment of the flange area about the neutral axis and
V is the shear force at the section under consideration.
The direct pressure due to applied load creates vertical shear q 2
per unit length of the fillet weld, which is in practice assumed to be
roughly equal to the intensity of the distributed load w. The resultant
design force per unit length of the weld is
23
q = (q 12 + q 22 )1 / 2
(9.35)
If we denote the size of the fillet weld by ww and the allowable shear
stress of the weld electrode by Fv, noting that there are two lines of fillet
welds on each side of the web plate, the allowable strength of the fillet
weld will be
q a = (0.707)(2 ww ) Fv
(for SMAW)
(9.36)
Substituting for value of q 1 , from Eq. (9.36), and q 2 = w into Eq. (9.35)
and equating the resulting equation to Eq. (9.36), we obtain the following
equation for the size of the continuous fillet weld:
V 2 A 2f
2
2
+
+
(
h
t
)
w
f
2
4I
ww =
1.414 Fv
1/ 2
(9.37)
(for SMAW)
24
of each portion of the fillet weld by L1 and the spacing of the intermittent
weld by a1, the following relation holds between these two variables:
L1qa = a1q
(9.38)
(h + t f ) 2 + w 2
L1 ww 4 I
=
a1
1.414 Fv
1/ 2
(9.39)
(for SMAW)
By choosing two of the three parameters a1, L1, and ww, the designer can
find the third parameter from Eq. (9.39).
f vs = h
340
3/ 2
fv
Fv
(9.40)
25
where Fy is the yield stress of the web steel in ksi, and fv and Fv are the
maximum computed shear stress and the allowable shear stress in the
adjacent panels, respectively. Furthermore, welds in stiffeners which are
required to transmit a concentrated load or reaction should be designed
for the larger of the corresponding load (or reaction) and the shear given
by Eq. (9.40).
If intermediate stiffeners are used in pairs, noting there are four
lines of fillet weld at each stiffener-web connection, we find that the
required continuous weld size is
ww =
f vs / 4
f vs
=
0.707 Fv 2.828 Fv
(for SMAW)
(9.41)
26
possibly for a better look, two lines of fillet welds are available at each
stiffener-web connection and the required weld size will be
ww =
f vs / 2
f vs
=
0.707 Fv 1.414 Fv
(for SMAW)
(9.42)
a1 f vs
2.828 L1 Fv
(for SMAW)
(9.43)
a1 f vs
1.414 L1 Fv
(for SMAW)
(9.44)
Figure 9.16
Connection of stiffeners to
web by intermittent welds
27
The clear distance between welds should not be greater than 16 times the
web thickness or greater than 10 inches (ASD G4).
(a1 L1 ) 16t w and 10 in.
(9.45)
28
the left support. Use A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi for the flange
and web plates as well as the double stiffeners. For welds, use E70
electrodes with an allowable shear stress of 21 ksi. Lateral support is
provided at supports, at the point of application of concentrated load, and
at point D located at a distance of 50 ft from the left support A. Since the
compression flange carries a uniform load, assume that it is restrained
against rotation.
Figure 9.17
(4)(150)(75) + (500)(50)
= 466.67 Kips
150
29
M ( x) = R A x wx
R
dM ( x)
466.67
= R A wx1 = 0 x1 = A =
= 116.67 ft > 100 ft
dx
w
4
There is no maximum between A and C.
For 100 ft < x < 150 ft:
M ( x) = R A x wx
P ( x 100)
R P
dM ( x)
= R A wx1 P = 0 x1 = A
<0
dx
w
There is no maximum between C and B. Therefore, the maximum
bending moment over the girder is at point C under the concentrated
load.
Mmax = Mc = 466.67(100) - 4(100)(50) = 26667 K-ft
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 9.19.
30
L (150)(12)
=
= 150 in.
12
12
= 322.0 t w
= 0.47 in.
1/ 2
t w [36(36 + 16.5)]
322
For closely spaced stiffeners, that is, when a 1.5 d, from Eq. (9.4):
h 2000
150
= 333.3 t w
= 0.45 in.
tw
333.3
36
It is seen that for A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi, Eqs. (9.3) and
(9.4) yield values close to each other. In other words, the minimum
thickness of the web plate cannot be substantially reduced by closely
spacing stiffeners. Try tw = 0.5 in. or PL150 in.x0.5 in. for the web plate.
31
h
= 300 ;
tw
Aw = 75 in.2
(26,667)(12) 75
= 94.17 in.2
(20)(150)
6
4.05
(h / t w ) 0.46
for
h
> 70
tw
32
Figure 9.20
kc =
4.05
= 0.294
(300) 0.46
36
0
.
294
tf =
(94.17)
190
1/ 2
= 2.34 in.
Try PL38 in.x2.5 in. for each flange; Af = 95 in.2. The girder section is
shown in Fig. 9.20.
From Eq. (9.17):
33
I
1,245,396
=
= 16,069.6 in.3
h / 2 +t f
75 + 2.5
12(6t f b f + ht w )
1/ 2
6t f b 3f
rT
12(6t f b f + ht w )
rT =
1/ 2
bf
(12 + 2 Aw / A f )1 / 2
(9.46)
38
= 10.31 in.
(12 + 150 / 95)1 / 2
For region AD and CB of the girder the ratio of the smaller to larger end
moments, M1/M2, is zero (Figs. 9.17 and 9.19). This ratio for region DC
is equal to
M1/M2 = MD/MC = -18,333.5/26,667 = -0.687
Region DC is the critical region, so we find the allowable bending stress
for this region.
34
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05(M1/M2)+0.3(M1/M2)2
= 1.75+1.05(-0.687)+0.3(-0.687)2 = 1.17 < 2.30
1/ 2
510,000C b
Fy
1/ 2
102,000C b
F
y
(510,000)(1.17)
=
36
(102,000)(1.17)
=
36
1/ 2
= 128.74
1/ 2
= 57.58
L u = unbraced length = AD = DC = CB = 50 ft
1/ 2
102,000C b
Fy
1/ 2
510,000C b
L
(50)(12)
< u =
= 58.2 <
rT
Fy
10.31
2 F y ( Lu / rT ) 2
2
(36)(58.2) 2
Fb =
Fy =
(36) = 21.55 ksi
3 1,530,000C b
3 1,530,000(1.17)
75 150
760
21.55 = 20.39 ksi
21.55
M max (26,667)(12)
=
= 19.91 ksi < 20.39 ksi
16,069.6
S
O.K.
35
R A 466.67
=
= 6.22 ksi
75
Aw
Substitute for Fv = fv = 6.22 ksi in Eq. (9.6) and solve for Cv.
Cv =
2.89 Fv (2.89)(6.22)
=
= 0.5 < 0.8
36
Fy
kv =
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2
45,000
(36)(0.5)(300) 2
= 36 > 9.34
45,000
a 5.34
=
h k v 4
36
1/ 2
5.34
=
36 4
1/ 2
= 0.41
RB 633.33
=
= 8.44 ksi
75
Aw
Cv =
2.89 Fv (2.89)(8.44)
=
= 0.678 < 0.8
36
Fy
kv =
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2
45,000
a 5.34
=
h k v 4
1/ 2
(36)(0.678)(300) 2
= 48.81 > 9.34
45,000
5.34
=
48.81 4
1/ 2
= 0.345 in.
37
7
Intermediate stiffeners between E and C: 2PL6.5 in. x /16 in. x 12 ft 4 in.
Web:
9
Intermediate stiffeners between C and F: 2PL7 in. x /16 in. x 12 ft 4 in.
38
fv =
Vmax 450
=
= 6.00 ksi
75
Aw
Try a = 105 in. and change the spacing of the first stiffener away
from end A from 50 in. to 45 in. (Fig. 9.22).
45
45
Vmax = R A 12
( w) = 466.67 12
(4) = 451.67 Kips
fv =
Vmax 451.67
=
= 6.02 ksi
75
Aw
a 105
=
= 0 .7 < 1
h 150
k v = 4 .0 +
Cv =
5.34
5.34
= 4 .0 +
= 14.90
2
(a / h)
(0.7) 2
45,000k v
Fy (h / t w )
(45,000)(14.90)
= 0.207 < 0.8
(36)(300) 2
1 0.207
36
0.207 +
2 1/ 2
2.89
1.15(1 + 0.7 )
O.K.
39
fv =
Vmax 620
=
= 8.27 ksi
Aw
75
Try a = 110 in. and change the spacing of the first stiffener away
from end B from 40 in. to 50 in. (Fig. 9.22).
50
50
Vmax = R B 12
( w) = 633.33 12
(4) = 616.66 Kips
fv =
Vmax 616.66
=
= 8.22 ksi
Aw
75
a 110
=
= 0.733 < 1
h 150
k v = 4.0 +
Cv =
5.34
5.34
= 4.0 +
= 13.93
2
(0.733) 2
( a / h)
45,000k v
Fy (h / t w )
(45,000)(13.93)
= 0.193 < 0.8
(36)(300) 2
Fv =
40
1 0.193
36
0.193 +
2 1/ 2
2.89
1.15(1 + 0.733 )
O.K.
VC 433.33
=
= 5.78 ksi
Aw
75
f
Fb = 0.825 0.375 v
Fv
5.78
F y = 0.825 0.375
(36) = 21.44 ksi
9.45
The maximum bending tensile stress in the web (at the junction of
web and flange):
fb =
M C y (26,667)(12)(75)
=
= 19.27 ksi < Fb = 21.44 ksi
1,245,396
I
O.K.
41
6.02
1
0 .7 2
(150)(0.5)(1 0.207) 0.7
2 1 / 2
2
(1 + 0.7 ) 9.62
= 5.56 in.2
bs t s = 5.56 / 2 = 2.78 in.2
(9.47)
= 15.8
ts
36
Substituting for bs = 15.8ts in Eq. (9.47) will yield the minimum
thickness required for the intermediate stiffeners.
42
h 150
4
=
= 81 in.
50 50
I st = 121 (167 ) (6.5 2 + 0.5) 3 = 89.7 in. 4 > 81 in. 4
O.K.
8.22
1
0.733 2
(150)(0.5)(1 0.193) 0.733
2 1 / 2
2
(1 + 0.733 ) 9.45
= 7.89 in.2
bs t s = 7.89 / 2 = 3.94 in.2
bs = 15.8t s
Minimum t s = (3.94 / 15.8)1 / 2 = 0.5 in.
43
=
= 15.8
tbs
36
Fy
t bs
18
18.2
= 1.14 in. =
in.
15.8
16
Try 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. for the left support. Abs = 21.375 in.2
b. Check axial compressive stress due to reaction RA = 466.67
Kips. From Eq. (9.31):
Aeff = 2 Abs + 12t w2 = 2(21.375) + 12(0.5) 2 = 45.75 in.2
44
( ) (36.5)
19
16
= 4812.06 in.4
2 2 E
Cc =
Fy
2 2 (29,000)
=
36
1/ 2
= 126.1 >
KL
r
5 3( KL / r ) ( KL / r ) 3
+
3
8C c
8C c3
5 3 10.96 1 10.96
+
3 8 126.1 8 126.1
= 1.699
1 10.96 2 36
(KL / r )2
Fa = 1
F y / F.S. = 1
2C c2
2 126.1 1.699
= 21.11 ksi
Actual axial stress:
45
fa =
R A 466.67
=
= 10.20 ksi < 21.11 ksi
45.75
Aeff
O.K.
Use 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. x 12 ft 6 in. for the bearing stiffeners at
the left support.
Sometimes the height of the bearing stiffeners is chosen
slightly, say in., less than the depth of the web plate. The
bearing stiffener, however, should be in contact with the flange
receiving the concentrated load.
2. Bearing stiffeners at the right support
Reaction at the right support:
RB = 633.33 Kips
Try 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. the same as for the left support.
fa =
RB 633.33
=
= 13.84 ksi < Fa = 21.11 ksi
Aeff
45.75
O.K.
Use 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. x 12 ft 6 in. for the bearing stiffeners at the
right support.
3. Bearing stiffeners at the concentrated load
Because the axial load for these stiffeners, P = 500 Kips, is less than
RB, and the effective area (Fig. 9.21) is larger than that of the end
46
bearing stiffeners, we can use the same 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. x 12 ft 6
in. for bearing stiffeners at the location of the concentrated load.
2
12
L1 ww 4(1,245,396)
=
1.414(21)
a1
1/ 2
= 0.1246
Minimum weld size for a 2.5-in. flange plate is 5/16 in. (Sec. 8.3.5 and
ASD Table J2.4).
Try ww = 5/16 in. Substituting this value into the previous
equation, we obtain
a1 = 2.51L1
(9.48)
47
f v = 6.02 ksi;
From Eq. (9.40):
Fy
f vs = h
340
3/ 2
fv
36
= (150)
Fv
340
3/ 2
6.02
= 3.23 ksi
9.62
48
L1 ww
f vs
3.23
=
=
= 0.05439
a1
2.828 Fv 2.828(21)
(9.49)
The minimum weld size for a -in.-thick plate is 3/16 in. The
maximum weld spacing is
a max = 24t s or 12 in. = 24(167 ) = 10.5 in.
Try a 3/16-in. fillet weld with a spacing of 10 in. From Eq. (9.49) we
obtain L1 = 2.90 in.
Minimum length of the weld segment = 4ww or 1.5 in. = 1.5 in.
Use 3/16-in. weld, 3.0 in. long, 10-in. spacing.
2. For segment CF (Fig. 9.22)
Fv = 9.45 ksi
f v = 8.22 ksi;
36
f vs = (150)
340
3/ 2
8.22
= 4.5 ksi
9.45
L1 ww
4.50
=
= 0.0757
a1
2.828(21)
The minimum weld size for a 9/16-in.-thick plate is in.
a max = 12 in.
L1min = 1.5 in.
(9.50)
49
O.K.
50
51
= 242.8 t w
= 0.62 in.
1/ 2
t w [50(50 + 16.5)]
242.8
For closely spaced stiffeners, i.e., when a 1.5d, from Eq. (9.4):
h 2000
150
= 282.8 t w
= 0.53 in.
tw
282.8
50
Try tw = 9/16 in. or PL150 in. x 9/16 in. for the web plate. Note that spacing
of the intermediate stiffeners a should not be greater than 1.5d. For the
selected web plate, we have
Aw = (150)(169 ) = 84.375 in.2
h 800
=
= 266.67 ;
tw
3
970
Fy
970
50
= 137.18 <
h
= 266.67
tw
52
6 A f + Aw
6 A f + Aw
Fb
(9.51)
where
= 1.5 0.5 3
(9.52)
M max h
= (6 A f + Aw )
6
Fb'
(9.53)
M max Aw
Fb h
6
In this example:
(26,667)(12)
(0.893)(84.375)
= 58.55 in.2
(0.60)(50)(150)
6
(9.54)
53
kc =
4.05
4.05
=
= 0.310
0.46
(h / t )
(266.67) 0.46
50 / 0.31
tf =
(58.55)
190
1/ 2
= 1.98 in.
30
= 15.0 =
2
190
F yf / k c
190
50 / 0.31
= 15.0
851,363
I
=
= 11,056.7 in.3
75 + 2
h / 2 +t f
6 + Aw / A f
6 + Aw / A f
6 + 0.893(1.406)
= 0.980
6 + 1.406
54
84.375
Fb' = (30) 1.0 (0.0005)
(266.67 138.76 ) (0.980)
60.0
= 26.76 ksi
fb =
M max (26,667)(12)
=
= 28.94 ksi > 26.76 ksi
S
11,056.7
N.G.
920,492.8
= 11,935.1 in.3
75 + 178
31
= 14.59 <
2 18
190
F yf / k c
= 15.0
6 + Aw / A f
6 + Aw / A f
6 + 0.893(1.281)
= 0.981
6 + 1.281
O.K.
55
84.375
Fb' = (30) 1.0 (0.0005)
(266.67 138.76) (0.981)
65.875
= 27.02 ksi
fb =
M max (26,667)(12)
=
= 26.81 ksi < Fb'
S
11,935.1
O.K.
Use PL31 in. x 21/8 in. for each flange. Af = 65.875 in.2
Vmax R A 466.67
=
=
= 5.53 ksi < 0.40 F y = 14.40 ksi
Aw
Aw 84.375
56
2.89 Fv ( 2.89)(5.53)
=
= 0.444 < 0.8
36
Fy
k=
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2
45,000
(36)(0.444)(266.67) 2
= 25.26 > 9.34
45,000
h k 4
1/ 2
5.34
=
25.26 4
1/ 2
= 0.501
Vmax R B 633.33
=
=
= 7.51 ksi < 0.40 F y = 14.40 ksi
Aw
Aw 84.375
Cv =
2.89 Fv ( 2.89)(7.51)
=
= 0.603 < 0.8
36
Fy
k=
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2
45,000
(36)(0.603)(266.67) 2
= 34.30 > 9.34
45,000
57
a 5.34
=
h k 4
1/ 2
5.34
=
34.30 4
1/ 2
= 0.42
(9.55)
58
Substituting for bs from the limiting case of Eq. (9.29) into Eq. (9.55)
yields
I st =
285,792 4
ts
( Fy ) 3 / 2
(9.56)
Finally, equating Eqs. (9.28) and (9.56) and solving for ts, we obtain
the following approximate formula for the minimum required
thickness of the intermediate stiffeners:
t s = 0.000865h( F y ) 0.375
(9.57)
(9.58)
59
95t s
Fy
95(9 / 16)
36
= 8.90 in.
t
1
Furnished I st = t s bs + w
3
2
1 9
9
= 7.5 + = 88.3 in. 4
3 16
32
4
h
150
4
4
Required I st = =
= 81 in. < 88.3 in. O.K.
50
50
Length of intermediate stiffeners:
9
h1 = h 4t w = 150 4 = 147.75 in. = 12 ft 33/4 in.
16
Use PL7.5 in. x 9/16 in. x 12 ft 3 in. for stiffeners on one side.
60
The procedure for design of bearing stiffeners is the same for the
nonhybrid girder example of Sec. 9.8.6 and therefore will not be repeated
here. The answer:
Use 2PL15 in. x 1 in. x 12 ft 6 in. for bearing stiffeners at each support
and at the location of the concentrated load.
9.9.6. Connections
The procedure for design of web-to-flange fillet welds is the
same as for nonhybrid plate girders. This portion of the design is left as
an exercise for the student.
For stiffener-to-web fillet welds, however, Eq. (9.40) will not
apply and only the minimum amount of welding, as given in ASD J2.2b
and covered in Sec. 8.3, needs to be used.
61
Figure 9.24
62
Solution
The centroidal axis of the top WT section is specified by the axis x in
Fig. 9.24. Properties of a WT18x115 section are
t f = 1.26 in.
t w = 0.760 in.
A = 33.8 in. 2
I x = 934 in. 4
Ix
340,739
=
= 5014.5 in.3
50 + 17.95
67.95
63
12 + ( Aw / A f ) 3 3
Re =
12 + 2( Aw / A f )
A h
760
Re
Fb' = Fb 1.0 0.0005 w
A f t w
Fb
20.75 0.75
30
( wmax + wo ) L2
= Fb' S x
8
64
8 Fb' S x
2
wo =
8(25.84)(5014.5)
0.49 = 3.35 Kips/ft
(150) 2 (12)
Example 2
Find the spacing of the intermediate stiffeners in the previous example,
assuming that the beam must carry a uniformly distributed load of 3.35
K/ft in addition to its own weight. Choose the minimum number of
uniformly spaced stiffeners using A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi.
Figure 9.25
Solution
The design load intensity (Fig. 9.25):
W = 3.35 + 0.49 = 3.84 Kips/ft
Since uniformly spaced stiffeners are provided, the spacing of stiffeners
must be based on the maximum shear along the beam.
65
Vmax =
wL (3.84)(150)
=
= 288 Kips
2
2
Vmax
288
=
= 2.85 ksi < 0.40 F y = 14.4 ksi
Aw 101.1
We set this maximum shear stress to allowable shear stress given by Eq.
(9.6) and solve for Cv.
Fv =
Fy C v
Cv =
2.89 f v (2.89)(2.85)
=
= 0.229 < 0.80
Fy
36
2.89
= fv
k=
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2
45,000
(36)(0.229)(177.8) 2
= 5.79 < 9.34
45,000
h k 5.34
1/ 2
5.79 5.34
1/ 2
= 2.98
66
and
2
a max
260
260
h =
=
(133.38) = 285.22 in. = 23.77 ft
177.8
h / tw
2
(150)(12)
= 257.1 in.
7
Use six intermediate stiffeners and two pairs of bearing stiffeners at the
supports.
Example 3
Determine the allowable shear capacity (Kips) of the homogeneous plate
girder interior panel shown in fig. 9.26 if the bending tensile stress in the
web is 27.5 ksi. What percentage of the shear capacity of the panel
comes from the beam action prior to the web buckling and what
percentage is the share of the tension-field action after the shear buckling
of the web? Yield stress of the steel is 50 ksi
67
Figure 9.26
Solution
a = 9 ft = 108 in.
h = 100 in.
t w = 0.5 in.
a
= 1.08 > 1
h
2000
h
= 200 <
= 283
tw
F yf
Find k from Eq. (9.8):
k = 5.34 +
4
4
= 5.34 +
= 8.77
2
(a / h)
(1.08) 2
45,000(8.77)
45,000k
=
= 0.197 < 0.8
2
Fy (h / t w )
50(200) 2
68
Find the allowable shear stress from Eq. (9.12). (All of the five
conditions given in Sec. 9.3 for relying on the postbuckling behavior and
tension-field action of the web plate are met.)
Fy
1 Cv
= 0.068 F y + 0.164 F y
C v +
2
2.89
1
.
15
1
(
a
/
h
)
+
Fv =
f
Fb = 0.825 0.375 v
Fv
= 40 percent
Percentage of the shear capacity from the tension-field action = 100 40
= 60 percent
69
(9.59)
h
=
tw
14,000
[ F yf ( F yf + 16.5)]1 / 2
2,000
F yf
for a 1.5 h
70
where h is the clear distance between flanges for welded plate girders.
Note that these equations are similar to Eq. (9.3) and (9.4) for the ASD
code.
(9.61)
12 + a r (3m m 3 )
1.0
12 + 2a r
(9.62)
71
for hybrid girders where ar is the ratio of the web area to the
compression flange area (a r = Aw / A f 10) and m is the ratio of the
web yield stress to the flange yield stress (m = Fyw/Fyf) or to Fcr.
In Eq. (9.6), Sxt is the section modulus of the girder
corresponding to the tension flange in in.3 and Fyt is the yield stress
of the tension flange in ksi.
(9.63)
R PG = 1
ar
1200 + 300a r
c 970 1.0
tw
Fcr
(9.64)
where hc is twice the distance from the neutral axis to the inside face
of the compression flange and Fcr is the critical compression flange
stress to be discussed later in this section. Note that Eq. (9.64)
corresponds to Eq. (9.24) of the ASD code covered in Sec. 9.4.3.
In general, there exist three limit states of buckling. They are
lateral-torsional buckling (LTB), flange local buckling (FLB), and
web local buckling (WLB). Because the design is based on the
postbuckling behavior of the web plate, the limit state of WLB does
72
F yf
Fcr =
1 p
C b F yf 1
2 r p
C PG
F yf
for P < r
(9.65)
for > r
The quantities , p, r, and CPG are specified for two limit states
of LTB and FLB separately.
a. For the limit state of LTB:
Lu
rT
(9.66)
p =
300
r =
756
F yf
F yf
C PG = 286,000C b
(9.67)
(9.68)
(9.69)
73
bf
(9.70)
2t f
p =
r =
kc =
65
(9.71)
F yf
230
(9.72)
F yf / k c
4
h / tw
0.35 k c 0.763
(9.73)
C PG = 26200k c
(9.74)
C b = 1.0
(9.75)
74
equation for the flange area for the common case of doubly symmetric
girders and based on the limit state of tension-flange yield.
In the case of doubly symmetric sections Eqs. (9.61) and (9.62)
can be wrttien in the following form:
Mn =
12 A f + (3m m 3 ) Aw
2(6 A f + Aw )
S x F yf
(9.76)
Now, substitute for approximate value of Sx from Eq. (9.18) into Eq.
(9.76) and simplify:
M n = 121 hF yf [12 A f + (3m m 3 ) Aw ]
(9.77)
Substituting for Mn from Eq. (9.77) into the following equation and
solving for Af
M u = b M n
(9.78)
we finally find the following formula for the flange area of a doubly
symmetric girder:
Af =
(3m m 3 ) Aw
Mu
b hF yf
12
(9.79)
After finding the area of the flange we still have to select two different
design parameters: width and thickness of the flange.
For some guidance in selecting the flange design parameters, let
us find bounds on bf and tf for a given Af for the case when the critical
75
stress Fcr is equal to the yield stress Fyf (its maximum value). For the
limit state of LTB, we must have [Eqs. (9.65), (9.66), and (9.67)]:
Lu
300
rT
F yf
(9.80)
Substituting for rT from Eq. (9.46) into this equation, we obtain the
following bound on bf in order to have Fcr = Fyf:
bf
Lu
2 F yf (6 + Aw / A f )
300
(9.81)
For the limit state of FLB, we must have [Eqs. (9.65), (9.70), and (9.71)]:
bf
2t f
65
F yf
Substituting for bf = Af /tf into this equation and solving for tf, we find the
following bound on tf in order to have Fcr = Fyf:
Af
t f
130
1/ 2
(F )
1/ 4
yf
(9.82)
Note that for a given required Af, the requirement of Eqs. (9.81) and
(9.82) often cannot be met simultaneously, and a compromise must be
made. For the economical design of plate girders, the values of critical
stress Fcr obtained from the limit states of LTB and FLB should be close
to each other. In Sec. 9.13, an iterative scheme is used for achieving this
goal in the applet for interactive design of plate girders.
76
Vn =
kv
h
187
tw
F yw
for
0.6 Aw F yw
kv
0.6 Aw F yw 187
F yw
t
w
for
187
(9.83)
kv
F yw
Aw (26400k v )
(h / t w )
kv = 5 +
for
<
h
kv
234
tw
F yw
kv
h
> 234
tw
F yw
5
( a / h) 2
(9.84)
(9.85)
77
for
0.6 Aw F yw
h 187 k v
tw
F yw
Vn =
1 Cv
0.6 Aw F yw C v +
1.15(1 + a 2 / h 2 )1 / 2
for
(9.86)
h 187 k v
>
tw
F yw
187 k v
for
187 k v
F yw
(h / t w ) F yw
h 234 k v
tw
F yw
Cv =
(9.87)
44,000k v
(h / t w ) 2 F yw
for
h 234 k v
>
tw
F yw
(or Cv 0.8)
78
(9.85) holds, the tension-field action is not allowed, and the following
equation shall apply:
Vn = 0.6 Aw F yw C v
(9.88)
tw
F yw
(9.89)
or
Vu 0.6 v Aw F yw C v
(9.90)
F yw
V
0
Ast = 0.15ht w D (1 C v ) u 18t w2
V
F
v n
ys
(9.91)
79
(9.92)
where
2.5
2 0 .5
j=
2
(a / h)
(9.93)
(9.94)
80
81
L (150)(12)
=
= 150 in.
12
12
tw
tw
82
322.0
333.3
for a 1.5h
150
h
=
= 0.47 in.
322 322
Try tw = 0.50 in. or PL150 in. x 0.5 in. for the web plate.
h
tw
= 300;
Aw = 75 in. 2
(3 1)(75)
412,000
= 72.3 in.2
0.9(150)(36)
12
(9.95)
600
300
(9.96)
83
(9.97)
I x 1,064,838
=
= 13,829.1 in.3
77
77
bf
rT =
(12 + 2 Aw / A f )
1/ 2
40
= 10.74 in.
[12 + 2(75) /(80)]1 / 2
Lu
600
=
= 55.87
rT 10.74
p =
300
F yf
300
36
= 50.0
84
From the LTB point of view, the middle segment of the girder
(segment DC in Fig. 9.17) is the critical segment. The moment
gradient coefficient Cb is found from Eq. (5.35).
MA = moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment
= 603.33(62.5) 12 (5.2)(62.5) 2 = 27,551.9 ft-K
MB = moment at center line of the unbraced segment
= 603.33(75) 12 (5.2)(75) 2 = 30,624.7 ft-K
MC = moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced segment
= 603.33(87.5) 12 (5.2)(87.5) 2 = 32,885.1 ft-K
Cb =
2.5M max
12.5M max
+ 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C
12.5(34,333.3)
2.5(34,333.3) + 3(27,551.9) + 4(30,624.7) + 3(32,885.1)
= 1.10
=
r =
756
F yf
756
36
= 126.0
p < < r
1 p
Fcr = C b F yf 1
2 r p
1 55.87 50.00
= (1.10)(36) 1
2 126.0 50.00
= 38.07 ksi > F yf = 36 ksi
85
Fcr = 36 ksi.
b. Flange local buckling
bf
2t f
p =
65
F yf
40
= 10
2( 2)
=
65
36
= 10.83 > = 10
Fcr = F yf = 36 ksi
Therefore, the governing critical stress is Fcr = 36 ksi.
h
c 970
tw
Fcr
75 / 80
970
300
= 0.912
=1
1200 + 300(75 / 80)
36
R PG = 1
ar
1200 + 300a r
b M n = b R PG S x Fcr = 0.9(0.912)(13,829.1)(36.00)
= 408,633 K-in.
The value of b Mn is within 1% of Mu = 412,000 K-in. and PL40
in. x 2.0 in. is acceptable for the flange plate.
If the section were not O.K., we would have to increase the
area of the flange. We choose the second trial flange plate on the
basis of the following estimate of the new required flange area:
86
New A f = (old A f )( M u / b M n )
(9.98)
We can use Eq. (9.98) also to possibly reduce the area of the
flange when b Mn is larger than Mu.
44,000k v
2
(h / t w ) F yw
(44,000)(5)
= 0.0679
(300) 2 (36)
87
88
a 260
260
=
= 0.75 < 3
h h / tw
300
2
5
5
=5+
= 15.20
2
( 0 .7 ) 2
( a / h)
234 k v
F yw
234 15.20
36
= 152.1 <
h
= 300
tw
44,000k v
2
(h / t w ) F yw
44,000(15.20)
= 0.206
(300) 2 (36)
89
1 Cv
Vn = 0.6 Aw F yw C v +
1.15(1 + a 2 / h 2 )1 / 2
1 0.206
= 0.6(75)(36) 0.206 +
= 1250 Kips
2 1/ 2
1.15(1 + 0.7 )
O.K.
Vn = 1230.0 Kips;
Vu = 795 Kips
Vu = 556.67 Kips
M n = 465,487 K-in.;
Vn = 1230 Kips
90
a/h = 0.7;
C v = 0.206
36
= 0.14 in. 2
bs t s = 0.07 in. 2
(9.99)
2 .5
2 .5
2=
2 = 3.10 0.5
2
(0.7) 2
( a / h)
(9.100)
bs
95
= 15.8
ts
36
(9.101)
91
O.K.
t bs
Fy
95
bbs =
92
36
(19) = 1.20 in.
95
c =
r 2 E
1/ 2
36
= 10.37
2
29,000
1/ 2
LRFD E2
= 35.80 ksi
Pn = Aeff Fcr = (50.50)(35.80) = 1807.9 Kips
O.K.
93
Weight of the flange and web plates = 81.7 + 38.3 = 120.0 Kips
Weight of the stiffeners
= [(3)(2)(19)( 54 )(150) + (16)(2)(5.5)( 83 )(148)](0.49/123)
= 8.8 Kips
Total weight of the plate girder = 120.0 + 8.8 = 128.8 Kips
Comparing the weight of this design based on the LRFD code
with the corresponding one based on the ASD code presented in section
9.8, we observe that the former is about 11 percent lighter than the latter.
94
95
Figure 9.29
96
Figure 9.30
97
Figure 9.31
98
Figure 9.32
99
in Fig. 9.33, the applet has added a second segment and the two segments
are denoted as From A to C and From C to B. Depending on the
selection made by the user, the applet displays the required input items
for the selected segment. This scheme saves screen space by using the
same screen area for all different segments. The same scheme is used for
the bearing stiffeners as well as other panels such as welds panel in the
input window, and elevation, sections, and welds panels in the output
window.
Intermediate stiffeners may or may not be provided and single or
double plates may be used as intermediate stiffeners. If the user chooses
to design a plate girder without intermediate stiffeners, all input
components related to intermediate stiffeners are deactivated (Fig. 9.34).
Figure 9.33
Figure 9.34
100
Figure 9.35
101
Figure 9.36
At the beginning of the design of a plate girder the user needs to specify
the steel types of stiffeners, whether intermediate stiffeners are provided
or not, and whether double or single intermediate stiffeners are used only
(Fig. 9.32a). The applet displays design results as shown in Fig. 9.32b.
The last panel in the input window is the welds panel for
electrode type, and size, length and spacing of the welds connecting
flange to web, size of the weld connecting bearing stiffeners to web, and
size, length, and spacing of the weld connecting intermediate stiffeners to
web (9.35). The user can choose intermittent or continuous fillet welds
for flange-to-web and intermediate stiffener-to-web connections. But,
continuous fillet welds are used for connecting bearing stiffeners to web
as required by the ASD and LRFD codes. At the beginning of the design
of a plate girder the user needs to specify the electrode type and whether
intermittent or continuous welds are used only (Fig. 9.35a). The applet
displays design results as shown in Fig. 9.35b.
102
The user can select the two primary design parameters in the
control window placed in the upper right corner of the screen (Figs. 9.29
and 9.36). They are the method of design, ASD and LRFD, and the web
depth-to-span ratio. Since the web depth-to-span ratio is a key design
factor in design of plate girders, this option is placed separately from the
flange & web panel in the input window so that the user can design the
plate girder with several different values of the web depth-to-span ratios
easily.
Figure 9.37
103
Figure 9.38
Figure 9.39
104
Figure 9.40
Figure 9.41
105
Figure 9.42
Figure 9.43
Figure 9.44
106
Figure 9.45
Figure 9.46
Figure 9.47
107
Figure 9.48
Figure 9.49
9.14 PROBLEMS
9.1 Design a simply supported welded hybrid plate girder subjected to a
distributed load of intensity 3.5 K/ft including the girder weight and
a concentrated load of 400 Kips at a distance of 50 ft from the left
support, as shown in Fig. 9.50. The girder has lateral supports at the
two ends and at points D, E, and F, as indicated on the figure.
Double plates are used for intermediate stiffeners. Use A36 steel
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with yield stress of 36 ksi for the web plate and stiffeners and A572
steel with yield stress of 60 ksi for the flange plate. Use E70
electrode and shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) for connecting
various plates.
Figure 9.50
9.2 A simply supported welded plate girder has a span of 200 ft and is
subjected to a uniform load of 4 Kips/ft including its own weight.
The girder is laterally supported at the supports and at the midspan.
Based on a preliminary design, a 180 in.x0.75 in. plate is selected for
the web, and a 40 in.x1.5 in. plate is selected for each flange. Using
A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi and considering the bending
stresses in the flange only, check the adequacy of this preliminary
design.
9.3 Design the intermittent web-to-flange fillet weld for the hybrid girder
designed in Sec. 9.9 of the book, using submerged arc welding
(SAW) and E70 electrode. Use the minimum weld size and
minimum length for the intermittent fillet segments.
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9.4 Solve Example 1 of section 9.10, assuming that the plate girder
consists of two WT12x52 with yield stress of 60 ksi and a 100 in. x
0.50 in. plate with yield stress of 36 ksi.
9.5 Design the bearing stiffeners in Example 1 of Sec. 9.10.
9.6 Design the intermediate stiffeners in Example 1 of Sec. 9.10, using
a. single stiffeners
b. double stiffeners