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Biology Essay Question
Biology Essay Question
The hydrogen ions then combine with the electrons released by the chlorophyll
to form hydrogen atoms.
24H++24e-24H
The energy from the excited electrons is used to form energy-rich molecules of
ATP. At the same time, each hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form a hydroxyl
group. This electron is then received by the chlorophyll.
24OH-24OH+24eThe hydroxyl groups then combine to form water and gaseous oxygen.
24OH12H2O+6O2
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere and used for cellular respiration. The
ATP molecules provide energy while the hydrogen atoms provide reducing power
for the dark reaction which takes place in the stroma.
Dark Reaction
The dark reaction is also known as the Calvin cycle. It is light independent.
During the dark reaction, the hydrogen atoms are used to fix carbon dioxide in a
series of reactions catalysed by photosynthetic enzymes. The overall reaction
results in the reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose.
6CO2+24H6(CH2O)+6H2O
(CH2O) is a basic unit of glucose. Six units of it combine to form one molecule of
glucose. The glucose monomers then undergo condensation to form starch
which is temporarily stored as starch grains in the chloroplast. The entire
process can be represented by the following equation.
6H2O+6CO2C6H12O6+6O2
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Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration requires a continuous supply of oxygen from the air or
water surrounding the organism. Oxygen that is taken in is delivered by the
blood circulatory system to the body cells. In the cells, glucose molecules are
oxidised by oxygen to release energy. Aerobic respiration can be summarised by
the following chemical equation:
C6H12O6+6O26CO2+6H2O+2898kJ
Aerobic respiration involves the oxidation of glucose in the presence of oxygen
to carbon dioxide, water and energy. Organisms that respire aerobically are
called aerobic organisms. Aerobic respiration releases all the available energy
stored within the glucose molecules. The entire process does not only involve a
single chemical reaction, but also driven by a sequence of complex biochemical
reactions which are catalysed by the respiratory enzymes. The energy stored
within the glucose molecules are released gradually. This is far more useful to
the organism than a sudden release of energy.
Only a small portion of energy is lost in maintaining the body temperature. A
larger portion of the energy is used to synthesise ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate. ATP which is an instant source of energy is the main supply for all
living cells. Each ATP molecule consists of three phosphate groups and the
phosphate bonds can be easily broken down to release energy.
Anaerobic Respiration
During vigorous exercise such as running a race, the muscles initially
respire aerobically. However, the muscles soon used up all the available oxygen.
In spite of the increased breathing rate and heartbeat rate, the blood cannot
supply oxygen fast enough to meet their requirements. The rate at which oxygen
is used by the muscles exceeds the amount of oxygen supplied by the blood.
The muscles are in a state of oxygen deficiency, and an oxygen debt is incurred.
As such, the muscles obtain extra energy from anaerobic respiration because
oxygen is not available. During anaerobic respiration, the glucose molecules
break down partially into an immediate substance called lactic acid instead of
carbon dioxide and water. Because glucose is not completely broken down, the
energy released during anaerobic respiration is much less than the energy
released during aerobic respiration. In fact, for every molecule of glucose,
anaerobic respiration releases only two molecules of ATP or 150kJ of energy per
mole of glucose. In contrast, aerobic respiration generates 38 molecules of ATP
or 2898kJ of energy per mole of glucose. Thus, in terms of energy yield,
anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic respiration.
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Digestion
Ruminant
When a cow feeds on grass, it partially chews the grass. This partially
chewed food is swallowed into the rumen, the largest compartment of the
stomach. Here, cellulose is broken down by the cellulose produced by symbiotic
microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa. Part of the breakdown products
are absorbed by the bacteria and protozoa, the rest by the cow.
As the food enters the reticulum, the cellulose undergoes further hydrolysis. The
content of the reticulum, called the cud, is then regurgitated bit by bit into the
mouth to be thoroughly chewed again. This process helps soften and break down
cellulose, making it more accessible to further microbial action in other parts of
the stomach.
The cud is then re-swallowed and moves into the omasum. Here, large particles
of food are broken down into smaller pieces by peristalsis. Water is removed
from the cud. The food particles finally move into the abomasums, the true
stomach of the cow. Here, gastric juices containing digestive enzymes complete
the digestion of proteins and other food substances. The food then passes
through the small intestine to be digested and absorbed in the normal way.
Rodents
In rodents like squirrels, the caecum and appendix are enlarged to store
the cellulose-producing bacteria. The breakdown products pass through the
alimentary canal twice. The faeces in the first batch are usually produced at
night and are soft and watery. Those are eaten again to enable the animals to
absorb the products of bacterial breakdown as they pass through the alimentary
canal for the second time. The second batch of faeces becomes drier and harder.
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Pond
Succession in a disused pond begins with the growth of pioneer species
such as phytoplankton, algae and submerged plants like the Hydrilla sp,
Cabomba sp and Elodea sp. These plants have special adaptive features which
enable them to colonise the pond. Their fibrous roots penetrate deep into the
soil to absorb nutrients and bind sand particles together. Plenty of sunlight
penetrates through the clear water to allow photosynthesis to take place. When
the pioneer species die and decompose, more organic nutrients are released into
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Cell Division
Mitosis
The two major phases mainly interphase and mitotic cell division also
known as the M phase which consists of mitosis and cytokinesis begins and ends
according to the cell cycle. Mitosis begins with interphase. Interphase is divided
into three shorter stages, G1, S and G2. In G1 phase, the cell synthesises protein
and new cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplast. The
chromosomes are not condensed and appear as thread-like structures called
chromatin. In S phase, however, synthesis of DNA occurs. This means that the
DNA in the nucleus undergoes replication. Each duplicated chromosome now
consists of two identical sister chromatid which contain identical copies of the
chromosomes DNA molecule. The cell continues to grow and remain
metabolically active during G2 stage as a preparation for cell division. Interphase
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Meiosis
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Cancer
When a cell divides by mitosis repeatedly without control and regulation,
it can produce cancer cells. Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis
due to severe disruption to the mechanism that controls the cycle. Cancer cells
divide freely and uncontrollably without heeding the cell cycle control system.
Cancer cells compete with the surrounding normal cells to obtain sufficient
nutrients and energy for their own growth. A cancer cell that is not destroyed will
divide uncontrollably to form a tumour, an abnormal mass of cells. Cancer cells
can intrude on and spread to other tissues which then lead to the malfunction of
the tissues and ultimately death.
Cancer can be caused by many factors such as damage to the DNA, changes in
genes (mutation) that control cell division, ionising radiation, for example, Xrays, ultraviolet rays and gamma rays, certain chemical compounds like tar in
tobacco smoke or carcinogenic (cancer-causing) compounds such as
formaldehyde.
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Menstrual cycle involves two process mainly the breakdown of the endometrium
and the formation of an ovum. On day 1-5, FSH stimulates the development of
primary follicle to produce a Graafian follicle. FSH stimulates the follicle cells and
ovary tissues to secrete oestrogen to heal and repait the uterus lining. This only
takes place in the ovary. On the other hand, menstruation occurs in the uterus
where blood is discharged from the vagina. This is when the uterus lining
breakdown.
On day 6-13, in the ovary, the graafian follicle matures. Oestrogen and
progesterone level continue to increase. Till a certain point, the oestrogen will
stop the pituitary gland from producing FSH and is stimulated to produce LH. In
the uterus, the endometrium wall is repaired and thickens.
On day 14, LH causes ovulation and the formation of corpus luteum from the
follicle cells. In the uterus, however, the endometrium continues to thickens.
On day 15-24, the corpus luteum develops and releases progesterone which
stimulates the thickening of the endometrium. In the uterus, the endometrium
becomes thicker and more blood vessels are present.
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Dynamic Ecosystem
Nitrogen Cycle
To build proteins, plants need the element nitrogen. The nitrogen gas in
the atmosphere is about 78% but plants are not able to utilize the nitrogen. This
is because the nitrogen has to be fixed before it can be absorbed by the plants.
Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Nostoc sp, Azotobacter) which live in the root nodule of
leguminous plant can convert nitrogen in the atmosphere into ammonia.
Nitrosomonas
converts/oxidises
ammonia
into
nitrites.
Nitrobacter
oxidises/converts nitrites into nitrates. Nitrites and Nitrates can be absorbed by
the plants as their nitrogen source. The plants protein is transferred to the
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Blood
Blood Clotting Mechanism
Blood clotting mechanism involves a complex series of biochemical
reactions in the blood to prevent excessive loss of blood after an injury. When
you get a cut, the blood vessels around the wound immediately constrict to
reduce blood loss. Exposed tissues, the collagens interact with the blood
coagulation proteins to start the coagulation process. Platelets become activated
as it begins to adhere to the wall of the blood vessel at the side of bleeding.
They form a temporary platelet plug. The adhered platelets undergo degranulation and release cytoplasmic granules. The cytoplasmic granules attract
more platelets to the area. While the platelets form the temporary plug, other
blood proteins congregate on the damaged blood vessels to reinforce the clot.
The interaction of the different blood clotting factors such as Factor VIII and
platelets produces prothrombin. Prothrombin acts together with calcium ions and
vitamin K to form an active plasma protein called thrombin. Thrombin transforms
a protein called fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin surrounds the platelet plug, creating
a fibrin mesh. The fibrin mesh is more stable than the temporary platelet plug.
Over the next few days, the fibrin mesh or blood clot strengthens even more,
protecting the blood vessels from further damage or blood loss. After the injury
heals, the body has to remove the fibrin clot. A protein called plasmin is formed
to dissolve fibrin. The blood clot is slowly removed with the help of plasmin.
Muscular Dystrophy
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Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a common bone disorder which causes the bones to
become thinner, more brittle and more porous. It is a common disease among
elderly women. The loss of bone mass normally begins after the age of 30 years
and accelerates greatly after the age of 45 years. It particularly affects women
after menopause, when changes in hormone levels (especially oestrogen level)
reduce bone strength. During the course of an individuals life, the body needs
phosphate and calcium to build bones. If the dietary intake of these minerals is
not sufficient, or if the body does not absorb enough of these minerals from the
diet, bone production and bone tissue will suffer, resulting in brittle and fragile
bones. These bones are easily subjected to fracture. The loss of bone mass
occurs gradually over an extended period of time. Most people are not even
aware that they have osteoporosis until a bone is fractured because there are no
symptoms or early signs of osteoporosis. Symptoms that manifest over the years
include fractures of the vertebrae, wrists or hips; a reduction in height over time
and a stooped posture. Osteoporosis can be prevented by taking adequate
amounts of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D. Regular exercise can also
reduce the likelihood of bone fractures and help reduce bone mineral loss.
Although there is no cure for osteoporosis, medications can slow down the loss
of bone mineral.
Arthritis
Arthritis refers to a group of skeletal disorders that involve inflammation
of the joint. The joints become swollen, stiff and painful. One form of arthritis is
osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is part of the ageing process caused by the wear
and tear of the cartilage between the bones inside certain joints. The ageing
process may also result in a decreased production of the synovial fluid in the
joints. The patient usually suffers from a painful and stiff knee which restricts
daily activities like walking and climbing stairs. If treatment fails to relieve pain,
a surgeon can replace the damaged joints with artificial ones made of plastic or
metal.
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Compensation Point
Compensation point is the light intensity at which the rate of carbon
dioxide production during respiration is equal to the carbon dioxide consumption
during photosynthesis.
Genetics
Genetic Modification of Bacteria in the Mass Production of Insulin
An enzyme is used to isolate and cut the bacterial plasmid. A plasmid is a
circular DNA found in bacteria. The human gene that codes the production of
insulin is isolated and inserted into the vector plasmid. An enzyme is used to
incorporate the gene into the plasmid. The human gene together with the
bacterial plasmid (called recombinant DNA) is inserted into the bacterial cell. The
bacteria are cultured in a bioreactor. The plasmids are replicated as the bacteria
divide asexually (producing clones) and make identical copies of themselves, all
carrying the new gene that is capable of producing human insulin. The insulin
produced in large quantities, purified and separated. This is a cost-effective way
of producing sufficient amounts of insulin.
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Variation
Comparison between Continuous &Discontinuous Variation
i.
Similarities
Both continuous and discontinuous variation creates varieties in the
population of a species. Both variations are caused by environment
factors or genetic factors or both. Variation that is caused by genetic
factors can be inherited. This too can promote a higher survival rate in the
formation of new species/individual.
ii.
Differences
Continuous variation is a type of variation in which the differences in a
character are not distinctive while discontinuous variation is a type of
variation in which the differences in a character are distinctive. Height and
weight are continuous variation as while blood group, fingerprint patterns,
haemophilia and albinism are discontinuous variation. Continuous
variation exhibits a spectrum of phenotypes with intermediate characters
while discontinuous variation exhibits a few distinctive phenotypes with no
intermediate characters.
Continuous variation has characters that are quantitative, they can be
measured and graded from one extreme to the other while discontinuous
variation has characters that are qualitative, they cannot be measured or
graded from one extreme to the other. Continuous variation is
represented by a normal distribution while discontinuous variation is
represented by a discrete distribution. Continuous variation is influenced
by environmental factors while discontinuous variation is not influenced
by environmental factors. Two or more genes control the same character
for continuous variation while only a single gene determines the
differences in the traits of a character. The phenotype of a continuous
variation is usually controlled by many pairs of alleles while the phenotype
of a discontinuous variation is controlled by a pair of alleles.
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iii.
Random fertilisation
Each gamete has a unique set of combination of genes. A male gamete
can fertilise any of the female gametes. The fertilisation between a male
gamete and a female gamete occurs randomly. As a result, each zygote is
unique. With random fertilisation, variations occur in the offspring.
Reproduction II
Formation of Identical Twins
Identical twins are formed when the ball of cells from a fertilised ovum
splits into two embryos. Only one sperm and one ovum are involved in the
process of fertilisation. The two embryos develop into two separate foetuses in
the uterus. Each foetus has its own umbilical cord but shares the same placenta.
Since the twins originate from one embryo, they are, therefore, identical in every
aspect. They are born the same sex.
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Birth Control
Birth control can be done by various methods. There is the statistical
method also known as the rhythm method. This control is natural as it estimates
the period of fertility. The period is based on the length of past menstrual cycles.
Another method called the barrier method is to wear condom (male & female) or
diaphragm (female). This is done to prevent sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs). Withdrawal method is another method where the penis is taken away
from the female vagina right before ejaculation. There are drawbacks for this
method as the semen might leak before ejaculation.
Sterilisation can be done for both male and female for birth control. Vasectomy
is done for male, where sperm duct is cut and tied while tubal ligation is done for
female, where the fallopian tube is cut and tied. These methods can be done by
surgery but they are irreversible. Intrauterine device (IUD) can be used for birth
control. IUD is inserted into the uterus so that it interrupts the normal uterine
environment and prevents the implantation of zygote in the endometrium. The
T-shaped IUD is made up of copper and plastics.
Another method known as the hormone method can too be used for birth
control. This can be done by taking contraceptive pills orally. These pills contain
a combination of oestrogen (increases weight) and progesterone. Ovulation is
prevented by inhibiting the secretion of FSH and LH. This is because a high level
of oestrogen and progesterone inhibits the pituitary gland from secreting FSH
and LH. Lastly there is the awareness method. This is done by analysing the
temperature of the uterus lining by plotting temperature graphs (also known as
the basal body temperature). Sexual intercourse in the period where the basal
body temperature is high is prevented as high basal body temperature give a
sign that the process of ovulation is happening on that particular day.
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis occurs in the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous
tubules. The primodial germ cell in the germinal epithelium cells (2n) divides by
mitosis to produce spermatogonia (2n) (spermatogonium sing.). One
spermatogonium (2n) grows in size to become a primary spermatocyte (2n).
Each primary spermatocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis I to produce two secondary
spermatocytes. Each secondary spermatocyte (n) completes meiosis II to
produce spermatids (n). In the process of spermiogenesis, each spermatid
differentiates (matures) into a spermatozoa/sperm (spermatozoon sing.).
Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the germinal epithelium of the ovary before birth and
is regulated by hormones. The primodial germ cell in the germinal epithelium
cells (2n) divide by mitosis to produce oogonia (2n) (oogonium sing.). The
oogonium (2n) grows in size to become a primary oocyte (2n). Each primary
oocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis but stops at prophase I of meiosis I. Meiosis
resumes at puberty to produce a larger secondary oocyte (n) and a smaller first
polar body. The secondary oocyte (n) undergoes meiosis II and stops at
metaphase II. The first polar body completes meiosis II to form two polar bodies
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Synapses
The transmission of information is by no means electrical but chemical in nature.
When the nerve impulse reaches the end of the presynaptic end of the neurone,
it will stimulate the release of chemicals named neurotransmitters in the
synaptic vesicles. The synaptic vesicles then fuse with the cell membrane,
releasing the neurotransmitters through exocytosis. The neurotransmitters then
cross the synapse where they may be accepted by the next neurone at a
specialised site called a receptor. The neurotransmitters then fuse with the
receptor thus transmitting the nerve impulse to the next neurone. Vesicles
containing the neurotransmitters are only in the presynaptic end and the
receptors are only on the postsynaptic end, therefore the synapse ensures that
the flow of impulses in one direction only.
Alzheimers Disease
Neurological disease characterised by increasing loss of memory and
intellectual ability. It is associated with the shrinkage of brain tissues and
lack of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine. Alzheimer usually affects
elderly. Patient with it will show loss of intelligence, loss of memory, mild
confusion and poor concentration. This disease can be inherited.
ii.
Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a chronic disease of the nervous system. It
causes tremors and weakness of the muscles. This is due to the reduced
level of neurotransmitters called dopamine in the brain. In some cases,
the disease is caused by the hardening of the cerebral arteries. This
causes muscles not functioning smoothly and becomes stiff and jerky in
their actions. This disease affects elderly but is not a heredity disease.
Levodopa is administered in the treatment of this disease.
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Hormone imbalanced
i.
Growth Hormone
Over secretion of the growth hormone during childhood results in
gigantism, a condition characterised by an abnormal increase in the
length of bones. The person grows to be abnormally tall. Over secretion
during adulthood results in acromegaly, a condition in which the bones,
hands, feet, cheeks and jaws thicken, and other tissue enlarges.
Under secretion during growing years retards bone growth, resulting in a
condition known as dwarfism. The organs of the person often fail to grow
and the size of the body is like that of a child. Today, genetically
engineered growth hormones can be given to children with the deficiency
in growth hormone and successfully induce growth, allowing the children
to attain normal height.
ii.
Thyroxine
Over secretion causes an increase in the metabolic rate of the body.
Common symptoms include excessive sweating, heat intolerance,
increased bowel movements, nervousness, rapid heart rate and weight
loss. Sometimes, the thyroid gland can grow and enlarges two or three
times its normal size, a condition known as goitre. One causes of goitre is
iodine deficiency. In this situation, the thyroid gland cannot synthesise
and release enough thyroxine (throxine contains iodine). As a result, it
enlarges in response to excess stimulation from the pituitary gland.
Under secretion during childhood can cause severe mental retardation, a
condition known as cretinism. In adulthood, it causes myxedema. A person
with myxedema has a slow heart rate, low body temperature, high
sensitivity to cold, general lethargy and a tendency to gain weight easily.
A lack of iodine in the diet also reduces the production of thyroxine.
iii.
Insulin
Over secretion of insulin can lead to hypoglycaemia, an abnormally low
level of glucose in the blood. Some of the symptoms of hypoglycaemia are
fatigue, insomnia, mental confusion, nervousness, mood swings, fainting
spells and headache. Severe hypoglycaemia can lead to convulsions and
unconsciousness.
Under secretion of insulin can lead to diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus
is a chronic condition associated with abnormally high levels of sugar
(glucose) in the blood. People with diabetes either do not produce enough
insulin or cannot use the insulin that their body produce. As a result,
glucose builds up in the bloodstream. A person with diabetes mellitus
experiences an increase in frequency of urination, excessive thirst,
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i.
Ultra filtration
The afferent arteriole which has a bigger diameter than that of the
efferent arteriole sends blood to the glomerulus. The blood is now under
relatively high pressure and ultra filtration takes place in the Bowmans
capsule. The filtrate which filters into the Bowmans capsule consists of
small molecules, water, glucose, amino acids, urea and mineral salts. The
filtrate does not contain blood cells or plasma proteins. These components
remain in the glomerular capillaries as they are too large. The filtrate then
goes down the proximal convoluted tubule for reabsorption.
ii.
Reabsorption
Reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of
Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. At the proximal
convoluted tubule, about 65% of the water in the glomerular filtrate
(water, urea, glucose, amino acids and salts such as sodium ions) is
absorbed back into the surrounding blood capillaries by osmosis. All the
glucose, amino acids, vitamins and some salts are reabsorbed by active
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Secretion
Secretion takes place in the distal convoluted tubule. Along the tubule,
waste products such as urea, uric acid and ammonia are pumped out of
the blood capillaries into the distal convoluted tubule by active transport.
This process is called secretion. Some drugs and toxic substances are
secreted by simple diffusion. The final glomerular filtrate which remains in
the collecting duct is called urine (96% of water, 2.5% nitrogenous
products such as urea, uric acid, ammonia and cretinine, 1.5% salts and
other trace elements such as bile pigments). From the collecting ducts,
urine is channelled into the pelvis and carried out of the kidney by the
ureter to the urinary bladder before it is excreted through the urethra.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the regulation of the physical and chemical factors in the
internal environment to maintain a constant internal environment.
Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the regulation of salt and water balance in the body to
maintain the blood osmotic pressure. It is controlled by two hormones mainly
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and aldosterone.
When the osmotic pressure increases, it is detected by the osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the pituitary gland so that more ADH
and less aldosterone is secreted. This causes the distal convoluted tubule to
become more permeable to water and impermeable to salt. More water and less
salt then moves into the distal convoluted tubule through diffusion. The osmotic
pressure declines back to normal.
When the osmotic pressure decreases, it is detected by the osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the pituitary gland so that more
aldosterone and less ADH is secreted. This causes the distal convoluted tubule to
become more permeable to salt and impermeable to water. Less water and more
salt then moves into the distal convoluted tubule through diffusion. The osmotic
pressure increases back to normal.
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Glucoregulation
The normal blood glucose level is 90mg in 100cm 3 of blood. When the
blood glucose level increases, the change is detected by the -cells of the Islets
of Longerhans. This stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin. Glucose is
converted into glycogen for temporal storage. Glycogen is converted into lipid to
be stored under the adipose tissues. Part of the glucose is used as the
respiration of glucose increases. The blood glucose level declines back to
normal.
When the blood glucose level decreases, the change is detected by the -cells of
the Islets of Longerhans. This stimulates the pancreas to secrete glucagon. Lipid
is converted back to glycogen while glycogen is converted back to glucose. The
blood glucose level rises back to normal.
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the regulation of body temperature. When the body
temperature increases to a value higher than 37oC, it is detected by the
thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the
hypothalamus. The hair erector muscles relax to lower the hair so that no air is
trap on the surface of the skin. Sweat gland is activated to produce sweat. This is
to allow heat loss by means of evaporation. Muscle activities are also reduced to
minimise heat production. Vasodilation occurs when smooth muscles of blood
capillaries dilate so that more heat can be released through radiation. Adrenal
gland secretes less adrenaline while thyroid gland secretes less thyroxine to
lower down the rate of metabolism. The body temperature declines back to
normal.
When the body temperature decreases, it is detected by the thermoreceptors in
the hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus. The hair
erector muscles contract to raise hair so that more heat is trapped on the skin
surface. Sweat gland is inactive to stop sweat so no heat loss via evaporation.
Voluntary muscular activity is increased such as rubbing the hands to keep warm
while involuntary muscles contract and relax frequently leading to shivering to
produce heat. Vasoconstriction occurs when smooth muscles of the blood
capillaries constrict to lower down heat loss. Adrenal gland secretes more
adrenaline while thyroid gland secretes more thyroxine to increase the rate of
metabolism. The body temperature rises back to normal.
Auxin & Its Effects on the Growth of Plants
Plants hormones are organic compounds that act as messengers that
promote or inhibit plant growth and development. Some examples of it are
auxin, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid and ethylene (a gas). Auxin
stimulates cell tropism. Auxins are continuously produced by the meristematic
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Locomotion
Antagonistic Muscles
Antagonistic muscles are a pair of muscles which work together to allow
coordinated movements of the skeletal joints. This means that when one muscle
contracts, the other relaxes.
Walking
The calf muscle contracts and raises the heel. In doing so, it exerts a
forward thrust by pushing the ball of the foot against the ground. The hamstring
muscle contracts to pull the femur back and bends the knee. The leg is raised.
As the right foot loses contact with the ground, the weight of the body is now
supported by the left leg which is still in contact with the ground. Next, the
quadriceps muscle contracts, pulls the femur forward and extends the leg. When
the extension of the leg is completed, the foot then regains contact with the
ground with the heel touching the ground first. The weight of the body is now
supported on the right leg. The whole sequence is repeated with the left leg.
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Fish
The movement of tail is caused by the contraction and relaxation of the
myotome muscles on both side of the body. The contraction of the muscle on the
right side will pull the tail to the right whereas the contraction of the muscles on
the left side will pull the tail to the left. The continuous movement of the tail
from left to the right will create a push for the fish to move forward. The function
of the fins help in controlling the direction as well as the stability of fish in the
water.
Bird
The antagonistic actions of the strong muscles enable the bird to flap its
wings up and down. When the pectorial major (in) contracts and the pectorial
minor (out) relax, the wings flapped downwards. When the pectorial minor (out)
contracts and the pectorial major (in) relaxes, the wings goes up.
Grasshopper
Insects inhale and exhale through the rhythmic contraction and expansion
of their abdominal muscles. The body movements and the contractions of the
abdominal muscles speed up the rate of diffusion of gases from the tracheae
into the body cells. When an insect inhales, the abdominal muscles relax and the
spiracles open. Air pressure inside the tracheae decreases and air is drawn in.
When an insect exhales, the abdominal muscles contract. The increased air
pressure forces air out through the spiracles. The spiracle system with its
network of small tubes allows oxygen to be absorbed directly from the
atmosphere into the body cells. Therefore, there is no circulatory system in
insects.
Frog
When a frog inhales, it breathes in through its nostrils. The buccopharyngeal floor is lowered and fresh air is drawn in. At the same time, its glottis
closes and state air remains in the lungs. Afterwards, the glottis will open. Its
nostrils are then closed and the bucco-pharyngeal floor is raised. This causes
high air pressure which forces air into its lungs thus, expanding them.
When a frog exhales, its lung muscles contract, expelling air from its lungs. A
frog does this by the abdominal pressure and elasticity of the lungs. Some of the
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