Linear Wave Shaping

Linear Waveshaping
Text Book:
Pulse, Digital and Switching Waveforms
Jacob Millman, Herbert Taub
McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd (1965)
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
Introduction to Linear Waveshaping

In a linear circuit, all components are assumed to be operating within their
respective linear regions.
Linear circuits preserve shape of a sinusoidal signal, and alter shapes of nonsinusoidal signals.
Linear Waveshaping is the process by which a non-sinusoidal signal is altered
by transmission through a linear network.
Responses of simple RC, RL and RLC circuits to some standard input
waveforms will be studied in this unit.
DC Value of a Waveform
For energy signals, the total integral (or the net area under the waveform) is
termed as its dc value. Zero dc value implies positive area equals negative
area. For a periodic waveform, dc or average value is the integral over one
period (net area under one cycle) divided by the period.
Modelling Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor

In time domain
At any instant, v across and i passing through an element are related as:
vR (t ) = iR (t ) R
dvc
ic (t ) = C
dt
di
vL (t ) = L L
dt
In frequency domain ( = 2 f )
Capacitive reactance
Inductive reactance
Xc =
1
jC
X L = j L
(current leads voltage)

(voltage leads current)
Resistance is independent of frequency
Modelling R, L, C: Inferences
In a resistor
Voltage and current are always in time phase.
Voltage decreases in the direction of current.
In a capacitor
Voltage varies as time-integral of current. Constant charging current produces linearly varying
voltage.
Voltage across a capacitor can not change discontinuously for finite-valued currents.
Open circuit (infinite impedance, zero current) to dc voltage and short for high frequencies
In an inductor
Current is time-integral of voltage. Constant voltage produces linearly varying current.
Current through an inductor can not change discontinuously for finite-valued voltages.
Short circuit (zero impedance, zero voltage drop) to dc current and open circuit to high
frequencies.
High Pass RC Circuits
Modelling High Pass RC Circuits

Vo ( s )
sRC
s
=
=
Vi ( s ) 1 + sRC s + 1
C
R
vi(t)
vo(t)
(Input)
(Output)
Vo ( f )
= A( f )
Vi ( f )
gain
1
vi =
vo dt + vo
RC
dvi
vo dvo
=
+
dt RC dt
RC
Vo ( )
j RC
=
; = 2 f
Vi ( ) 1 + j RC
Zero gain is offered to dc component of input.
Gain increases with frequency, max gain = 1.
1
Lower 3-dB frequency f1 =
(Hz)
(H
z)
2 RC
Vo ( f )
1
=
Vi ( f )
f
1 j 1
f
f
; ( f ) = tan 1 1
2
f
f1
1+
f
High Pass RC circuit is a phase lead network.
A( f ) =

C
+
vi(t)= V u(t)
Step Response
_
V
R
i(t)
vo(t) = V e-t/RC
vi(t)
V
sRC
V
V0 ( s ) =
=
s 1 + sRC s + 1
RC
vo (t ) = Ve
t
RC
V e-t/RC
vo(t)
RC = time constant
t
0
(Assumed vc(0) = 0)
t= __xRC
v0 = __xV
0.5
0.607
0.368
voltage instantaneously, that is vC (0 )= vC (0 ). Thereafter,
0.135
capacitor charges increasing vC with polarity shown, decreasing
0.0498
0.018
0.007
Physical Reasoning: When step is applied, positive discontinuity

of V volts is passed to output (as capacitor can not change its
the loop current i(t) exponentially with time-constant = RC.

At steady state, vC () = V, i() = 0 and v 0 () = 0
Exercise : Find and sketch the impulse response of the high pass RC ckt.
Justify the sketch with physical reasoning.
Smaller the RC, faster the decay
Note the special feature of exponential decay- equal attenuation over equal intervals
Response to Square Pulse

V
vi(t)
v i (t) = Vu(t) Vu(t-T)

t
V1
v0(t)
V1 = V; V1 = Ve
V1
V T
V2
T
RC
; V2 = V1 V
for 0 < t < T, v 0 (t) = Ve

for t > T, v 0 (t) = Ve
T
RC
t
RC
T)
( tRC
V e
DC component is absent in the output, indicated by its integral being zero. Positive area
equals the negative area making the net area under the output waveform zero. (Verify by
integration.) As the transfer function has a zero at origin, dc component gets zero gain.
The ability of high pass RC circuit to block dc is used by a series capacitor inserted
between two stages for ac coupling, while preventing dc coupling.
Think it over: Step response of HPRC does not integrate to zero! Why is DC component
not blocked in this case?
Response to Periodic Square Wave

V
vi(t)
T1
T2
V = peak-to-peak voltage of input ;
Period T = T1 + T2
V
vo(t)
T1
T2
Note that the transient portion of the response where dc level is shifting. At steady state,
the response reaches zero dc level, with positive and negative areas equalling over each
period. Therefore, steady state output is independent of input dc level. The waveform
becomes periodic at steady state.
The transient portion appears due to any dc bias in the input, which causes corresponding
step response to be present in the output. Steady state is reached when the step response
dies down.
Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave

V1
V1
V1
V1
vo(t)
V1
V1
Period T = T1 + T2
t
V2
V2
T1
For general case

V1 = V1e
T1
RC
V2 = V1 V
V2 = V2 e
T2
RC
V1 = V2 + V
V2
V2
V2
V2
T2
Relations for symmetric
Steady state values of
square wave ( T
symmetric square wave
V1 = V1e
T
2 RC
V2 = V1 V
V2 = V2 e
T
2 RC
V1 = V2 + V
= T2 = T/2 )
response
V1 =
T
2 RC
1+ e
V
V1 =
T
2 RC
1+ e
V2 = V1
V2 = V1
Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave: Effect of RC

Variation
Small time-constant RC<<T/2: Alternating positive and negative spikes each
with amplitude V and equal areas, coincide with upward and downward
discontinuities of the input. Steady state is reached within the first half-period.
Large time-constant RC>>T/2: Steady state is reached after many cycles. Shape
of response at steady state is nearly identical to the input waveform, except for
the absence of dc level tops.
Shape distortion: The flat tops of input square wave become tilted in the
response. Tilt is small for large RC, and increases with decrease in RC. The
measure of tilt for symmetric square wave response at steady state is as below:
T
2 RC
V1 V1
1 e
T
f1
100 =
=
100
%Tilt
200;
for
large
RC,
100
2
V 2
RC
f
1 + e 2 RC
Peak-to-peak value of response: is nearly V for large RC, increases with

decrease in RC, approaching 2V for small RC.
10
Response to Exponential Input
vi ( t ) = V [1 e
]; Vi ( s ) =
V
1
ss +
V0 ( s )
s
=
Vi ( s )
s+
1
RC
V
B
=
+
1
1
1
1
+
+
s
s
+
+
s
s
RC

RC
V /
VRC /
Vn
RC
A = B =
=
=
, where n
1
1
RC
n 1
V0 ( s ) =
RC
t

t
Vn RtC
defining
;
v0 ( t ) =
e
e
further
n 1
Vn nx
x
v0 ( x ) =
e e
n 1
11

input
1.0
0.9
n=100
0.8
0.7
v0
v
0.6
0.5
n increasing
n=10
0.4
0.3
n=1
0.2
0.1
0
n=
RC
n=0.1
0
10
15
20 25
30 35
x =
40
45 50
55 60
12
Response to Ramp Input
vi (t ) = t u(t ); Vi ( s ) = 2 ; V0 ( s ) =
1
s
ss +
RC
t
v0 (t ) = RC 1 e RC
RC
vi(t) = t
v0(t)
At steady state, v0 (t = ) = RC
t
0
T
vi(t)
v0(t)
0
Response to sawtooth
(sweep) pulse
vi(t)
Response to
Limited Ramp
0
Deviation from linearity for response to a sweep pulse

(T = sweep duration)
vi (T ) vo (T )
vi (T )
T
for RC T
2 RC
v0(t)
(Verify this result)

13
HP RC as a Differentiator
For low values of RC, HPRC circuit functions as a differentiator. This feature is explained
as below:
1) Transfer function
V0 ( s )
sRC
=
approximates to sRC for small RC values. In time
Vi ( s ) 1 + sRC
domain, this corresponds to differentiation of input by the circuit.

2) For t RC, v 0 (t ) RC , is very small in comparison to v i at that instant. Then v c vi ,
i (t ) C
dvi
dv
, v0 (t ) RC i
dt
dt
t
t
dv
dvi
= (constant) for t RC.Thus the input3) v0 = RC 1 e RC 0 = e RC
dt
dt
dv
v
dv
dv
v
dv
output relation i = 0 + 0 approximates to i = 0 , resulting in v0 (t ) RC i
dt
dt RC
dt
dt RC
14
How small should be RC for a good differentiator?

Think of input waveform approximated satisfactorily by straight-line segments,
making it a step-ramp construction using suitably sized time-intervals. For good
differentiation, RC should be much smaller than the smallest of those timeintervals.
Sinusoidal response of an ideal differentiator is also a sinusoidal wave with 900
phase lead. A practical circuit provides a phase lead = tan-1(1/RC), which is less
than 900. Better the differentiation, closer would be the phase-lead to 900. A
criterion for good differentiation is to specify the minimum phse-lead as 89.4o.
This implies RC < 0.01, at the frequency corresponding to the smallest time
interval of appreciable variation (=2/T).
Need for Amplifier after Differentiator

Good differentiator produces very low voltage responses, therefore needs to be
followed by a high gain amplifier.
15
Low Pass RC Circuit

R
Vo ( s )
Vi ( s )
vi(t)
vo(t)
(Input)
(Output)
Vo ( )
Vi ( )
1 + sR C
1
1 + j R C
RC
s+
1
RC
; = 2 f
U n ity ga in is give n to d c c om p on e n t , ga in
gain
1
Vo ( f )
= A( f )
Vi ( f )
d e c re a sin g w ith fre q u e n c y (low p a s s).

U p p e r 3 -d B f re q u e n c y
f2 =
vi = vo + RC
dvo
dt
Note: f2 is the 3 dB bandwidth

of the Low Pass circuit.
Vo ( f )
1
1
Vi ( f )
1+ j
1
A( f ) =
1+
(H z )
2 R C
f
f2
; ( f ) = ta n
f
f2
f
f2
L ow P a ss R C c irc u it is a p h a se la g n e tw ork .
16
Low Pass RC Circuits
Step Response
V
vi(t)= V u(t)
i(t)
+ C
vo(t) = V[1- e-t/RC ]
_
vi(t)
t
V
V
1
RC
V0 ( s ) =
=
1
s 1 + sRC
ss +
RC
RC
v
(
t
)
=
V
1
e
o
(Assumed vc(0) = 0)
V
V[1- e-t/RC ]
vo(t)
0
Physical Reasoning: At t = 0 , output is zero (as capacitor can

not change its voltage instantaneously, that is v C (0 )= v C (0+ ).
RC = time constant
Rise Time tr of a low pass circuit is
the time for step response to rise
from 10% to 90% of steady state
value.
Thereafter, capacitor charges increasing v C with polarity shown,

decreasing the loop current exponentially with time-constant = RC.
tr = 2.2 RC =
At steady state, capacitor is fully charged and v 0 () = v C () = V.
0.35
f2
E x e r c is e 1 : F in d a n d s k e tc h th e im p u ls e r e s p o n s e o f th e lo w p a s s R C c k t.
J u s tif y th e s k e tc h w ith p h y s ic a l r e a s o n in g .
E x e r c i s e 2 : F o r th e n o n -z e r o in itia l c o n d itio n , v o ( 0 ) = V 1 , s h o w t h a t
v o ( t ) = V + (V 1 V ) e
t
RC
; w h e r e , V is th e s te a d y s ta te v a lu e .
17
Response to Square Pulse

V
vi (t) = Vu(t) Vu(t-T)
vi(t)
t
0
V
V2
(Assumed v0(0) = 0)
v0(t)
for 0 < t < T, v 0 (t) = V 1 e
RC
V2 = v 0 (T) = V 1 e
t
RC
( t T )
T
for t > T, v 0 (t) = V 1 e RC e RC
DC component is passed to output with unity gain, indicated by integral (net area) of response
being equal to integral of input . Verify. The two hatched areas shown are equal.
Observe that as RC decreases, the response approaches the
input square shape. However the leading upper edge is
V
rounded off and a tail is added. For most practical
purposes, the square pulse is adequately passed if
v0(t)
RC decreasing
T
T=
1
f2
Then T = 6.3 RC or RC=0.16 T
18
Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave

V
V
Period T = T1 + T2
vi(t)
0
V
T2
T1
V
t
V2
V2
V2
vo(t)
V1
V1
T1
V1
t
T2
Steady state response is also periodic with T, and with the same dc value of the input.
v01 = V+ [ V1 V] e
t
RC
v02 = V+ [ V2 V] e
( t T1 )
RC
V2 = V+ [ V1 V] e
; V1 = V+ [ V2 V] e
T1
RC
T2
RC
Exercise : Show that for a symmetrical square wave input with zero average, the steady
state values are
V
V2 =
2
1 e T 2 RC
T
1 + e 2 RC
V
T
= tanh
= V1
2
4
RC
19

From the equations derived earlier for exponential response of high pass RC,
exponential response for low pass RC circuit can be obtained as:
vo ( x )
e x
n nx
= 1+
e , n 1
V
n 1 n 1
= 1 (1 + x ) e x
, n =1
Response to Ramp Input

Similarly, from ramp response of HP RC, we obtain that for LP RC circuit
as : v o (t ) = ( t RC ) + RC e
t
RC
Transmission error ( for ramp time T RC )

RC
RC
0
et
v i (T ) v o (T ) RC
T
v i (T )
T>>RC
20
Low Pass RC Circuit as Integrator

1) for large enough RC,
Vo ( s )
1
1
=
(integrator)
Vi ( s ) 1 + RCs RCs
2) large RC vo vi (small output condition)

v i = vo + RC
1
dvo
dv
RC o , vo
vi dt
dt
dt
RC
Examples
For RC t , using power series expansion and approximating,
Vt
t2
step response
and ramp response
2 RC
RC
Criterion for good integration
Ideal integrator provides 900 phase delay to sinusoidal response.
Practical RC integrator gives phase delay of tan 1 ( RC ) . A good
differentiator may be specified by phase lag > 89.40 or RC > 95.5.
( RC>15T satisfies this condition )

Good integrator produces very low voltage responses, therefore needs to be followed by a high gain
amplifier.
21
Signal Attenuators
Attenuation ignoring stray capacitance
R1
v o (t) = a vi (t), where a =
R2
vi(t)
vo(t)
R1 , R 2 chosen large (in M) to prevent source loading.
Effect of stray capacitance on attenuation

R1
vi(t)
R2
C2
R2
= attenuation factor
R 1 +R 2
vo(t)
R 1R 2
R 1+R 2
R2
Vi (t)
R1 +R 2
C2
vo(t)
Stray capacitance shunts high frequency components of signal (low pass).

Step response has a transient with time constant RC = (R1||R2)C2
considered large for many applications.
22
Signal Attenuators: Compensation

C1
R1
R1
vi(t)
R2
C2 vo(t)
vi(t)
R2
C1
Y
C2 vo(t)
Compensating capacitor C1 is added (shunting R1) with C1 = R2C2/R1. Then the

equivalent bridge is balanced with zero current in arm X-Y.
Step response: At t=0+, the voltage jump at input appears across C1 - C2 in
+
series. Then vo (0 ) =
X C2
X C1 +X C2
V=
C1
V
C1 +C2
At steady state, C1 - C2 are open and vo () =
R2
V
R1 +R 2
As the output initial value = final value (for the C1 chosen), we get ideal step
response with no distortion. (Note: Above analysis ignores source resistance)
23
Compensated Attenuator: Step Response
v o (0+ ) =
C1
V
C1 +C2
v o (0+ ) for C1 >
R 2 C2
R1
v o (0+ ) for C1 =
R 2 C2
R1
v o (0+ ) for C1 <
R 2 C2
R1
Over-compensation
Correct compensation
vo () =
R2
V
R1 +R 2
Under-compensation
Time Constant of Transient Decay

Seen inward from output terminals,
R eff = R1 R 2 ; Ceff = C1 C2
Effective RC for exponential R 1R 2
= R +R (C1 +C2 )
decay to steady state
1 2
For Larger Attenuation Factor: Reff reduces, leads to smaller effective RC therefore causing lesser
waveform distortion.
(Note: Above analysis ignores source resistance)

24
Effect of Introducing Compensated Attenuator on Waveform
Assumptions: 1) Compensation is exact, and arm X-Y maintains zero current. 2) RS << R1, R2
CC
Effective RC with Compensated Attenuator = R S 1 2
C1 +C2
C1
R2
=
= Attenuation Factor
RC without attenuator = R SC2 , and
C1 +C2 R1 +R 2
Circuit for
Direct Coupling
Compensated attenuator reduces RC by the value of attenuation factor, and

therefore improves waveform.
An oscilloscope, used for monitoring waveforms at points in active circuits has to deal with RS which may
not be small. To improve waveform transmission, the probe includes a fixed attenuator (eg. 1/100)
25
R-L Circuits: Equivalence with RC Circuits

HP RC
LP RC
C
R
vi(t)
vo(t)
(Input)
(Output)
vi(t)
LP RL
L
(Output)
Vo ( s )
1
=
Vi ( s ) 1 + ( RC ) s
R
vi(t)
vo(t)
(Input)
Vo ( s )
( RC ) s
=
Vi ( s ) 1 + ( RC ) s
HP RL
vo(t)
(Input)
(Output)
( L / R ) s
Vo ( s )
=
Vi ( s ) 1 + ( L / R) s
vi(t)
(Input)
vo(t)
(Output)
Vo ( s )
1
=
Vi ( s ) 1 + ( L / R) s
26
Parallel Circuits for Processing Current Waveforms

HP RC
LP RC
ii(t)
R
io(t)
ii(t)
( RC ) s
I o ( s)
=
I i ( s ) 1 + ( RC ) s
io(t)
I o ( s)
1
=
I i ( s ) 1 + ( RC ) s
LP RL
HP RL
ii(t)
ii(t)
L
( L / R) s
Io ( s)
=
I i ( s ) 1 + ( L / R) s
io(t)
io(t)
Io ( s)
1
=
I i ( s ) 1 + ( L / R) s
27
RLC Circuits
R
Vo ( s)
s / RC
= 2
; second order system
Vi ( s ) s + s / RC + 1/ LC
vi(t)
Vo ( s)
2 k 0 s
(standard
form
for
system
analysis)
= 2
Vi ( s ) s + 2k0 s + 0 2
where 0 =
k=
1
= natural (resonant) frequency
LC
vo(t)
Roots of characteristic equation
1 L
= damping constant; natural period T0 = 2 LC s1 , s2 = k0 0 k 2 1
2R C
Case 1: Critically damp

damped
ed (k = 1 ); s1 ,s2 = 0
Step response V0 ( s ) =
20 V
( s + 0 )
v o (t )
= 20t e 0t
V
1
1
2 R 2
Other
substitutions:
=
=
=
=
0
L
T0
LC 2 RC
=
x
T0
Case 2: over-dampe
over-damped
d (k > 1)
s1 ,s 2 = k0 k 0 1
for k 1, k0 k0 1 2
2k
0 / 2 k , 20 k
Q-factor
1
Q
; indicates how close the RLC circuit is to resonant condition (for k>>1)
2k
Note : If C 0, with R & L fixed, step response
1
k2
2 k 0 V
( s + 0 / 2 k )( s + 20k )
1
R
0t
t
t
v o (t )
2 k 0 t
2k
RC
L
=e
e
=e
e
V
R
t
vo
v
e L (same as high pass RL circuit). If R 0, with L & C fixed, o u(t )
V
V
28
RLC Circuits
Case 3: under-damped (k < 1 )
s1 ,s2 = k0 j0 1 k 2
2k0 V
( s + k0 )
+ 0 1 k
v o (t )
2k
=
e k0t sin 0 1 k 2
V
1 k2
) t
damped frequency d = 0 1 k 2 ( < 0 )
Ringing Circuit
A highly underdamped RLC circuit is also called a Ringing Circuit. The number N of
oscillations in its step response before the amplitude falls to 1/e of initial value, is a
measure of the damping constant.
k=
1
1
and Q =
=N
2 N
2k
29

Linear Wave Shaping

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Linear Wave Shaping

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Linear Waveshaping

Introduction to Linear Waveshaping

Modelling Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor

(current leads voltage)

Resistance is independent of frequency

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

High Pass RC Circuits

Modelling High Pass RC Circuits

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

High Pass RC Circuits

voltage instantaneously, that is vC (0 )= vC (0 ). Thereafter,

capacitor charges increasing vC with polarity shown, decreasing

Physical Reasoning: When step is applied, positive discontinuity

the loop current i(t) exponentially with time-constant = RC.

Smaller the RC, faster the decay

High Pass RC Circuits

Response to Square Pulse

v i (t) = Vu(t) Vu(t-T)

for 0 < t < T, v 0 (t) = Ve

High Pass RC Circuits

Response to Periodic Square Wave

V = peak-to-peak voltage of input ;

High Pass RC Circuits

Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave

For general case

Relations for symmetric

Steady state values of

symmetric square wave

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

High Pass RC Circuits

Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave: Effect of RC

Peak-to-peak value of response: is nearly V for large RC, increases with

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

High Pass RC Circuits

Response to Exponential Input

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

High Pass RC Circuits

Response to Exponential Input

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

High Pass RC Circuits

Response to Ramp Input

Deviation from linearity for response to a sweep pulse

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

(Verify this result)

High Pass RC Circuits

domain, this corresponds to differentiation of input by the circuit.

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

High Pass RC Circuits

How small should be RC for a good differentiator?

Need for Amplifier after Differentiator

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

Low Pass RC Circuit

d e c re a sin g w ith fre q u e n c y (low p a s s).

Note: f2 is the 3 dB bandwidth

Low Pass RC Circuits

Physical Reasoning: At t = 0 , output is zero (as capacitor can

Thereafter, capacitor charges increasing v C with polarity shown,

At steady state, capacitor is fully charged and v 0 () = v C () = V.

Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012

Low Pass RC Circuits

Response to Square Pulse

vi (t) = Vu(t) Vu(t-T)

for 0 < t < T, v 0 (t) = V 1 e