Sean DeHart

Smriti Chopra
Hannes Daepp

Overview
DC Motors (Brushed and
Brushless)
Brief Introduction to AC Motors
Stepper Motors
Linear Motors

Sean DeHart

Electric Motor Basic Principles

Interaction between magnetic field and

current carrying wire produces a force
Opposite of a generator

Sean DeHart

Conventional (Brushed) DC
Motors

Permanent magnets
for outer stator
Rotating coils for
inner rotor
Commutation
performed with
metal contact
brushes and
contacts designed
to reverse the
polarity of the rotor
as it reaches
horizontal

Sean DeHart

2 pole brushed DC motor

commutation
Sean DeHart

Conventional (Brushed) DC
Motors

Common Applications:
Small/cheap devices such as toys, electric
tooth brushes, small drills
Lab 3
Pros:
Cheap, simple
Easy to control - speed is governed by the
voltage and torque by the current through the
armature
Cons:
Mechanical brushes - electrical noise, arcing,
sparking, friction, wear, inefficient, shorting

Sean DeHart

DC Motor considerations

Back EMF - every motor is also a generator

More current = more torque; more voltage =
more speed
Load, torque, speed characteristics

Shunt-wound, series-wound (aka universal

motor), compound DC motors

Sean DeHart

Brushless DC Motors

Essential difference - commutation is

performed electronically with controller
rather than mechanically with brushes

Sean DeHart

Brushless DC Motor
Commutation

Commutation is performed electronically

using a controller (e.g. HCS12 or logic
circuit)
Similarity with stepper motor, but with
less # poles
Needs rotor positional closed loop
feedback: hall effect sensors, back EMF,

Sean DeHart

BLDC (3-Pole) Motor

Connections

Has 3 leads instead of 2 like brushed DC

Delta (greater speed) and Wye (greater
torque) stator windings

DeltaWye

Sean DeHart

10

Brushless DC Motors

Applications
CPU cooling fans
CD/DVD Players
Electric automobiles
Pros (compared to brushed DC)
Higher efficiency
Longer lifespan, low maintenance
Clean, fast, no sparking/issues with brushed
contacts
Cons
Higher cost
More complex circuitry and requires a controller

Sean DeHart

11

AC Motors
Two main types of AC motor, Synchronous and

Induction.
Synchronous motors supply power to both the
rotor and the stator, where induction motors
only supply power to the stator coils, and rely
on induction to generate torque.

Sean DeHart

12

AC Induction Motors (3 Phase)

Use poly-phase (usually 3) AC current to create a

rotating magnetic field on the stator
This induces a magnetic field on the rotor, which
tries to follow stator - slipping required to produce
torque
Workhorses of the industry - high powered
applications

Sean DeHart

13

AC induction Motors
Induction motors only supply current to the

stator, and rely on a second induced current in

the rotor coils.
This requires a relative speed between the
rotating magnetic field and the rotor. If the rotor
somehow matches or exceeds the magnetic field
speed, there is condition called slip.
Slip is required to produce torque, if there is no
slip, there is no difference between the induced
pole and the powered pole, and therefore no
torque on the shaft.
Sean DeHart

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Synchronous AC Motors
Current is applied to both the Rotor and the

Stator.
This allows for precise control (stepper
motors), but requires mechanical brushes or
slip rings to supply DC current to the rotor.
There is no slip since the rotor does not rely
on induction to produce torque.

Sean DeHart

15

StepperMotor
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device
which converts electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a
stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments
when electrical command pulses are applied to it
in the proper sequence.

Smriti Chopra

Mainfeatures
The sequence of the applied pulses is directly
related to the direction of motor shafts rotation.
The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly
related to the frequency of the input pulses.
The length of rotation is directly related to the
number of input pulses applied.

Smriti Chopra

Stepper Motor Characteristics

Open loop
The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop
control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.

Brushless
Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore
the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.

Incremental steps/changes
The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input
pulse.

Speed increases -> torque decreases

Smriti Chopra

Torquevs.Speed
Torque varies inversely with
speed.
Current is proportional to
torque.
Torque means Current
, which leads to motor
damage.
Torque thus needs to be
limited to rated value of
Smriti Chopra
motor.

Disadvantagesofsteppermotors
There are two main disadvantages of stepper
motors:
Resonance can occur if not properly

controlled.
This can be seen as a sudden loss or drop in torque at certain speeds which can
result in missed steps or loss of synchronism. It occurs when the input step pulse rate
coincides with the natural oscillation frequency of the rotor. Resonance can be
minimised by using half stepping or microstepping

Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

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Workingprinciple
Stepper motors consist of a permanent magnet
rotating shaft, called the rotor, and
electromagnets on the stationary portion that
surrounds the motor, called the stator.
When a phase winding of a stepper
motor is energized with current, a
magnetic flux is developed in the
stator. The direction of this flux is
determined by the Right Hand
Rule.
Smriti Chopra

At position 1, the rotor is

beginning at the upper
electromagnet, which is
currently active (has
voltage applied to it).
To move the rotor
clockwise (CW), the
upper electromagnet is
deactivated and the right
electromagnet is
activated, causing the
rotor to move 90 degrees
CW, aligning itself with
the active magnet.
This process is repeated
in the same manner at
the south and west
electromagnets until we
once again reach the

Smriti Chopra

Understandingresolution
Resolution is the number of degrees rotated per
step.
Step angle = 360/(NPh * Ph) = 360/N
NPh = Number of equivalent poles per phase = number of
rotor poles.
Ph = Number of phases.
N = Total number of poles for all phases together.
Example: for a three winding motor with a rotor having 4
teeth, the resolution is 30 degrees.
Smriti Chopra

Twophasesteppermotors
There are two basic winding arrangements for the
electromagnetic coils in a two phase stepper
motor: bipolar and unipolar.

Smriti Chopra

unipolar

bipolar

Maindifference
A unipolar stepper motor has two windings per
phase, one for each direction of magnetic field. In
this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed
without switching the direction of current.
Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase.
The current in a winding needs to be reversed in
order to reverse a magnetic pole.
Bipolar motors have higher torque but need more
complex driver circuits.
Smriti Chopra

Steppingmodes
Wave Drive (1 phase on)
A1 B2 A2 B1
(25% of unipolar windings , 50% of bipolar)

Full Step Drive (2 phases on)

A1B2 B2A2 A2B1 B1A1
(50% of unipolar windings , full bipolar
windings utilization)
Half Step Drive (1 & 2 phases on)
A1B2 B2 B2A2 A2 ---(increases resolution)

Microstepping (Continuously
varying motor currents)
A microstep driver may split a full step into as many as 256 microsteps.
Smriti Chopra

TypesofStepperMotors
There are three main types of stepper motors:
Variable Reluctance stepper motor
Permanent Magnet stepper motor
Hybrid Synchronous stepper motor

Smriti Chopra

VariableReluctancemotor
This type of motor consists of a soft iron multitoothed
rotor and a wound stator.
When the stator windings are energized
with DC Current, the poles become magnetized.
Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth
are attracted to the energized stator
poles.
Smriti Chopra

PermanentMagnetmotor
The rotor no longer has teeth as with
the VR motor.
Instead the rotor is
magnetized with alternating north
and south poles situated in a straight
line parallel to the rotor shaft.
These magnetized rotor poles provide an increased
magnetic flux intensity and because of this
the PM motor exhibits improved torque characteristics
when compared with the VR type.
Smriti Chopra

HybridSynchronousmotor
The rotor is multi-toothed like the VR motor and
contains an axially magnetized concentric
magnet around its shaft.
The teeth on the rotor provide an even
better path which helps guide the
magnetic flux to preferred locations in
the air gap.

Smriti Chopra

Applications
Stepper motors can be a good choice whenever
controlled movement is required.
They can be used to advantage in applications
where you need to control rotation angle, speed,
position and synchronism.

These include
printers
plotters
medical equipment
fax machines
automotive and scientific equipment etc.

Smriti Chopra

Linear Motors
Hannes Daepp

Basics of Linear Motors

[1],[4]

Analogous to Unrolled DC Motor

Force (F) is generated

when the current (I)
(along vector L) and
the flux density (B)
interact
Hannes
F Daepp
= LI x B
I

Linear Motors in Action

http://www.parkermotion.com/video/Braas_Trilogy_T3E_Video.MPG
Hannes Daepp

Analysis of Linear Motors

[1],[5]
Analysis is similar to that of rotary machines
Linear dimension and displacements replace angular ones
Forces replace torques
Commutation cycle is distance between two consecutive pole

Hannes Daepp

pairs instead of 360 degrees

Benefits of Linear Motors

[2]

High Maximum Speed

Limited primarily by bus voltage, control electronics

High Precision
Accuracy, resolution, repeatability limited by feedback device,

budget
Zero backlash: No mechanical transmission components.

Fast Response
Response rate can be over 100 times that of a mechanical

transmission faster accelerations, settling time (more

throughput)

Stiffness
No mechanical linkage, stiffness depends mostly on gain &

current

Durable
Daepp
Modern
Hannes

linear motors have few/no contacting parts no wear

Downsides of Linear
[2]
Motors
Cost
Low production volume (relative to demand)
High price of magnets
Linear encoders (feedback) are much more expensive than

rotary encoders, cost increases with length

Higher Bandwidth Drives and Controls

Lower force per package size
Heating issues
Forcer is usually attached to load I2R losses are directly

coupled to load

No (minimal) Friction
No automatic brake
Hannes Daepp

Components of Linear
Motors
[2],[3]
Forcer (Motor Coil)
Windings (coils) provide current (I)
Windings are encapsulated within

core material
Mounting Plate on top
Usually contains sensors (hall effect
and thermal)

Magnet Rail
Iron Plate / Base Plate
Rare Earth Magnets of alternating

polarity provide flux (B)

Single or double rail
Hannes Daepp

F=

lI x B

Types of Linear Motors

[2],[3]

Iron Core
Coils wound

around teeth of
laminations on
forcer

Ironless Core
Dual back iron

separated by
spacer
Coils held
together with
epoxy

Slotless
Coil and back iron

held together with

epoxy

Hannes Daepp

[1],

LinearMotorTypes:IronCore[1],[2]
Distinguishing Feature
Copper windings around forcer laminations over a single magnet

rail

Advantages:
Highest force available per unit volume
Efficient Cooling
Lower cost

Disadvantages:
High attractive force between forcer & magnet track
Cogging: iron forcer affects thrust

force as it passes over each

magnet (aka velocity ripple)

Hannes Daepp

Top View
LinearMotorTypes:Ironless
[1],[2]

Distinguishing Feature
Forcer constructed of wound coils

held together with epoxy and

running between two rails (North
and South)
Also known as Aircore or Uchannel motors

Advantages:
No attractive forces in forcer
No Cogging
Low weight forcer - No iron means

higher accel/decel rates

Disadvantages:

Front View
Forcer
Mounting
Plate
Winding, held
Rare
by epoxy
Earth
Magne
Hall Effect and
Horseshoe
ts
Thermal
Shaped
Sensors in coil
backiron

Low force per package size

Lower Stiffness; limited max load without improved structure
Poor heat dissipation
Higher cost (2x Magnets!)
Hannes Daepp

LinearMotorTypes:Slotless
[1],[2]
Side View
Distinguishing Feature
Mix of ironless and iron core: coils

with back iron contained within

aluminum housing over a single
magnet rail

Advantages over ironless:

Lower cost (1x magnets)
Better heat dissipation

Front View
Coil
Back Mounting
iron
plate
Thermal assembly
sensor

Structurally stronger forcer

More force per package size

Advantages over iron core:

Lighter weight and lower inertia

forcer
Hannes
Daepp attractive forces
Lower

Rare
Earth
Magnets

Iron
plate

LinearMotorTypes:Slotless
[2],[3]
Side View
Disadvantages
Some attractive force and

cogging
Less efficient than iron core and
ironless - more heat to do the
same job

Front View
Coil
Back Mounting
iron
plate
Thermal assembly
sensor

Rare
Earth
Magnets
Hannes Daepp

Iron
plate

LinearMotorTypeComparison[2]
Linear Brushless DC Motor Type
Feature

Iron Core

Ironless

Slotless

Attraction Force

Most

None

Moderate

Cost

Medium

High

Lowest

Force Cogging

Highest

None

Medium

Power Density

Highest

Medium

Medium

Forcer Weight

Heaviest

Lightest

Moderate

Hannes Daepp

Components of a Complete
Linear Motor System [3]
1. Motor components
2. Base/Bearings
3. Servo

controller/feedback
elements
Typical sensors include Hall

Effect (for position) and

thermal sensors

4. Cable management

Hannes Daepp

Sample Pricing
$3529
Trilogy T1S Ironless

linear motor
110V, 1 pole motor
Single bearing rail
~12 travel
magnetic encoder
Peak Velocity = 7 m/s
Resolution = 5m
Hannes Daepp

Applications [3],[5],[6]
Small Linear Motors
Packaging and Material Handling
Automated Assembly
Reciprocating compressors and

alternators
Large Linear Induction Machines
(3 phase)
Transportation
Materials handling
Extrusion presses

Hannes Daepp

References
[1] S. Cetinkunt, Mechatronics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken
2007.
[2] J. Barrett, T. Harned, J. Monnich, Linear Motor Basics, Parker
Hannifin Corporation,
http://www.parkermotion.com/whitepages/linearmotorarticle.pd
f
[3] Trilogy Linear Motor & Linear Motor Positioners, Parker
Hannifin Corporation, 2008,
http://www.parkermotion.com/pdfs/Trilogy_Catalog.pdf
[4] Rockwell Automation,
http://www.rockwellautomation.com/anorad/
products/linearmotors/questions.html
[5] J. Marsh, Motor Parameters Application Note, Parker-Trilogy
Linear Motors, 2003. http://www.parkermotion.com/whitepages/
Linear_Motor_Parameter_Application_Note.pdf
[6] Greg Paula, Linear motors take center stage, The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1998.

References (continued)

http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/jw/electric
motors.html
http://www.speedace.info/solar_car_motor_an
d_drivetrain.htm
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_1
3/1.html
http://www.tpub.com/neets/book5/18d.htm
single phase induction motor
http://www.stefanv.com/rcstuff/qf200212.htm
l Brushless DC motors
https://www.geckodrive.com/upload/Step_mot
or_basics.pdf
http://www.solarbotics.net/library/pdflib/pdf/

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