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Limits
Definitions
Precise Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L if
Limit at Infinity : We say lim f ( x ) = L if we
xa
xa
xa
xa
x a
xa
xa
x a
xa+
xa
xa
Properties
Assume lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) both exist and c is any number then,
xa
x a
1. lim cf ( x ) = c lim f ( x )
x a
xa
2. lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x a
xa
xa
f ( x)
f ( x ) lim
xa
provided lim g ( x ) 0
4. lim
=
xa
xa
g
x
g
lim
(
)
xa ( x )
n
n
5. lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )
xa
x a
6. lim n f ( x ) = n lim f ( x )
xa
x a
lim e x = &
lim e x = 0
x -
lim ln ( x ) =
&
lim+ ln ( x ) = -
x0
b
3. If r > 0 then lim r = 0
x x
4. If r > 0 and x r is real for negative x
b
then lim r = 0
x - x
5. n even : lim x n =
x
x-
Evaluation Techniques
LHospitals Rule
Continuous Functions
f ( x) 0
f ( x)
If f ( x ) is continuous at a then lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
xa
If lim
= or lim
=
then,
x a g ( x )
xa g ( x )
0
xa
lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x ) = f ( b )
xa
x a
Polynomials at Infinity
p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomials. To compute
lim
x+6 8
= =4
x2
x
2
Rationalize Numerator/Denominator
3- x
3- x 3+ x
lim 2
= lim 2
x 9 x - 81
x 9 x - 81 3
+ x
9-x
-1
= lim
= lim
x9
( x 2 - 81) 3 + x x 9 ( x + 9) 3 + x
= lim
p (x)
q ( x)
x 2 3 - 42
3 - 42
3x 2 - 4
3
x
x
lim
lim
=
=
=5
x - 5x - 2 x 2
x -
2
x 2 ( 5x - 2 ) x - x - 2
lim
Piecewise Function
1
-1
=
=(18 )( 6 ) 108
Combine Rational Expressions
1 1
1
1 x - ( x + h)
- = lim
lim
h0 h
h 0 h
+
x
h
x
x ( x + h)
-1
1 -h
1
= lim
=- 2
= lim
h0 h
h 0 x ( x + h )
x
x ( x + h)
x 2 + 5 if x < -2
lim g ( x ) where g ( x ) =
1 - 3 x if x -2
Compute two one sided limits,
lim- g ( x ) = lim- x 2 + 5 = 9
x -2
x -2
x -2
x -2
x -2
lim+ g ( x ) = lim+ 1 - 3x = 7
x -
Derivatives
Definition and Notation
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
If y = f ( x ) then the derivative is defined to be f ( x ) = lim
.
h0
h
If y = f ( x ) all of the following are equivalent
change of f ( x ) at x = a .
the object at x = a .
( c f ) = c f ( x )
2.
(f
3.
( f g ) =
d
(c) = 0
dx
d n
6.
( x ) = n x n-1 Power Rule
dx
d
7.
f ( g ( x)) = f ( g ( x)) g( x)
dx
This is the Chain Rule
5.
g ) = f ( x ) g ( x )
f g + f g Product Rule
f f g - f g
4. =
Quotient Rule
g2
g
d x
( a ) = a x ln ( a )
dx
d x
(e ) = e x
dx
d
1
( ln ( x ) ) = x , x > 0
dx
d
1
( ln x ) = x , x 0
dx
d
1
( log a ( x ) ) = x ln a , x > 0
dx
n)
n -1
(
f ( x ) = ( f ( x ) ) , i.e. the derivative of the
f ( x ) = f ( ) ( x ) , i.e. the derivative of
n -1
first derivative, f ( x ) .
the (n-1)st derivative, f ( ) x .
( )
Implicit Differentiation
Find y if e 2 x - 9 y + x 3 y 2 = sin ( y ) + 11x . Remember y = y ( x ) here, so products/quotients of x and y
will use the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The trick is to
differentiate as normal and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y (from the chain rule).
After differentiating solve for y .
e 2 x - 9 y ( 2 - 9 y ) + 3x 2 y 2 + 2 x 3 y y = cos ( y ) y + 11
2e2 x - 9 y - 9 ye 2 x - 9 y + 3x 2 y 2 + 2 x 3 y y = cos ( y ) y + 11
3
d
( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx
d
( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx
d
( sin -1 x ) = 1 2
dx
1- x
d
-1
( cos x ) = - 1 2
dx
1- x
d
1
-1
( tan x ) = 1 + x2
dx
( 2 x y - 9e x
Common Derivatives
d
( x) = 1
dx
d
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
( cos x ) = - sin x
dx
d
( tan x ) = sec 2 x
dx
d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx
If y = f ( x ) then,
dx
f ( x )
2 -9 y
- cos ( y ) ) y = 11 - 2e2 x - 9 y - 3 x 2 y 2
y =
11 - 2e 2 x - 9 y - 3x 2 y 2
2 x 3 y - 9e 2 x - 9 y - cos ( y )
Absolute Extrema
1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
Extrema
Relative (local) Extrema
1. x = c is a relative (or local) maximum of
f ( x ) if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x near c.
2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
Fermats Theorem
If f ( x ) has a relative (or local) extrema at
x = c , then x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) .
Extreme Value Theorem
If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval
Derivative Test
If x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) such that
f ( c ) = 0 then x = c
1. is a relative maximum of f ( x ) if f ( c ) < 0 .
Related Rates
Sketch picture and identify known/unknown quantities. Write down equation relating quantities
and differentiate with respect to t using implicit differentiation (i.e. add on a derivative every time
you differentiate a function of t). Plug in known quantities and solve for the unknown quantity.
Ex. Two people are 50 ft apart when one
Ex. A 15 foot ladder is resting against a wall.
The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being
starts walking north. The angle q changes at
0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance
pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast
between them changing when q = 0.5 rad?
is the top moving after 12 sec?
f (b ) - f ( a)
b-a
Newtons Method
If xn is the nth guess for the root/solution of f ( x ) = 0 then (n+1)st guess is xn +1 = xn -
f ( xn )
f ( xn )
provided f ( xn ) exists.
Optimization
Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be optimized and constraint. Solve constraint for
one of the two variables and plug into first equation. Find critical points of equation in range of
variables and verify that they are min/max as needed.
Ex. Were enclosing a rectangular field with
Ex. Determine point(s) on y = x 2 + 1 that are
500 ft of fence material and one side of the
closest to (0,2).
field is a building. Determine dimensions that
will maximize the enclosed area.
= y -1 + ( y - 2) = y 2 - 3 y + 3
Differentiate and find critical point(s).
f = 2y -3
y = 32
nd
By the 2 derivative test this is a rel. min. and
so all we need to do is find x value(s).
x 2 = 32 - 1 = 12 x = 12
2
1
2
, 32 and -
1
2
, 32 .
Integrals
Definitions
Definite Integral: Suppose f ( x ) is continuous
Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f ( x )
g b
Indefinite Integral : f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
*
i
Then
where F ( x ) is an anti-derivative of f ( x ) .
f (x )D x .
a f ( x ) dx = nlim
i
b
*
i
=1
dx v ( x )
dx a
d u( x)
Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is
f ( t ) dt = u ( x ) f [u ( x ) ] - v ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
dx v ( x )
an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = f ( x ) dx )
b
then f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a ) .
Ex.
1 5x
cos ( x 3 ) dx
1 5x
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx g ( x ) dx
b
b
b
a f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx a g ( x ) dx
a f ( x ) dx = 0
b
a cf ( x ) dx = c a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
c dx = c ( b - a )
f ( x ) dx f ( x )
a f ( x ) dx = - b f ( x ) dx
b
dx
f ( x ) dx 0
a
If m f ( x ) M on a x b then m ( b - a ) f ( x ) dx M ( b - a )
a
k dx = k x + c
x dx = n1+1 x + c, n -1
x dx = x dx = ln x + c
a x + b dx = a ln ax + b + c
ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c
e du = e + c
n
n +1
-1
Common Integrals
cos
u du = sin u + c
sin u du = - cos u + c
sec u du = tan u + c
sec u tan u du = sec u + c
csc u cot udu = - csc u + c
csc u du = - cot u + c
2
tan u du = ln sec u + c
-1
-1
8
5
1 3
cos ( u ) du
= 53 sin ( u ) 1 =
x = 1 u = 1 = 1 :: x = 2 u = 2 = 8
3
a u dv = uv
b
a
5
3
xe
-x
u=x
dx
Ex.
dv = e - x
xe dx = - xe
-x
-x
du = dx v = -e - x
+ e dx = - xe - x - e - x + c
-x
3 ln x dx
u = ln x
dv = dx du = 1x dx v = x
3 ln x dx = x ln x 3 - 3
dx = ( x ln ( x ) - x )
5
3
= 5ln ( 5) - 3ln ( 3) - 2
Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions
For sin n x cos m x dx we have the following :
For tan n x sec m x dx we have the following :
1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to
1.
cosines using sin 2 x = 1 - cos 2 x , then use
the substitution u = cos x .
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and convert rest
2.
to sines using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use
the substitution u = sin x .
3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2.
4. n and m both even. Use double angle
3.
and/or half angle formulas to reduce the
4.
integral into a form that can be integrated.
Trig Formulas : sin ( 2 x ) = 2 sin ( x ) cos ( x ) , cos 2 ( x ) =
cos ( x3 ) dx =
u = x3 du = 3 x 2 dx x 2 dx = 13 du
Properties
cf ( x ) dx = c f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
using
Ex.
tan
x sec5 x dx
= ( sec 2 x - 1) sec 4 x tan x sec xdx
= ( u 2 - 1) u 4 du
( u = sec x )
= sec x - sec x + c
7
sin 5 x
cos x dx
(sin x ) sin x
sin x
sin x sin x
cos x dx = cos x dx = cos x dx
(1- cos x ) sin x
=
dx
( u = cos x )
cos x
(1- u )
= -
du = - 1- 2u +u du
u
u
Ex.
3
5
2
4
tan x sec xdx = tan x sec x tan x sec xdx
1
7
1
5
2 2
Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions.
a 2 - b 2 x 2 x = ab sin q
b 2 x 2 - a 2 x = ba sec q
cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q
Ex.
16
2
4- 9 x2
tan 2 q = sec 2 q - 1
dx
x = sin q dx = cos q dq
2
3
2
3
Recall
sec 2 q = 1 + tan 2 q
16
4 sin 2 q ( 2 cos q )
9
4 - 9x 2 = 2 cos q .
16
2
4 -9 x 2
dx = - 4
4- 9 x2
3x
4- 9 x2
x
Net Area :
x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.
Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
( 23 cos q ) dq = sin122 q dq
2
a 2 + b 2 x 2 x = ab tan q
Applications of Integrals
b
y = f ( x) A =
b
a
upper function
+c
P( x)
Ex.
ax + b
A
ax + b
ax 2 + bx + c
Ax + B
ax + bx + c
7 x 2 +13 x
2
( x -1) ( x + 4 )
7 x 2 +13 x
( x -1) ( x 2 + 4 )
( ax + b )
( ax
+ bx + c )
Ak x + Bk
A1 x + B1
+L +
k
ax 2 + bx + c
ax
( 2 + bx + c )
7 x 2 +13 x
dx
dx =
Term in P.F.D
Ak
A1
A2
+
+L +
k
ax + b ( ax + b )2
( ax + b )
( x -1) ( x + 4 )
4
x -1
= x4-1 +
3x
x2 + 4
3 x +16
x2 + 4
dx
16
x2 + 4
dx
= 4 ln x - 1 + ln ( x 2 + 4 ) + 8 tan -1 ( x2 )
3
2
x -1
+C
+ Bx
=
x2 +4
d
c
right function
- left
function
dy
A = f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx
A = f ( y ) - g ( y ) dy
A = f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx + g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx
g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy.
g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy.
g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.
Ex. Axis : y = a 0
Ex. Axis : y = a 0
outer radius : a - f ( x )
outer radius: a + g ( x )
radius : a - y
radius : a + y
inner radius : a - g ( x )
inner radius: a + f ( x )
A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x -1)
2
( x -1) ( x + 4 )
An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13x = A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x - 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in.
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5 A which gives A = 4 . This wont always work easily.
Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus notes.
dx & x = f ( y ) A =
. So,
Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial fraction decomposition of
the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
Factor in Q ( x )
function
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some
sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.
- lower
width : f ( y ) - g ( y )
width : f ( y ) - g ( y )
These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
y = a 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x = a > 0 and x = a 0 ) interchange x and
y to get appropriate formulas.
Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus notes.
1
b- a
a f ( x ) dx
Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b
L = ds
where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.
( )
1+ ( )
ds = 1 +
dy
dx
dx
dy
ds =
( dxdt )
( )
dx if y = f ( x ) , a x b
ds =
dy if x = f ( y ) , a y b
ds = r 2 + ( ddrq ) dq if r = f (q ) , a q b
dy
dt
dt if x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) , a t b
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.
Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesnt exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.
Infinite Limit
f ( x ) dx = lim f ( x ) dx
1.
3.
f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx +
2.
f ( x ) dx = lim f ( x ) dx
-
t -
Discontinuous Integrand
b
1. Discont. at a: f ( x ) dx = lim+ f ( x ) dx
a
ta
2. Discont. at b : f ( x ) dx = lim- f ( x ) dx
tb
xp
2. If g ( x ) dx divg. then
f ( x ) dx divg.
f ( x ) dx Dx f ( x ) + f ( x ) + L + f ( x ) ,
b
*
1
*
2
*
n
xi* is midpoint [ xi -1 , xi ]
Dx
f ( x ) dx 2 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x )
b
b
a
n -1
Dx
f ( x ) dx
f ( x0 ) + 4 f ( x1 ) + 2 f ( x2 ) + L + 2 f ( xn - 2 ) + 4 f ( xn -1 ) + f ( xn )
3