Materials Engineering

MMR - 2044

Lesson 4 –Mechanical Properties

Strength

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Topic Outline
 Stress and Strain
 Tension
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion
 Elastic Deformation
 Plastic Deformation
 Yield Strength
 Tensile Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Hardness

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Stress and Strain
 Stress is defined as force (F) per unit area (A).
 Stress is used to express the loading in terms
of force applied to a certain cross-sectional
area of an object.
F
e 
Ao
It is measured in
N/m2 and this unit is
specifically called
Pascal (Pa)
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa

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Types of Loading

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Strain
 Strain is the response of a system to an
applied stress.
 Strain: elongation change in dimension per
unit length.
 Stress and strain are positive for tensile
loads, negative for compressive loads.

L  L0
e
L0

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Stress-Strain Behavior
 When a material is loaded with a force, it
produces a stress, which then causes a
material to deform.
 Deformation
 Elastic Deformation
 Plastic Deformation
 Elastic deformation:
 Reversible: when the stress is removed, the
material returns to the dimension it had before
the loading.
 Plastic deformation
 Irreversible: when the stress is removed, the
material does not return to its previous
dimension.

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Elastic Deformation

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F Linear-
F elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
Reversible: when the stress is elastic
removed, the material returns
to the dimension it had before

the loading.

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Plastic Deformation

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic

Plastic means permanent/Irreversible!

F
Irreversible: when the stress is removed, the
material does not return to its previous
dimension.

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Tensile Test
 A tensile test is a fundamental mechanical
test that measure the applied load and the
elongation of the specimen over some
distance.
 Tensile tests are used to determine:
 the modulus of elasticity
 elastic limit
 Elongation
 Reduction in area
 tensile strength
 yield point, yield strength and other tensile
properties.

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Tensile Test

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Stress – Strain Curve
 The engineering
stress-strain curve
(e- e) is obtained
from the load-
elongation curve.
 The yield point,
called the yield
strength (y),
signifies the start of
the plastic region.

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 Tensile Test: Elastic deformation
 In tensile tests, if the
deformation is elastic,
the stress-strain
relationship is called
Hooke's law:

 E is Young's modulus or
modulus of elasticity, has
the same units as σ,
N/m2 or Pa
Higher E → higher “stiffness”

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Tensile Test: Plastic Deformation
 stress and strain
are not
proportional
 The deformation is
not reversible
 Deformation
occurs by breaking
and re-
arrangement of
atomic bonds

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 YIELD STRENGTH, y
 The yield stress is a measure of resistance to plastic
deformation
 Stress at which noticeable (ep = 0.002) plastic deformation
has occurred.
tensile stress, 
 Yield strength σy - is chosen
as that causing a permanent y
strain of 0.002

engineering strain, 
p = 0.002

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 For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve
includes both an upper and lower yield point.

 The yield strength is defined in this case as the average

stress at the lower yield point.

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 TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

TS
engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

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DUCTILITY
 Ductility is a measure of the deformation at
fracture

Ao
Lo Af Lf

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  Ductility defined by:
 Percent elongation (%EL)
L f  Lo
%EL  x100
Lo
 Percent reduction in area (%AR)
Ao  A f
%AR  x100
Ao

• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.

--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.

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Toughness
 Toughness = the ability to absorb energy up to fracture
= the total area under the strain-stress curve up to
fracture
 Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3

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Materials Engineering
MMR - 2044

Lesson 4 –Mechanical Properties

Hardness & Impact Behavior

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 Hardness of Materials
 Hardness is a measure of resistance to localized
plastic deformation of materials and can be
related to the strength of materials.
 Large hardness means:
 Resistance to permanent indentation under static or
dynamic loads
 Energy absorption under impact loads (rebound
hardness)
 Resistance to scratching (scratch hardness)
 Resistance to abrasion (abrasion hardness),
 Resistance to cutting or drilling (machinability)

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Types of Hardness (3 Types)
 There are three general types of
hardness measurements
1. Scratch hardness : mainly used for minerals
most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided
plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

2. Rebound or dynamic hardness: rebound

height measured in rebound test after a
dynamic load is dropped onto a surface -
Scleroscope testing machine

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3. Indentation hardness : important for metallic
materials
 The hardness is obtained by forcing a hard indenter
into the material and measuring the dimensions of
the indent left after the indenter is removed.
 The most commonly used are the Brinell and
Rockwell hardness tests.

apply known force measure size

e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

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Indentation hardness
 According to the type of indenter and
the load applied, the indentation
hardness can be further divided into:
 Brinell Hardness
 Rockwell Hardness/Superficial Rockwell
Hardness
 Vickers Microhardness
 Knoop Microhardness

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1. Brinell Hardness
 In the Brinell hardness (HB) tests, a hard steel
sphere is forced into the surface of the
material, which forms an impression or dent, d.
 Indenter
 10-mm sphere of steel or tungsten carbide.
 Loads
 Loads range between 500 and 3000 g in 500 g
increments
 during a test, the load is maintained constant for
a specified time (between 10 and 30 s).
 Symbol / unit
 BHN, is a function of both the magnitude of the
load and the diameter of the resulting
indentation

2P
BHN 
 
P = Force (N)
D D  D 2  d 2 D = diameter of indentor
d = depth of indent

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 2. Rockwell Hardness
 The Rockwell Hardness test uses a small-diameter steel ball
for soft materials and a diamond cone for harder materials.
 Indenter
 spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters of 1/16, 1/8
and 1/4 inch & Conical diamond (Brale) indenter.

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 Load
 Hardness number is determined by applying of an
initial minor load followed by a larger major load.
 The utilization of a minor load enhances test accuracy
 On the basis of the magnitude of both major and
minor loads, there are two types of tests:
 Rockwell Hardness Scales (minor load is 10 kg)
 Superficial Rockwell Hardness Scales (minor load is 3
kg)
Rockwell Hardness Scales

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 Superficial Rockwell Hardness Scales

 Symbol / unit
 HR followed by the appropriate scale identification.
 For example:
 80 HRB represents a Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B
scale
 60 HR30W indicates a superficial hardness of 60 on the
30W scale.

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3 & 4. Vickers and Knoop Microhardness

 Two other hardness testing techniques are Knoop

(pronounced nup) and Vickers (sometimes also called
diamond pyramid)
 The microhardness type hardness test leaves the least
amount of damage on the metals surface
 Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and
Brinell, ranging between 1 and 1000 g.
 The resulting impression is observed under a microscope
and measured; this measurement is then converted into
a hardness number
 The Knoop and Vickers hardness numbers are
designated by HK and HV, respectively.
 Knoop and Vickers are referred to as microhardness
testing methods on the basis of load and indenter size.

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Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength

Both hardness and tensile

strength are indicators of a
metal’s resistance to
plastic deformation.

TS (MPa) = 3.45xBHN

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 Hardness Conversion

Example:
30HRC = 300BHN

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 Strain Rate Effects and Impact
Behavior

 Impact test - Measures the ability of a material to absorb

the sudden application of a load without breaking.
 Impact energy - The energy required to fracture a
standard specimen when the load is applied suddenly.
 Impact toughness - Energy absorbed by a material,
usually notched, during fracture, under the conditions of
impact test.
 Fracture toughness - The resistance of a material to
failure in the presence of a flaw.

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 (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 6.26 The impact test: (a) The Charpy and Izod
tests, and (b) dimensions of typical specimens

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Properties Obtained from the Impact
Test
 Ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT)
- The temperature below which a material
behaves in a brittle manner in an impact test.
 Notch sensitivity - Measures the effect of a
notch, scratch, or other imperfection on a
material’s properties, such as toughness or
fatigue life.

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 Results from a
series of Izod
impact tests for a
super-tough nylon
thermoplastic
polymer

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 The Charpy V-
notch properties
for a BCC carbon
steel and a FCC
stainless steel.

The FCC crystal

structure typically
leads top higher
absorbed energies
and no transition
temperature

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 The area contained
within the true stress-
true strain curve is
related to the tensile
toughness. Although
material B has a lower
yield strength, it
absorbs a greater
energy than material
A. The energies from
these curves may not
be the same as those
obtained from impact
test data

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