Semiconductor Basics

N Prez
SM Olaizola
2004
Structure
Atoms in semiconductors are arranged in crystals periodic structures
Two important structures are:
Diamond structure (Si) Zinc-Blende structure (GaAs)
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Structure
Effect of periodicity: existence of allowed and
forbidden energy states for electrons
Conduction Band: mostly
empty of electrons
(Totally empty at T~0)
Valence Band: mostly filled
with electrons
(Totally filled at T~0)
Band structure of a semiconductor
(Allowed electron energies vs. distance
along any crystalline direction )
CONDUCTION BAND
VALENCE BAND
Material Classification
Electrically speaking, materials can be classified into:
3,44 1,42 1,12 0,66 E
g
(eV)
GaN GaAs Si Ge
Band gap values for some
semiconductors
If T
R METAL
R SEMICONDUCTOR
Carriers
Atom of Si: 4 electrons in the last band:
When a bond is broken:
Electron freed: it can move into the lattice carrier
e
-
E
V
E
C
Creation of an electron (e
-
) in the
conduction band
E
V
E
C
Creation of a hole (h
+
) in the
valence band
Electrons and holes are created in pairs
Carriers: properties
Charge: e
-
= -q ; h
+
= +q
Effective mass m
*
:
Function of the semiconductor (SC) material
Kmass of the e
-
within vacuum, m
o
dt
dv
m q F
o
= =
Movement of an e- under an electric field :
The constants and are known values and they are different for
every semiconductor.
o
*
n
m
m
o
*
p
m
m
dt
dv
m q F
n
= =
*

dt
dv
m q F
p
= =
*

Movement of an e- inside a crystal:

Quantum mechanical formulations
Carrier number and doping
Pure semiconductor intrinsic semiconductor n = p = n
i
Insignificant amount of impurity atoms
n
i
: intrinsic carrier concentration
Carrier concentration inside a SC can be manipulated by adding
impurity atoms: doping.
Three types of dopants: ACCEPTORS (B, Al, Ga, In) p-type doping
DONORS (P, N ) n-type doping
AMPHOTERIC (Si in GaAs)
210
6
210
13
10
10
n
i
(cm
-3
)
GaAs Ge Si
p-type doping
Boron Atom
n-type doping
e
-
Phosphorous Atom
Carrier number and doping
Energetically, doping introduction of a permitted
energy level in the forbidden gap.
E
V
E
C
E
V
E
C
E
V
E
C
T = 0 K
Room T T
E
V
E
C
E
V
E
C
E
V
E
C
T = 0 K
Room T T
p-type doping
n-type doping
Carrier Distribution: Density of states and
Fermi level (I)
Density of states: Is the energy distribution of allowed states inside a
sc
3 2
* *
) ( 2
) (
h
C n n
C
E E m m
E g

=
E E
C
3 2
* *
) ( 2
) (
h
E E m m
E g
V p p
V

= E E
V
E
E
C
E
V
g
C
(E)
g
V
(E)
Fermi level function: specifies,
under equilibrium, the probability of
occupation of an available state at an
energy E
kT E E
F
e
E f
/ ) (
1
1
) (

+
=
E
F
: energy of the Fermi level
k: Boltzmann constant
T: temperature in Kelvin
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Carrier Distribution: Fermi level (II) and
Equilibrium carrier concentrations (I)
E
F
: Fermi level position
E
V
E
C
E
i
E
F
E
V
E
C
E
i
E
F
E
V
E
C
E
i
E
F
Intrinsic semiconductor n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor
Equilibrium carrier concentrations
Non-degenerate situation: E
V
+ 3kT E
F
E
C
- 3kT
E
V
E
C
3kT
3kT
E
F
: non degenerate
Concentrations of electrons (n) and holes (p)
2
3
2
*
,
,
2
2
(
(

=
h
T k m
N
p n
V C

where:
kT
E E
C
C F
e N n

=
kT
E E
V
F V
e N p

=
N
C,V
: effective density of conduction (valence) band states
Carrier Distribution: Equilibrium carrier
concentrations (II) and Fermi level determination
In equilibrium:
Charge neutrality relationship:
2
i
n p n =
uniformly doped semiconductor
+
equilibrium conditions
every section of the sc is charge-neutral
0 = +
+
A D
N q N q n q p q
0 = +
A D
N N n p

Fermi level determination

Position of the intrinsic level:
E
F
: two different cases:
|
|

\
|
+
+
=
*
*
ln
4
3
2
n
p
V C
i
m
m
kT
E E
E
|
|

\
|
=
i
D
i F
n
N
kT E E ln
|
|

\
|
=
i
A
i F
n
N
kT E E ln
if N
D
>> N
A
and N
D
>> n
i
if N
A
>> N
D
and N
A
>> n
i
Energy band theory
Study the relationship of the energy of the bands vs.
the wave vector, .
k
r
a
2
k
r
There are two permitted values of for
each value of energy.
has a periodicity of
The vector inside a crystal is limited to
a space called the Brillouin zone
k
r
k
r
: zone center (k = 0)
: zone end along <100> direction
L: zone end along <111> direction
Allowed E-k states for a one dimensional
crystal
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Energy band theory
In 3D, we consider values along the <100> and <111> directions
(high-symmetry directions)
Band edges of the allowed bands generally occur at , and L.
Minimum of the conduction band: can happen at any value along
the --L axis.
Maximum of the valence band: always happens at
DIRECT SC:
INDIRECT SC:
If e
-
and h
+
have the same momentum: jump between bands is
allowed ( conservation)
Indirect semiconductor: more than a minimum in the conduction
band
C
k
r
0 k
V
=
r
max , min ,
0
V C
k k
r r
= =
0
min ,

C
k
r
min , max , C V
k k
r r

k
r
k
r
Effective mass and E-k diagrams
More accurate definition of the effective mass:
m
*
is inversely proportional to the curvature of the bands
m
*
of holes are negative
m
*
greater in indirect semiconductors (slower)
2
2
2
*
1
1
dk
E d
m

=
h
E-k diagrams
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Effective mass and E-k diagrams
Valence band: 3 sub-bands
2 degenerate (same E at k = 0) heavy holes and light holes
Split-off band
Conduction band
Composed of some sub-bands
GaAs
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Effective mass and E-k diagrams:
GaAs
Direct SC
Minimum E
C
in k = 0
Only one minimum
Allowed k values associated with an energy E
C
(Constant energy surfaces)
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Effective mass and E-k diagrams:
Si
Minimum EC in the <100> direction
6 equivalent directions in the Brillouin zone
Allowed k values associated with an energy E
C
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Effective mass and E-k diagrams:
Ge
Minimum E
C
in the <111> direction
8 equivalent directions in the Brillouin zone
Allowed k values associated with an energy E
C
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall
Effective mass and E-k diagrams
Two effective masses associated with the shape of
the constant energy surfaces:
m
l
*
longitudinal effective mass
m
t
*
transversal effective mass
Hole effective mass
( ) ( )
3
2
2
3
*
2
3
* *
(

+ =
lh hh p
m m m
( ) [ ]
3
1
* * 2 *
t l el n
m m N m =
Electron effective mass
N
el
: number of ellipsoid surfaces in the first Brillouin zone
Band gap Energy
The Energy of the band gap is temperature
dependent
( ) ( )

+
=
T
T
E T E
g g
2
0
204 5.405 x 10
-4
1.519 1.422 GaAs
636 4.730 x 10
-4
1.170 1.125 Si
235 4.774 x 10
-4
0.7437 0.663 Ge

E
g
(0) E
g
(300K) Material
Band Bending
E
V
E
C E
V
E
C
E
1
= E
g
E
V
E
C
E
2
> E
g
Pair e
-
-h
+
created
Motionless carriers
Pair e
-
-h
+
created
E
hole
= E - E
C
E
electron
= E
V
- E
K. E.
K. E.
E
V
E
C
E
ref
E
total
K. E.
P. E.
( ) ( )
ref C
E E
q
x V =
1
dx
dE
q
C
=
1

r
and
Band Bending
Shape of the Energy band
diagram of a SC:
Potential inside the SC:
( ) ( )
ref C
E E
q
x V =
1
Electric field inside the SC:
dx
dE
q
C
=
1

r
The shape of
the energy
band diagram
gives us
information
about the
potential and
the electric
field inside a
semiconductor
Carrier actions: Drift
SC perturbed carrier action in response
Drift
Difussion
Recombination -Generation
DRIFT: Charged particle motion in response to an electric field.
Motion described in terms of the (average) drift velocity:
Electric field
Change in T
Change in doping
+
- +
-

Drift current density:

r
r
=
n n d
v
,

r
r
=
p p d
v
,

r
r
= p q J
p P

r
r
= p q J
n N
for electrons
for holes
N P
J
,
r

n,p
: e
-
, h
+
mobilities
n, p: e-, h+ concentrations
Carrier actions: Diffusion
DIFFUSION: Particles distributing from regions of high concentrations to
regions of low concentrations.
Diffusion current: depends on the gradients of concentrations of carriers
Diffusion current density:
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
x
J
Pldiff
x
-
-
- -
-
-
-
- -
J
Nldiff
Diffusion current is opposite of the derivative of carrier concentrations
p D q J
p n Pldiffusio
=
n D q J
n n Nldiffusio
=
D
n, p
: Diffusion coefficients for e
-
and h
+
Carrier actions:
Recombination Generation (I)
GENERATION: process whereby electrons and holes (carriers) are created.
RECOMBINATION: process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated or
destroyed.
-
Heat
E
V
E
C
Heat
-
+
X
E
V
E
C
X
-
Light
E
V
E
C
h
Photogeneration process
h > E
g
Direct thermal generation
Direct thermal recombination
Indirect thermal R-G processes more common than
direct band to band processes
Indirect thermal R-G processes R-G centres
Carrier actions:
Recombination Generation (II)
Impurities or defects
R-G centre concentration normally << n
i
Introduce allowed electronic levels near the
centre of the gap: E
T
Recombination Generation
E
V
E
C
E
T
P-N Junctions
N-type material
Diffusion
Static charges build up
Built-in potential
Drift current
When Drift current = Diffusion current Equilibrium
diffusion
drift
-
+
Space charge region
W
P-type material
P-N Junctions
p
no
n
no
n
no
p
no
Carrier density
x
W
Carrier concentrations
P-N Junctions
Charge density ()
Electric field ()
V(x)
|
|

\
|
=
2
ln
i
D A B
bi
n
N N
q
T K
V
Built-in potential
The PN Junction Diode, Second Edition (G. W. Neudeck). Addison Wesley
Depletion region width (W)
2
1
2
(

|
|

\
|
+
=
D A
D A bi o s
N N
N N
q
V k
W

P-N Junctions
Energy band diagram of a PN junction under equilibrium
http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/
( ) ( )
ref C
E E
q
x V =
1
dx
dE
q
i
=
1

2
2
dx
E d
q
k
i o s
|
|

\
|
=

P-N Junctions: Forward Bias

Forward bias
http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/
V
A
> 0
Junction Voltage: V
j
At equilibrium: V
j
= V
bi
Forward bias: V
j
= V
bi
- V
A
N P
+ -
- V
j
+
V
A
Depletion region width (W)
( )
2
1
2
(

|
|

\
|
+
=
D A
D A
A bi
o s
N N
N N
V V
q
k
W

P-N Junctions: Reverse Bias
http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/
Reverse bias
N
P
+ -
- V
j
+
V
A
V
A
< 0
Reverse bias: Vj = Vbi V
A
Depletion region width (W)
( )
2
1
2
(

|
|

\
|
+
=
D A
D A
A bi
o s
N N
N N
V V
q
k
W

V
A
< 0 !!
P-N Junctions
Ideal Diode equation
|
|

\
|
= 1
KT
qV
o
A
e I I
(
(

+ =
no
p
P
po
N
N
o
p
L
D
n
L
D
qA I
( )
2
1
2
1
) ( 2
(

=
D A
D A o s
A bi
J
N N
N N qK
V V
A
C

where
D
N,P
: e
-
, h
+
diffusion constant
L
N,P
: e
-
, h
+
minority carrier diffusion length
Diode reverse saturation current
Reverse bias depletion Capacitance