BAIGIANGDIENHOC

BENJAMIN CROWELL
BI GING
IN HC

An Minh, Xun Mu T 2008
H
T
T
P
:
/
/
W
W
W
.
T
H
U
V
I
E
N
V
A
T
L
Y
.
C
O
M

[
T
y
p
e

y
o
u
r

a
d
d
r
e
s
s
]

[
T
y
p
e

y
o
u
r

p
h
o
n
e

n
u
m
b
e
r
]

[
T
y
p
e

y
o
u
r

e
-
m
a
i
l

a
d
d
r
e
s
s
]

H
T
T
P
:
/
/
W
W
W
.
T
H
U
V
I
E
N
V
A
T
L
Y
.
C
O
M

H
I
E
P
K
H
A
C
H
Q
U
A
Y

Tng Lp S phm Vt l K2000
Trng Cao ng Cng ng Kin Giang

Nguyn bn: Electricity and Magnetism
(freebook)
Tc gi: Benjamin Crowell
Ngi dch: hiepkhachquay
Bn dch cn nhiu sai st, mong nhn c kin gp ca cc bn
mailto: manhan101@yahoo.com

MC LC
Chng 1
in v Nguyn t
1.1 Cuc truy tm lc nguyn t .................................................................................. 2
1.2 in tch, in tnh v t tnh ................................................................................ 3
1.3 Nguyn t ................................................................................................................. 6
1.4 Lng t ha in tch ......................................................................................... 11
1.5 Electron .................................................................................................................. 14
1.6 M hnh bnh bng lan rc nho ca nguyn t ................................................. 18
Bi tp .......................................................................................................................... 21
Chng 2
Ht nhn
2.1 Phng x ................................................................................................................. 24
2.2 Mu hnh tinh nguyn t ..................................................................................... 27
2.3 S nguyn t .......................................................................................................... 31
2.4 Cu trc ca ht nhn .......................................................................................... 35
2.5 Lc ht nhn mnh, phn r alpha v s phn hch .........................................38
2.6 Lc ht nhn yu, phn r beta ........................................................................... 40
2.7 S nhit hch ......................................................................................................... 44
2.8 Nng lng ht nhn v nng lng lin kt ..................................................... 45
2.9 Tc dng sinh hc ca bc x ion ha ................................................................ 47
2.10 S hnh thnh cc nguyn t .............................................................................. 49
Bi tp .......................................................................................................................... 52
Chng 3
Mch in, Phn 1
3.1 Dng in ............................................................................................................... 54
3.2 Mch in .............................................................................................................. 57
3.3 in th .................................................................................................................. 58
3.4 in tr ...................................................................................................................61
3.5 Tnh dn in ca vt cht ................................................................................... 68
3.6 p dng tnh ton ................................................................................................. 71
Bi tp .......................................................................................................................... 73
Chng 4
Mch in, Phn 2
4.1 S mch in .................................................................................................... 78
4.2 Cc in tr mc song song v quy tc mi ni ................................................. 78
4.3 Cc in tr mc ni tip ..................................................................................... 83
Bi tp .......................................................................................................................... 88

Chng 5
Cc trng lc
5.1 Ti sao li l cc trng lc ................................................................................. 92
5.2 Trng hp dn .................................................................................................... 94
5.3 in trng ............................................................................................................ 97
5.4 in th i vi trng khng u .................................................................... 102
5.5 Hai hoc ba chiu ................................................................................................ 103
5.6 in trng ca s phn b in tch lin tc ................................................. 105
Bi tp ........................................................................................................................ 107
Chng 6
in t hc
6.1 T trng ............................................................................................................. 109
6.2 Tnh t trng v lc t ..................................................................................... 112
6.3 Cm ng in t .................................................................................................. 115
6.4 Sng in t ......................................................................................................... 120
6.5 Nng lng ca trng ....................................................................................... 123
6.6 S i xng v khuynh hng thun mt bn ................................................. 125
Bi tp .........................................................................................................................127
Chng A
in dung v t cm
A.1 in dung v t cm ..................................................................................... 132
A.2 Mch dao ng ................................................................................................... 135
A.3 in th v dng in ......................................................................................... 137
A.4 S tt dn ............................................................................................................ 140
A.5 Tr khng ........................................................................................................... 143
Bi tp ........................................................................................................................ 145
hiepkhachquay | Bi ging in hc 1

Chng 1
IN V NGUYN T
Ni kt thc ca knh thin vn l ni bt u ca knh hin vi. Trong hai tm nhn
v m v vi m ny, ci no quan trng hn ?
Victor Hugo
Cha ca ng qua i khi m ng ang thai nghn. Cu con trai b m ht hi nn
ng b tng kh n mt trng ni tr khi m ng ti gi. Bn thn ng cha h ly v,
nhng tui trung nin, ng c quan h gn gi vi mt ngi ph n tr tui hn nhiu,
mi quan h chm dt khi ng t pht chng thn kinh. Sau nhng thnh cng khoa
hc bui u, ng sng phn ln qung i cn li ca mnh trong s tht vng v bt
lc khng gii m c b mt ca thut gi kim.
Con ngi c m t trn chnh l Isaac Newton, nhng khng phi mt
Newton hoan h trong cc sch gio khoa tiu s thng thng. Vy ti sao ta li ch n
mt bun b ca cuc i ng ? i vi cc nh gio dc khoa hc hin i, ni m nh
lu di ca Newton vi thut gi kim c th xem l mt s bi ri, mt s xao lng khi
thnh tu ch yu ca ng l sng lp nn c hc hin i. Tuy nhin, i vi Newton,
vic nghin cu thut gi kim ca ng c lin quan t nhin vi nghin cu ca ng v lc
v chuyn ng. Gc r ca php phn tch chuyn ng ca Newton l tnh ph qut ca
n: n thnh cng trong vic m t th gii trn tri v di t vi cng nhng phng
trnh , trong khi trc y ngi ta vn cho rng mt tri, mt trng, cc sao v hnh
tinh khc bit v c bn so vi nhng vt th thuc tri t. Nhng Newton nhn thy rng
nu nh khoa hc m t c mi th gii t nhin theo mt cch thng nht, th n khng
kh nng thng nht quy m con ngi vi quy m v tr: ng s khng hi lng cho
n khi no ng hp nht c v tr vi m vo trong bc tranh .
Chng ta khng g phi ngc nhin trc tht bi ca Newton. Mc d ng l mt
tn chc chn v s tn ti ca cc nguyn t, nhng khng h c thm bng chng thc
nghim no cho s tn ti ca chng k t khi nhng ngi Hi Lp c i ln u tin tha
nhn chng trn c s thun ty trit hc. Thut gi kim lm vic dc sc di truyn
thng b mt v thn b. Newton chuyn ha lnh vc trit hc t nhin thnh ci m
chng ta cng nhn l khoa hc vt l hin i, v tht l khng cng bng nu nh ph
bnh ng tht bi trong vic bin thut gi kim thnh ngnh ha hc hin i. Thi gian
lc cha chn mui. Knh hin vi l mt pht minh mi, v n l mt khoa hc mi
nhn khi ngi ng thi ca Newton l Hooke khm ph nhng c th sng cu to nn
t bo.
1.1 Cuc truy tm lc nguyn t
Newton khng phi l nh khoa hc u tin. ng l thy ph thy cui cng.
John Maynard Keynes
Tuy nhin, s cn phi nm bt c chui t tng ca Newton v xt ni n a
chng ta n vi s thun li ca nhn thc khoa hc hin i. Trong vic thng nht quy
m con ngi v v tr ca s tn ti, ng hnh dung li c hai sn khu trn cc
din vin (cy ci v nh ca, hnh tinh v cc sao) tng tc qua lc ht v lc y. ng
cng b thuyt phc rng i tng ng tr th gii vi m l cc nguyn t, cho nn vn
cn li ch l xc nh xem chng tc dng ln nhau bng loi lc g.
S sng sut tip theo ca ng cng khng km ni bt so vi s bt lc ca ng
mang n n m hoa kt tri. ng nhn thy nhiu lc quy m con ngi nh lc ma
st, lc nht, nhng lc thng thng gi cc vt chim gi cng mt khng gian, v vn
vn u phi n gin l biu hin ca
mt loi lc c bn hn tc dng gia cc
nguyn t. Bng dnh vo giy v cc
nguyn t trong bng ht cc nguyn t
trong giy. Nh ca ti khng sp xung
tm ca tri t v cc nguyn t ca n y
cc nguyn t bn t nm di n.
y ng b sa ly. Tht cm d
khi ngh rng lc nguyn t l mt hnh
thc ca hp dn, loi lc ng bit l ph
qut, c bn v n gin v mt ton hc.
Tuy nhin, hp dn lun lun l lc ht,
nn lm sao c th s dng n gii thch
s tn ti lc nguyn t c y ln ht ?
Lc hp dn gia cc vt c kch thc
bnh thng cng cc k nh, l l do ti
sao chng ta cha h ch ti xe c v nh
ca ht chng ta v mt hp dn. Tht kh
hiu c lm sao hp dn c th gy ra bt
c th g mnh lit nh nhp p ca con
tim hay s n ca thuc sng. Newton tip
tc vit lch hng triu t ghi chp thut gi
kim y lun c v mt s lc khc, c l
lc thn thnh hay lc sinh dng l v
d lc c mang bi tinh dch n trng.
Tht may mn, ngy nay chng ta
c kin thc nghin cu mt mi hoi nghi khc vi t cch l ng c vin cho lc
nguyn t: l lc in. Lc in thng thy gia cc vt chun b bng cch c xt
(hay nhng tng tc b mt khc), chng hn nh qun o ch xt ln nhau trong my
sy. Mt v d hu ch c ch r trong hnh a/ 1: dn hai ming bng ln mt bn, v sau
t thm hai ming na ln trn chng. Ko mi cp ln khi bn, v ri tch chng ra.
Hai ming pha trn s y nhau, a/2, hai ming di cng vy. Tuy nhin, mt ming pha

Bn ming bng c lm cho nhim in, 1. Ty thuc
vo loi kt hp chn kim tra, lc tng tc c th l
lc ht, 2, hoc lc y, 3.
di s ht mt ming pha trn, a/3. Lc in nh th ny c mt s im tng t nh
lc hp dn, loi lc khc m chng ta bit l lc c bn:
- Lc in l ph bin. Mc d mt s cht, v d nh lng th, cao su, v cht do,
phn ng vi s nhim in mnh hn nhng cht khc, nhng mi vt cht u
tham gia vo lc in mt mc no . Khng c cht no l cht phi in.
Vt cht vn c tnh hp dn ln tnh in.
- Th nghim cho thy lc in, ging nh lc hp dn, l lc t l nghch vi bnh
phng. Ngha l, lc in gia hai qu cu t l vi 1/r
2
, trong r l khong cch
tm-ni-tm gia chng.
Ngoi ra, lc in cn c ngha hn lc hp dn v phng din l ng c vin
cho lc c bn gia cc nguyn t, v chng ta thy chng c th ht nhau hoc y
nhau.
1.2 in tch, in tnh v t tnh
in tch
in tch l thut ng chuyn mn dng ch cho bit mt vt c lm
nhim tham gia vo tng tc in. Cn phn bit vi cch s dng ph bin, trong
thut ng ny c s dng ba bi ch bt c tnh cht in no. Chng hn, mc d
chng ta ni mt cch thng tc l in tch ca pin, nhng bn c th d dng xc minh
l pin khng h c in tch no v ngha chuyn mn, tc l n khng tc dng bt c
lc in no ln mt ming bng b lm cho nhim in nh m t phn trc.
Hai loi in tch
Chng ta c th d dng thu thp hng lot d liu v lc in gia cc cht khc
nhau c lm cho tch in theo nhng cch khc nhau. V d, chng ta ly lng mo
nhim in bng cch c xt ln lng th s ht thy tinh ch xt ln la. Vy chng ta
c th hiu tt c nhng thng tin ny nh th no ? Chng ta c th thu c mt s n
gin ha rt ln bng cch lu rng thc t ch c hai loi in tch. Gi s chng ta chn
lng mo c xt ln lng th l i din ca loi A, v thy tinh c ln la l i din cho
loi B. By gi chng ta s thy l khng c loi C. Bt k vt no c lm cho nhim
in bng bt c phng php no thuc loi A, ht cc vt m A ht v y cc vt m A
y, hoc l thuc loi B, c cng tnh cht ht v y nh B. Hai loi, A v B, lun lun
biu hin tng tc ngc nhau. Nu nh A biu hin lc ht i vi mt s vt tch in,
th B chc chn s y n ra xa, v ngc li.
n v coulomb
Mc d ch c hai loi in tch, nhng mi loi c th biu hin lng in khc
nhau. n v h mt ca in tch l coulomb, c nh ngha nh sau:
Mt coulomb (C) l lng in tch sao cho mt lc 9,0. 10
9
N xut hin gia hai
cht im c in tch 1 C nm cch nhau 1 m.
K hiu cho lng in tch l q. H s trong nh ngha c ngun gc lch s, v
khng phi hc thuc lng chnh xc. nh ngha pht biu cho cht im, tc l nhng vt
rt nh, v nu khng th nhng phn khc nhau ca chng s cch nhau nhng khong
khc nhau.
M hnh hai loi ht mang in
Th nghim cho thy mi phng php c xt hoc bt k phng php no khc
lm tch in cho vt u gm hai vt, v c hai cui cng u tch in. Nu mt vt cn
mt lng nht nh ca mt loi in tch, th vt kia s c lng tng ng loi in
tch kia. C th c nhiu cch hiu khc nhau v iu ny, nhng cch n gin nht l
nhng vin gch cu trc c bn ca vt cht c hai v, mi v ng vi mt loi in tch.
Vic c xt cc vt ln nhau lm di chuyn mt s ht ny t vt ny sang vt kia. Theo
m hnh ny, mt vt cha b lm cho nhim in c th tht s c mt lng ln c hai
loi in tch, nhng s lng ca chng bng nhau v chng phn b u nhau bn trong
vt. V loi A y bt c th g m loi B ht, v ngc li, nn vt s tc dng mt lc
tng hp bng khng ln bt c vt no khc. Phn cn li ca chng ny s lm sng t
m hnh ny v bn xem nhng ht b n ny c th c hiu nh th no vi ngha l
nhng phn cu trc ni ca nguyn t.
S dng k hiu in tch dng v m
V hai loi in tch c xu hng trit tiu lc ln nhau, nn ngi ta gn nhn cho
chng bng k hiu dng v m, v ni v in tch ton phn ca mt vt. Vic gi in
tch ny l dng, in tch kia l m, l hon ton c on. Benjamin Franklin quyt
nh m t loi th nht m chng ta gi l A l m, nhng tht ra khng c vn g
nu nh ai ai cng u gi nh vy. Mt vt c in tch ton phn bng khng (lng
in tch thuc hai loi bng nhau) c gi l trung ha in.
v Hy bnh lun pht biu sau: C hai loi in tch, ht v y.
nh lut Coulomb
Mt i tng ln ca nhng quan st thc nghim c th c tm tt nh sau:
nh lut Coulomb: Cng ca lc tc dng gia hai in tch im cch nhau
mt khong r cho bi phng trnh
1 2
2
q q
F k
r
=
trong k = 9,0. 10
9
N.m
2
/C
2
. Lc l lc ht nu nh cc in tch khc du, l lc y
nu nh chng cng du.
Nhng k thut hin i ti tnh cho php dng 1/r
2
ca nh lut Coulomb c
kim tra n chnh xc khng th tin ni, cho thy s m nm trong khong t
1,99999999999999998 n 2,0000000000000002.
Lu l nh lut Coulomb rt ging vi nh lut hp dn ca Newton, trong
ln ca lc l Gm
1
m
2
/r
2
, ngoi tr ch c mt loi khi lng, ch khng phi hai, v
lc hp dn khng bao gi l lc y. Do s tng t gn gi ny gia hai loi lc, nn
chng ta c th s dng li rt nhiu hiu bit ca chng ta v lc hp dn. Chng hn, c
mt tng ng in ca nh l lp v: lc in tc dng ra bn ngoi bi mt v cu
tch in u c ln nh th ton b in tch tp trung ti tm ca n, v lc tc dng
vo bn trong l bng khng.
Bo ton in tch
Mt l do cn c bn hn na cho vic s dng k hiu dng v m cho in tch
l cc th nghim cho thy in tch c bo ton theo nh ngha ny: trong bt k h c
lp no, tng lng in tch l mt hng s. y l l do v sao chng ta thy vic c xt
nhng cht ban u khng tch in ln nhau lun lun c kt qu l mt cht c mt
lng nht nh mt loi in tch, cn cht kia cn mt lng tng ng in tch kia.
Bo ton in tch trng c v t nhin trong m hnh ca chng ta trong vt cht cu
thnh t nhng ht dng v m. Nu in tch trn mi ht l mt tnh cht c nh ca
loi ht , v nu chnh nhng ht khng th t sinh ra hoc ph hy, th bo ton in
tch l iu khng th trnh c.
Lc in vi cc vt trung ha
Nh ch r trong hnh b, mt vt tch in c th ht mt vt khng tch in. Lm
sao iu ny c th xy ra ? Vn mu cht l ch mc d mi ming giy c tng in
tch bng khng, nhng t nht n c mt s ht mang in bn trong n c mt mc t
do chuyn ng no . Gi s ming bng tch in dng, c. Cc ht di ng trong
ming giy s phn ng vi lc ca ming bng, lm cho mt u ca ming giy tr nn
tch in m v u kia tr nn dng. Lc ht gia giy v bng by gi mnh hn lc
y, v u tch in m gn ming bng hn.

b/ Ming bng tch in ht cc mu giy khng tch
in gn, lm nhc bng chng ln.

c/ Mu giy c tng in tch bng khng, nhng n
c nhng ht tch in bn trong n c th di chuyn
c.
v iu g s xy ra nu nh ming bng tch in m ?
Li i pha trc
Chng ta bt u lm vic vi nhng hnh vi in phc tp m chng ta cha bao
gi nhn thy xut hin rnh rnh ngay trc mt mnh. Khng ging nh chic rng rc,
ci puli, v mt phng nghing ca c hc, cc din vin trn sn khu in v t hc l
nhng hin tng khng nhn thy xa l vi kinh nghim hng ngy ca chng ta. V l do
ny nn na th hai ca chng trnh vt l hc ca bn khc hon ton, tp trung nhiu
hn vo cc th nghim v k thut. Mc d bn s khng bao gi tht s nhn thy in
tch chuyn ng qua mt si dy, nhng bn c th hc cch s dng my o ampe o
dng chuyn ng .
Sinh vin cng c xu hng b gy n tng t hc k vt l u tin ca h rng n
l mn khoa hc cht ngi. Khng phi nh th ! Chng ta ang ln theo vt tch lch s
dn trc tip n nghin cu vt l mi nhn m bn c thy trn bo ch. Nhng th
nghim nguyn t xut sc bt u vo khong nm 1900, m chng ta s nghin cu trong
chng ny, khng khc g my vi nhng th nghim ca nm 2000 ch c iu nh
hn, n gin hn, v r tin hn nhiu.
Lc t
Nghin cu ton hc chi tit ca t hc s khng xut hin mi cho n phn cui
ca cun sch ny, nhng chng ta cn pht trin mt vi khi nim n gin v t hc
ngay by gi v lc t thng c s dng trong cc th nghim v k thut m chng ta
sp ni ti. Cc nam chm thng dng hng ngy ni chung c hai loi. Nam chm vnh
cu, v d nh loi nm trn t lnh nh bn, cu to t st hoc nhng cht ging thp c
cha nhng nguyn t st. (Nhng cht khc nht nh cng c t tnh, nhng st r nht
v thng dng nht) Loi nam chm kia, v d l loi lm cho loa my ht ca bn rung
ng, gm nhng cun dy c dng in chy trong . C hai loi nam chm u c kh
nng ht st cha nhim t, chng hn nh cnh ca t lnh.
Mt cch xem xt khin cho nhng hin tng trng c v phc tp ny tr nn d
hiu hn nhiu : l lc t l tng tc gia cc in tch ang chuyn ng, xut hin
cng vi lc in. Gi s mt nam chm vnh cu c mang ti gn mt nam chm loi
cun dy. Cun dy c cc in tch chuyn ng bn trong n v chng ta buc cc in
tch chy thnh dng. Nam chm vnh cu cng c cc in tch chuyn ng bn trong n,
nhng trong trng hp ny cc in tch xoy trn t nhin bn trong st. (Ci lm cho
mt mu st b t ha khc vi mt khi g l ch chuyn ng ca in tch bn trong
g l ngu nhin ch khng c t chc) Cc in tch chuyn ng trong cun dy nam
chm tc dng mt lc ln cc in tch chuyn ng trong nam chm vnh cu, v ngc
li.
C s ton hc ca t hc phc tp hn nhiu so vi nh lut Coulomb i vi
in hc, l l do v sao chng ta phi ch sang chng 6 mi nghin cu su v chng.
Hai c s n gin s c trnh by ngay by gi:
(1) Nu mt ht mang in chuyn ng trong vng khng gian gn mt ht mang
in khc cng ang chuyn ng, th lc t tc dng ln n t l vi vn tc ca n.
(2) Lc t tc dng ln mt ht mang in chuyn ng lun lun vung gc vi
hng ht chuyn ng.
V d 1. La bn t
Tri t c nhn nng chy bn trong, ging nh mt bnh nc si, n khuy ng v ni
sng. n gin ha, in tch c th i theo nhng chuyn ng khuy trn, nn Tri t cha
nhng in tch chuyn ng. Kim nam chm ca la bn t chnh l mt nam chm vnh cu nh.
in tch chuyn ng bn trong Tri t tng tc t vi in tch chuyn ng bn trong kim la
bn, lm cho kim la bn xoay trn v ch hng bc.
V d 2. ng phng in t
Hnh nh trn ti vi c v bng chm electron bn t pha sau ng phng ra pha trc.
Chm ht qut qua ton b mt ng ging nh mt ngi c xem lt qua mt trang sch. Lc t
c s dng li chm ht. Khi chm ht i t pha sau ra pha trc ng, cn c lc theo hng
trn-di, tri- phi li chng. Nhng khng th s dng lc t lm tng tc chm ht, v
chng ch c th y vung gc vi hng chuyn ng ca cc electron, ch khng cng chiu vi
chng.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Nu lc ht in gia hai cht im nm cch nhau 1m l 9 x 10
9
N th ti sao chng ta
khng th suy ra in tch ca chng l + 1 C v 1 C ? Chng ta cn phi c thm nhng quan st
g chng minh iu ny ?
B. Mt ming bng tch in s ht dnh vo tay bn. iu c cho php chng ta ni
rng cc ht mang n t do bn trong tay bn l dng hay m, hoc c hai, hay khng ?
1.3 Nguyn t
Ti i ti ch xem nguyn t l ngi bn xinh p, kh tnh, c mu xm hoc
mu ty theo cm nhn.
Rutherford
Thuyt nguyn t
Ngi Hi Lp chu rt nhiu p bc trong hai thin nin k qua: b ngi La M
thng tr, b c hip trong cuc thp t chinh bi nhng k thnh chin i n v n t
Min t ha, v b ngi Th Nh K chim ng mi cho n gn y. Khng c g ngc
nhin khi m h thch nh ti nhng ngy thng ln xn , vo lc nhng nh t tng
li lc nht ca h tin rt gn ti cc quan nim nh nn dn ch v thuyt nguyn t.
Hi Lp tr li dn ch sau mt giai on c ti qun s, v hnh nguyn t c in mt
cch hnh din trn mt trong nhng ng tin ca h. l l do v sao khin ti xc
ng phi ni rng gi thuyt Hi Lp c i rng vt cht cu thnh t cc nguyn t l
mt cng trnh d on thun ty. Khng c bng chng thc nghim thc t no cho cc
nguyn t, v s hi sinh khi nim nguyn t vo th k th 18 bi Dalton c t tnh cht
Hi Lp hn tn gi, c ngha l khng th chia tch. Thm ch ting tm Hi Lp cn b
st m nhiu khi tn gi c ch r l khng thch hp vo nm 1899, lc nh vt l
J.J. Thomson chng minh bng thc nghim cho thy cc nguyn t c nhng th cn nh
hn na bn trong chng, tc l chng c th chia tch ra c (Thomson gi chng l
electron). Sau cng th khng th phn tch l c th phn tch c.
Nhng hy tip tc cu chuyn ca chng ta. iu g xy ra vi khi nim
nguyn t trong hai ngn nm gia ? Nhng ngi c hc thc tip tc bn lun tng
, v nhng ngi yu thch n c th thng s dng n mang li nhng li gii thch
hp l cho nhiu s vic v hin tng khc nhau. Mt thc t c gii thch d dng l
s bo ton khi lng. V d, nu bn trn 1 kg nc vi 1 kg bi t, bn s c chnh
xc 2 kg bn, khng hn khng km. iu tng t ng cho nhiu qu trnh nh s ng
c ca nc, ln men bia, hoc nghin sa thch. Nu bn tin vo cc nguyn t, th s bo
ton khi lng mang li s cm nhn y , v tt c nhng qu trnh ny c th xem l
s trn ln hoc b tr li cc nguyn t, ch khng lm thay i tng s nguyn t. Tuy
nhin, y vn chng phi l bng chng cho thy nguyn t tn ti.
Nu cc nguyn t tht s tn ti, th c nhng loi nguyn t g, v ci g phn
bit r nhng loi khc nhau ? Chng c kch thc, hnh dng, trng lng v mt s
i lng khc khng ? H ngn cch gia thuyt nguyn t c i v hin i tr nn hin
hin khi chng ta xt n nhng nghin cu s khai c v vn ny cho n th k
hin nay. Nhng ngi c i quyt nh c bn loi nguyn t, t, nc, khng kh v
la; quan im ph bin nht cho rng chng phn bit nhau hnh dng ca chng. Cc
nguyn t nc c hnh cu, nn nc c kh nng chy mt cch m m. Cc nguyn t
la c nhng im sc nhn, l l do v sao la lm au khi n chm vo da mt ngi
no (Khng c khi nim nhit mi cho n hai ngn nm sau ny). Cch hiu hin
i khc mt cch c bn v cu trc ca nguyn t thu c trong giai on cch mng 10
nm t 1895 n 1905. Mc tiu chnh ca chng ny l m t nhng th nghim trng
yu .
Bn c bao gi nghe ni ti thuyt nguyn t cha ?
Bn l th bn n. Cu ni hin i lm lnh t nhiu mang cch hiu nguyn t v s
tiu ha. Xt cho cng th s tiu ha l mt b n th v vo thi c i, v cc nn vn ha tin
hin i thng tin rng s n cho php bn gii phng mt s dng lc s sng khi thc phm.
Chuyn thn thoi y dy nhng nng lc tru tng nh s can m hoc s u l nghi c th i
vo c th bn thng qua thc phm m bn n. Tri vi nhng quan im siu nhin ny, nhng
nh nguyn t lun c i c mt cch hiu hon ton mang tnh t nhin v s tiu ha. Thc n
cu to t cc nguyn t, v khi bn tiu ha n, bn n gin l phng thch mt s nguyn t ra
khi n v sp xp chng vo nhng hp cht cn thit cho cc m c th ca bn. Cc nh khoa
hc xa xa tin b hn v cc nh khoa hc thi phc hng yu thch loi gii thch ny. H nng
lng ci tri cho mi rng buc ln trung tm ca nn vt l Aristotle (v phin bn thn nh th,
thm mm dm mui ca n, tc trit hc kinh vin), theo quan im ca h nn vt l c qu
nhiu tnh cht huyn b v mc tiu cho cc vt. V d, trng phi Aristotle gii thch nguyn
nhn hn ri tr li t l v l bn cht hay mc tiu ca n phi n nm ngh trn mt
t.
Tuy nhin, n lc c v ngy th nhm gii thch s tiu ha mt cch t nhin cui cng
khin cc nh nguyn t lun gp rc ri to vi Gio hi. Vn l ch thnh l quan trng nht
ca nh th gm n bnh m v ru v nh m nhn c tc ng siu nhin ca s tha th
cho ti li. cp n nghi l ny, hc thuyt ha th khng nh rng phc lnh ca bnh m v
ru thnh th ng l chuyn ha thnh mu v tht ca Cha. Thuyt nguyn t c nhn thc l
mu thun vi thuyt ha th, v thuyt nguyn t ph nhn phc lnh c th lm thay i bn cht
ca cc nguyn t. Mc d thng tin lch s cung cp trong a s sch gio khoa khoa hc ni v
Galileo miu t s bt ng ca ng vi Ta n d gio l khi mo cuc tranh lun xem Tri t c
chuyn ng hay khng, nhng mt s nh s hc tin rng s b trng pht ca ng c nhiu th
tm hiu hn l s bin h ca ng cho thuyt nguyn t lm lt thuyt ha th. (Nhng vn
khc trong trng thi phc tp l phong cch i u ca Galileo, vn v trang ca Ta thnh,
v tin n cho rng nhn vt xun ngc trong tc phm ca Galileo l m ch c gio hong) Trong
mt thi gian di, nim tin vo thuyt nguyn t ng vai tr l biu hin ca s khng theo l thi
i vi cc nh khoa hc, mt cch khng nh s thch hiu hin tng theo l t nhin ch khng
phi siu nhin. S tn thnh thuyt nguyn t ca Galileo v Newton l mt hot ng ni lon,
ging nh s chp nhn ca cc th h sau ny v hc thuyt Darwin v Marxism.
Mt mu thun khc gia trit hc kinh vin v thuyt nguyn t n t ci nm gia cc
nguyn t. Nu bn hi mt ngi hin i cu hi ny, h s c th tr li khng c g c hoc
khng gian trng rng. Nhng Aristotle v nhng ngi k tc s nghip ca ng tin rng khng
th no c khng gian trng rng, tc chn khng, nh th c. khng phi l mt quan im
v l, v khng kh c xu hng trn vo bt k khng gian no m bn m ra, v cu hi tn ti
mi cho ti thi k phc hng khi ngi ta ch ra c cch to ra chn khng.
Nguyn t, nh sng, v mi th khc
Mc d ti c khuynh hng giu ct cc nh trit hc Hi Lp c i nh Aristotle,
nhng hy dnh ra mt cht tn dng ng v mt s iu. Nu bn c cc tc phm
ca Aristotle v vt l (hoc ch xem lt qua chng, ging nh ti lm), th iu thu ht
s ch nht l mc cn thn khi ng phn loi hin tng v phn tch mi quan h
gia cc hin tng. No ngi hnh nh t nhin thc hin c s phn bit gia hai
loi hin tng vt l: cc vt v chuyn ng ca cc vt. Khi mt hin tng xy ra t n
khng tc thi l mt trong nhng loi ny, th c mt xu hng mnh m l quan nim
ha n l loi ny hoc loi kia, hoc thm ch b qua s tn ti ca n hon ton. Chng
hn, cc thy gio vt l hay rng mnh trc pht biu ca hc sinh rng thuc n pht
n, v lc gii phng khi n theo mi hng. Trong nhng v d ny, khi nim phi vt
cht ca lc c phn loi ngm nh th n l mt cht vt l. Pht biu ln dy ct
chic ng h lm lu tr chuyn ng trong l xo l mt s thiu phn loi ca nng
lng in di dng chuyn ng. Mt v d b qua s tn ti ca hin tng hon ton
c th gi ra bng cch hi mi ngi ti sao chng ta cn n bng n. Cu tr li
thng l n ri sng cn phng cho chng ta c th nhn thy mi th, khng ch
ti vai tr thit yu ca nh sng i vo mt chng ta n t nhng th c ri sng.
Nu bn yu cu mt ai ni cho bn bit ngn gn v cc nguyn t, cu tr li
c kh nng l mi th cu thnh t cc nguyn t, nhng by gi chng ta thy hin
nhin l t mi th trong pht biu ny khng cn thch hp na. i vi cc nh khoa
hc ca nhng nm u thp nin 1900, nhng ngi ang c gng kho st nguyn t,
y khng phi l mt nh ngha tm thng. c mt dng c mi gi tn l ng chn
khng, ging nh ng phng hnh trong ti vi ngy nay. Tm li, nhng ngi th hn in
pht hin ra ton b nhm hin tng xy ra bn trong v xung quanh ng chn khng,
v t cho chng nhng ci tn hoa m nh tia X, tia catt, sng Hertz, v tia N.
y l nhng loi quan st cui cng cho chng ta bit chng ta bit g v vt cht, nhng
sau cng pht sinh nhng cuc tranh lun ny la xem chnh nhng i tng ny c
phi l nhng dng vt cht hay khng.
Chng ta hy xem mc phn loi cc hin tng do cc nh vt l ca nm 1900 s
dng. H ghi nhn ba loi:
- Vt cht c khi lng, c th c ng nng, v c th chuyn ng trong chn
khng, mang theo khi lng ca n v ng nng theo n. Vt cht c bo ton,
c bo ton khi lng v bo ton s nguyn t ca tng nguyn t. Cc nguyn
t khng th chim cng khong khng gian nh cc nguyn t khc, nn cch
thun tin kho st ci g khng phi l vt cht l ch ra n c th truyn qua
mt cht rn, trong cc nguyn t nhi nht rt gn nhau.
- nh sng khng c khi lng, lun lun c nng lng, v c th truyn qua chn
khng, mang theo nng lng cng vi n. Hai chm tia sng c th xuyn qua
nhau v hin ra khi ch va chm m khng b suy yu, lch hng, hoc bt k
nh hng no khc. nh sng c th i xuyn qua nhng loi cht nht nh, v d
nh thy tinh.
- Loi th ba l mi th khng ph hp vi nh ngha nh sng hoc vt cht. V d
thuc loi ny c thi gian, vn tc, nhit, v lc.
Nguyn t ha hc
Lm th no ngi ta khm ph c c bao nhiu loi nguyn t g ? Ngy nay,
vic tin hnh mt chng trnh thc nghim nhm phn loi cc loi nguyn t khng
phi l vic g qu kh. i vi tng loi nguyn t, phi c mt nguyn t tng ng, tc
l mt cht tinh khit cu to t khng g hn ngoi loi nguyn t . Cc nguyn t c
cho l khng th chia tch c, nn mt cht nh sa chng hn khng c kh nng l c
bn, v khuy mnh n s lm n tch thnh hai cht khc nhau: b v nc sa. Tng t,
g st khng th l mt nguyn t, v n c th c to ra bng s kt hp hai cht: st v
xi. Bt chp tnh hp l hin nhin ca n, khng c chng trnh no nh th c thc
hin mi cho n th k th 18. Ngi c i c l khng lm th v quan st khng c
chp nhn rng ri l phng php ng n tr li cu hi t nhin, v cng v h
khng c trong tay nhng k thut cn thit hoc nhng k thut thuc v lnh vc lao
ng c a v x hi thp, v d nh th rn v th m. Cc nh gi kim thut b ngn cn
bi ting tm ca thuyt nguyn t lt v bi xu hng nghing v ch ngha thn b v
huyn hoc. (Thch thc ni ting nht m cc nh gi kim thut i mt l bin ch thnh
vng, ngy nay chng ta bit iu l khng th c, v ch v vng u l cc nguyn
t).
Tuy nhin, vo nm 1900, cc nh ha hc thc hin c mt vic hp l khm
ph xem nguyn t l ci g. H cng xc nh c t s khi lng ca cc nguyn t
khc nhau mt cch kh chnh xc. Phng php tiu biu l o bao nhiu gam natri (Na)
kt hp vi mt gam chlorine (Cl) to ra mui (NaCl). (y l gi s bn bit da
trn mt bng chng khc rng mui cu to gm s nguyn t Na v Cl bng nhau) Khi
lng ca tng nguyn t, khi so snh vi t s khi lng, c bit ch trong vi bc
ln da trn bng chng gin tip, v nhiu nh vt l v ha hc ph nhn rng tng
nguyn t chng l ci g khc hn ngoi nhng k hiu cho tin li.

d/ Khi lng mt s nguyn t so vi khi lng nguyn t hydro. Ch l mt s gi tr rt gn vi s
nguyn, nhng khng hon ton l s nguyn.
ngha ca cc nguyn t
Khi thng tin cht ng, thch thc l tm mt cch thc h thng ha n; c thm
m ca cc nh khoa hc hin i khng a nhng th ln xn. S hn tp ny ca cc
nguyn t l mt s lng tng. Mt nh quan st ng thi, William Crookes, m t
cc nguyn t m ra trc chng ta rng nh i Ty Dng tri ra trc con mt m
chiu ca Columbus, ch giu, chm chc, v th thm nhng iu l lng, v t trc n
nay khng ai c th gii quyt c. Khng bao lu sau, ngi ta bt u nhn thy rng
nhiu khi lng nguyn t rt gn vi bi s nguyn ca khi lng nguyn t hydro,
nguyn t nh nht. Mt vi ngi d kch ng bt u cho rng hydro l vin gch cu
trc c bn, v nhng nguyn t nng hn cu thnh t nhiu cm hydro. Tuy nhin,
khng bao lu sau th nhng php o chnh xc hn bc b lun iu ca h, chng
cho thy khng phi tt c cc nguyn t u c khi lng nguyn t gn vi bi s
nguyn ca khi lng hydro, v nhng trng hp gn vi bi s nguyn ca hydro cng
b sai lch mt phn trm hoc ngn y.

e/ Bng tun hon ha hc hin i.
Cc nguyn t trong cng mt ct c tnh cht ha hc ging nhau. S nguyn t hin i, s ni ti trong
phn 2.3, khng c bit ti vo thi ca Mendeleev, v bng c th lt theo nhng cch khc nhau.
Gio s ha hc Dmitri Mendeleev, trong khi son bi ging ca ng vo nm
1869, mun tm mt s cch t chc kin thc ca ng cho sinh vin c th d hiu hn.
ng vit tn ca tt c cc nguyn t ln nhng tm th v bt u sp xp chng theo
nhng cch khc nhau trn bn lm vic ca ng, th tm mt sp xp d nh. S sp xp
hng-ct ng nu ra v c bn l bng tun hon ha hc hin i ca chng ta. Cc ct
ca phin bn hin i biu din cc nguyn t c tnh cht ha hc tng t nhau, v mi
hng pha di th nng hn hng pha trn n. Ngang qua tng hng, hu nh lun lun
t cc nguyn t trong chui khi lng tng dn. Ci g khin cho h thng c gi tr
tun hon ca n. C ba ch Mendeleev phi b trng trong bng sp xp ca ng gi
cc nguyn t ging nhau v mt ha hc nm trong cng mt ct. ng tin on s tn ti
nhng nguyn t lp y nhng ch trng ny, v ngoi suy hoc ni suy t nhng nguyn
t khc trong cng ct , d on nhng tnh cht dng s ca n, v d nh khi lng,
im nng chy, v t trng. Ting tm ca Mendeleev tr nn ly lng khi ba nguyn t
ca ng (sau ny c t tn l gallium, scandium, v germanium) c tm thy v c
tnh cht rt gn vi tnh cht ng d on.
Mt iu m bng tun hon Mendeleev lm sng t l khi lng khng phi l
c trng c bn phn bit cc nguyn t thuc nhng nguyn t khc nhau. thit lp
cng trnh bng tun hon ca mnh, ng phi i xa khi vic sp xp c trt t cc
nguyn t hon ton theo khi lng. Chng hn, nguyn t iodine nh hn tellurium,
nhng Mendeleev phi t iodine sau tellurium sao cho n nm chung ct vi cc nguyn
t c tnh cht ha hc tng t.
Bng chng trc tip cho thy nguyn t tn ti
Thnh cng ca l thuyt ng lc hc ca nhit mang li bng chng mnh m
cho thy, ngoi chuyn ng ca vt ni chung, cn c mt loi chuyn ng khng nhn
thy khp ni xung quanh chng ta: chuyn ng ngu nhin ca cc nguyn t bn
trong mi vt. Nhng nhiu k bo th khng b thuyt phc rng cc nguyn t tht s tn
ti. Xt cho cng th cha ai tng nhn thy mt nguyn t c. Mi cho n khi thuyt nhit
ng lc hc c pht trin chng minh thuyt phc rng cc nguyn t tht s tn ti v
chng tham gia vo nhng chuyn ng lin tc khng bao gi ngng ngh.
Pht n chng minh nguyn t mt cch tru tng hn v mt ton hc pht n
khi mt s quan st c k, m mt c xem xt li bi mt vin th k khng ting tm g
phng ng k pht minh Thy S tn l Albert Einstein. Nh thc vt hc Brown, s
dng mt chic knh hin vi lc n cn l mt sn phm ngh thut vo nm 1827, quan st
nhng ht phn hoa nh xu trong mt git nc nm trn bn soi hin vi v nhn thy
chng nhy nht mt cch ngu nhin khng v l do g r rng c. Ban u, nghi ng rng
phn hoa m ng cho l cht tht s cn sng, ng th quan st cc ht b hng, v
nhn thy cc ht b hng cng chuyn ng ln xn. Kt qu tng t xy ra vi bt k
ht nh no khc l lng bn trong cht lng. Hin tng c gi l chuyn ng
Brown, v s tn ti ca n c nhiu th h xem l mt s k quc v l mt thc t
hon ton khng quan trng, ch l mt iu phin toi cho cc nh hin vi hc.
Mi cho ti nm 1906, Einstein mi tm ra c li gii thch ng n cho quan
st ca Brown: cc phn t nc trng thi chuyn ng ngu nhin lin tc, v va chm
vi ht phn hoa mi lc, st n i theo mi hng. Sau c mt thin nin k nghin cu
v nguyn t, cui cng c mt bng chng chc chn. Tnh ton ca Einstein xua tan
mi nghi ng, v ng c th a ra nhng tin on chnh xc v nhng th nh qung
ng trung bnh mt ht i c trong mt khong thi gian nht nh. (Einstein nhn
gii thng Nobel khng cho l thuyt tng i ca ng m cho nhng bi bo ca ng v
chuyn ng Brown v hiu ng quang in).
Cu hi tho lun
A. Lm th no t s hiu bit kch thc ca mt nguyn t nhm c th suy ra c tnh
khi lng ca n, v ngc li ?
B. Lm th no ngi ta c th kim tra cch gii thch ca Einstein cho chuyn ng
Brown bng cch quan st n nhng nhit khc nhau ?
1.4 Lng t ha in tch
Chng t nguyn t tht s tn ti l mt mc tiu ln t, nhng vic chng
minh s tn ti ca chng khng ging vi vic tm hiu nhng tnh cht ca chng. Lu
cc quan st Brown-Einstein rt cuc chng c lin quan g ti in hc c, v cho ti y
chng ta bit rng vt cht vn d c tnh cht in, v chng ta thnh cng trong vic
gii thch nhng tnh cht in nht nh di hnh thc cc ht mang in dng v m
linh ng. Nhng ht ny c phi l nguyn t khng ? Hay chng l nhng b phn ca
nguyn t ? Cc ht c hon ton tch khi nguyn t ? C l tht l qu sm nu nh
c gng tr li nhng cu hi ny m khng c bng chng thuyt phc ng h m hnh
ht tch in ca in hc.
Bng chng ng h mnh m cho m hnh ht tch in n t mt th nghim
trong nm 1911 do nh vt l Robert Millikan thc hin trng i hc Chicago. Hy xt
mt dng git nc hoa hoc cht lng khc cho thi qua mt l inh ghim nh xu. Cc
git i ra t l phi nh hn l v thc t th chng cn vi m hn na, v dng xoy ca
khng kh c xu hng lm tn lon chng ra. Millikan lp lun rng nhng git cn
mt cht in tch khi chng c xt ln thnh l m chng i qua, v nu m hnh ht tch
in ca in hc l ng n, th in tch c th tch v trong s qu nhiu git cht lng
nh xu nn mt git c th c lng in tch ton phn tha thi ca mt vi ht tch in
c l l s tha thi ca mt ht tch in dng trn mt git nht nh, hoc s tha
thi hai in tch m trn git khc.

f/ Nh khoa hc tr Robert Millikan

g/ Hnh v n gin ha thit b ca Millikan
Thit b kho lo ca Millikan, g, gm hai bn kim loi, chng c kh nng tch
in khi cn thit. ng phun mt m git du vo khng gian gia hai bn, v chn mt
git qua knh hin vi nghin cu. Ban u, khi khng c in tch trn cc bn, ng xc
nh khi lng ca git bng cch cho n ri trong khng kh v o vn tc gii hn ca
n, tc l vn tc lc ma st ca khng kh trit tiu lc hp dn. Lc ko theo ca
khng kh tc dng ln mt qu cu chuyn ng chm c tm ra bng thc nghim l
bvr
2
, trong b l mt hng s. t lc ton phn bng khng khi git cht lng ri vn
tc gii hn cho ta
bvr
2
mg = 0
v t t trng bit ca du bng vi khi lng ca git cht lng chia cho th tch ca
n cho ta phng trnh th hai
3
4
3
m
r
t
=
Mi th trong nhng phng trnh ny c th o trc tip, ngoi tr m v r, nn
y l hai phng trnh hai n, ngi ta c th gii chng bit git cht lng ln c no.
Sau , Millikan tch in cho cc bn kim loi, iu chnh lng in tch trung
ha chnh xc vi lc hp dn v y git cht lng nm l lng. Chng hn, nu git cht
lng c lm cho c in tch ton phn l m, th in tch dng t trn bn trn s ht
n, ko n ln, v in tch m nm trn bn di s y n, nng n ln. (V mt l thuyt
ch cn mt bn thi, nhng trn thc t s sp xp hai bn nh th ny cho lc in c
ln u hn trong ton vng khng gian git cht lng ri) Lng in tch trn hai bn
cn thit cho git du l lng cho Millikan mt c s xc nh lng in tch git cht
lng mang. in tch git cht lng mang cng ln, th lc in tc dng ln n s cng
mnh, v th thut l phi t in tch trn cc bn nh thi. Tht khng may, vic biu
din mi quan h ny bng nh lut Coulomb s khng thc t, v n cn s hiu bit trn
vn v vic in tch phn b nh th no trn mi bn, cng vi kh nng thc hin php
cng vect ca tt c cc lc tc dng ln git cht lng bi tt c cc in tch trn bn.
Thay v vy, Millikan s dng mt c s thc t l lc in m mt in tch im chu ti
mt im trong khng gian t l vi in tch ca n
F
const
q
=
Vi lng in tch cho trc trn cc bn, hng s ny c th c xc nh chng
hn bng cch vt b git du i, xen gia hai bn mt vt ln hn v d cm nm hn c
mt in tch bit trn n, v o lc vi phng php thng thng. (Tht ra, Millikan
s dng mt b k thut hi khc xc nh hng s , nhng tng cng tng t)
ln ca lc tc dng ln git du thc t phi bng mg, v lc ch va nng bng
n ln, v mt khi hng s nh c c xc nh, th in tch ca git cht lng khi
c th tm ra c da trn khi lng xc nh trc ca n.

h/ Mt vi s liu th nghim ca Millikan
Bng h cho mt vi kt qu t bi bo nm 1911 ca Millikan. (Millikan x l d
liu trn c nhng git tch in m v dng, nhng trong bi bo ca ng, ng ch mang
ra v d d liu v nhng git tch in m, nn y ton l s m) Ch cn lic qua s
liu trn cng thy ngay rng in tch khng n gin l mt lot s ngu nhin. Chng
hn, in tch th hai hu nh chnh xc bng phn na in tch th nht. Millikan gii
thch in tch quan st c u l bi s nguyn ca mt con s n gin, 1,64 x 10
-19
C.
Trong ct th hai, ly in tch chia cho hng s ny c kt qu v c bn l s nguyn,
cho php sai lch ngu nhin c mt trong th nghim. Millikan pht biu trong bi bo ca
ng rng nhng kt qu ny l
bng chng trc tip v xc thc ca s ng n ca quan im
c ci tin trong nhiu nm qua v c cng c bi bng chng t nhiu ngun
cho thy mi in tch, l nhng bi s chnh xc ca mt in tch c bn, hu
hn, hay ni cch khc, mt in tch ri u trn b mt tch in c mt cu trc
dng ht hu hn, trn thc t, gm nhng ht nh, hay nhng nguyn t in, tt
c u ging ht nhau, rc trn b mt ca vt mang in.
Ni cch khc, ng cung cp bng chng trc tip cho m hnh ht tch in ca
in hc v bc b nhng m hnh trong m t in l mt s loi cht lng. in tch
c bn c k hiu l e, v gi tr hin nay l 1,60 x 10
-19
C. T lng t ha c s
dng trong vt l m t mt i lng ch c th c nhng gi tr s nht nh, v khng
th c bt k gi tr no nm gia nhng gi tr . Theo cch hiu ny, chng ta ni rng
Millikan pht hin in tch b lng t ha. in tch e thng c gi l lng t
in tch.
v Tin t c b lng t ha ? Lng t ca tin t l g ?
Ghi chp lch s v tr gian ln ca Millikan
Rt t sch gio khoa vt l ph thng cp n thc t r rng rng mc d nhng kt
lun ca Millikan l ng n, nhng ng l mt k gian ln khoa hc. K thut ca ng kh v i
hi phi tht cn thn khi thc hin, v s sch ghi chp nguyn bn ca ng, n nay vn cn gi
c, cho thy s liu km hon ho hn nhiu so vi nh ng khng nh trong nhng bi bo
khoa hc cng b ca ng. Trong nhng n phm ny, ng pht biu thng thng rng mi git
du quan st c in tch l mt bi s ca e, vi khng c ngoi l v sai st no. Nhng s ghi
chp ca ng c tha nhng ghi ch i loi nh s liu p, gi v t qu, b i. Sau ,
Millikan ginh gii thng Nobel vt l cho s m t khng trung thc v s liu ca ng.
Ti sao cc tc gi sch gio khoa qun khng ni ti tr gian ln ca Millikan ? Hnh nh
h ngh rng hc sinh, sinh vin cn qu ngy th nh gi chnh xc ng ca thc t rng i
khi vn tn ti nhng tr gian tr khoa hc v thm ch cn c trao gii thng ca nhng t chc
khoa hc. C l h e ngi sinh vin s lm qua loa s liu gian tr cho xong, v Millikan ot gii
Nobel cng bng cch m. Nhng xuyn tc lch s khng hn g l ma mai. Chng phi cc
thy gio ngi Anh ci bin bi bch ca Sheakspeare sao cho nhn vt xu lun lun b i x
thm t, cn nhn vt tt th cha bao gi b i x nh th hay sao !
Mt li gii thch kh d khc n gin l thiu cn c; c kh nng l mt s gio trnh c
ting khng mun ph phn tr bp ca Millikan v nhng tc gi sau cng x s nh th. Nh
sinh vt hc Stephen Jay Gould vit mt bi tiu lun vch ra mt v d ch r cc tc gi sch
gio khoa sinh hc c xu hng i theo cch x l truyn thng ca mt ch , s dng ci c ca
con hu cao c bn v tnh khng k tha ca nhng c im cn thit. Lc y, mt li gii
thch khc l cc nh khoa hc c c a v t hnh nh trc cng chng ca h l nhng ngi
tm kim s tht mt cch v t, v h khng mun cng chng nhn ra bn cht con ngi v
khng hon ho ca h. (Chnh Millikan l mt nh ci cch gio dc, v ng vit mt lot sch
gio khoa c cht lng cao hn nhiu so vi trc thi k ca ng).
Ghi ch thm vo thng 9/2002
Vi nm sau khi ti vit cu chuyn lch s ngoi l ny, ti bt gp mt s bnh vc l
th cho Millikan t pha David Goodstein (American Scientist, Jan-Feb 2001, trang 54-60).
Goodstein bin h rng mc d Millikan vit mt cu di tr trong bi bo ca ng, nhng
Millikan khng ng trch l k la di khi ng a cu vo trong ng cnh. Millikan pht biu
rng ng cha bao gi vt i bt k s liu no, v ng tht s vt b s liu, nhng ng c l do
chnh ng, khch quan cho vic loi b s liu . Vn Millikan c th vn gy tranh ci trong
s cc nh s hc, nhng y ti s rt ra hai bi hc:
- Tnh tit c th lm gim s tn cn ca chng ta vo Millikan, nhng n lm tng thm
nim tin ca chng ta vo khoa hc. Kt qu ng n cui cng s c cng nhn, ch khng
th nh trong lnh vc gi khoa hc ging nh y hc.
- Trong khoa hc, s ty tin cng ti t nh tr la bp c gian bc ln. Nu khoa hc bit i
iu v s tht tuyt i, th n s khng cn l do g gii thch c.
1.5 Electron
Tia catt
Cc nh vt l th k th 19 mt rt nhiu thi gian c gng i ti nhng phng
php ln xn, ngu nhin nhm nghin cu in hc. Nhng th nghim tt nht thuc loi
ny l nhng th nghim to ra nhng tia la in khng l hay nhng mu sc rc r.
Mt th thut mang tnh dch v nh th l tia catt. to ra n, trc tin bn
phi thu mt ngi th thi thy tinh gii v tm mt ci bm chn khng tt. Th thi
thy tinh s ch to ra mt ci ng rng rut v gn hai ming kim loi trong n, gi l cc
in cc, chng c ni vi bn ngoi thng qua dy kim loi xuyn qua thy tinh. Trc
khi anh th hn kn ton b ng, bn s mc vo n mt ci bm chn khng, v mt
vi gi bc dc vi ci tay bm to ra chn khng tt bn trong. Sau , khi lc bn vn
cn ang bm trn ng, ngi th thi thy tinh s lm tan chy thy tinh v hn kn ton
b li. Cui cng, bn t mt lng ln in tch dng ln mt dy dn v mt lng
ln in tch m ln dy dn kia. Kim loi c tnh cht l cho in tch chuyn ng d
dng trong chng nn in tch gi ln mt dy s nhanh chng trn ra do tng phn ca
n y nhau ra xa. Qu trnh dn tri ny lm cho hu nh ton b in tch i ti ch
cc in cc, c nhiu khong trng dn tri ra hn so vi trong dy dn. V nhng
l do lch s khng r lm, in cc m c gi l catt v in cc dng c gi l
ant.
Hnh i cho thy dng pht sng quan st c. Nu, nh biu din trong hnh ny,
mt l trng c to ra trong ant, th chm tia s ko di qua l trng cho ti khi n
chm phi thy tinh. Tuy nhin, khoan mt l trn catt s khng gy ra bt k chm tia
no i ra pha bn tri c, v iu ny cho thy i tng, cho d n l ci g i na, c
ngun gc t catt. V vy, nhng tia ny c t tn l tia catt (Thut ng vn
c dng cho n ngy nay di ci tn ng tia catt hoc CRT cho ng phng hnh
ca ti vi hoc mn hnh my vi tnh).

i/ Tia catt quan st thy trong ng chn khng
Tia catt l mt dng nh sng hay vt cht ?
Tia catt l mt dng nh sng, hay vt cht ? Ban u, khng ai tht s quan tm
xem chng l ci g, nhng khi tm quan trng khoa hc ca chng ngy cng tr nn thy
r, th vn nh sng hay vt cht tr thnh mt cuc tranh lun xuyn bin gii quc
gia, vi ngi c th tn thnh chng l nh sng, cn ngi Anh th gi quan im xem
chng l vt cht. Nhng ngi ng h cch gii thch vt cht tng tng tia catt gm
mt chm nguyn t bc ra t cht ca catt.
Mt trong nhng c trng hn ch vt cht ca chng ta l i tng vt cht
khng th truyn xuyn qua nhau. Th nghim cho thy tia catt c kh nng m xuyn t
nht l qua mt s chiu dy vt cht nh, v d mt l kim loi dy mt chc milimt, gi
rng chng l mt dng nh sng.
Tuy nhin, nhng th nghim khc hng ti kt lun ngc li. nh sng l mt
hin tng sng, v mt tnh cht c trng ca sng c chng minh bng cch ni vo
mt u ca mt ng cun bng giy bo. Sng m khng i ra khi u kia ca ng di
dng mt chm hi t. Thay v vy, chng bt u tri rng ra theo mi hng ngay khi
chng ra khi ng. iu ny cho thy sng nht thit khng phi truyn theo ng thng.
Nu t mt l kim loi hnh ngi sao hoc hnh ch thp trn ng i ca tia catt, th s
xut hin bng c hnh tng t trn thy tinh, cho thy tia catt truyn theo ng
thng. Chuyn ng theo ng thng ny gi rng tia catt l mt dng ht vt cht nh
xu.
Nhng quan st ny khng c sc thuyt phc, nn ci tht s cn thit l phi xc
nh xem tia catt c khi lng v trng lng hay khng. Kh khn l ch khng th
thu tia catt vo mt ci tch ri a ln bn cn. Khi ng tia catt hot ng, ngi ta
khng thy bt c s mt mt vt cht no t catt, hay bt k lp v no lng trn ant.
Khng ai c th ngh ra cch no ti u cn tia catt, nn cch hin nhin nht
tip theo gii quyt cuc tranh ci nh sng/vt cht l kim tra xem tia catt c in tch
hay khng. nh sng c bit l khng tch in. Nu tia catt mang in tch th chng
dt khot l vt cht v khng phi l nh sng, v chng c th c lm cho nhy qua k
h bng lc y ng thi ca in tch m catt v lc ht ca in tch dng ant.
Tia catt s i vt qu ant v xung lng ca chng. (Mc d nhng ht mang in
thng thng khng nhy qua c mt khe chn khng, nhng c mt lng rt ln in
tch c s dng, nn lc tc dng mnh mt cch khc thng).
Th nghim ca Thomson
Nh vt l J.J Thomson Cambridge
thc hin mt lot th nghim r rng v tia catt
trong khong nm 1897. Bng vic iu khin
chng mt cch nh nhng tt nhin bng lc
in, k, ng ch ra rng chng tht s tch in,
l bng chng mnh m cho thy chng l vt
cht. Khng ch th, ng cn chng minh rng
chng c khi lng, v o c t s khi lng
trn in tch ca chng, m/q. V khi lng ca
chng khc khng, ng kt lun chng l mt
dng vt cht v c l cu thnh t mt dng ht
vi m mang n m. Khi Millikan cng b kt
qu nghin cu ca ng 14 nm sau ny, tht hp
l khi cho rng in tch ca mt ht nh th bng
vi tr in tch c bn, q = - e, v kt hp kt
qu ca Millikan v Thomson, ngi ta c th xc
nh khi lng ca mt ht tia catt.

j/ J.J Thomson trong phng th nghim

k/ Th nghim ca Thomson chng t tia catt c in tch (hnh v ly t bi bo gc ca ng). Catt C v
ant A c mt trong bt k ng tia catt no. Tia catt truyn qua mt l trn ant v mt l th hai, B, t
vo lm cho chm tia mng hn loi b cc tia khng i thng. Cc bn tch in D v E cho thy tia catt
c in tch: chng b ht v pha bn dng D v b y ra xa bn m E.
K thut c bn xc nh t s m/q n gin l o gc m cc bn tch in lm lch
chm tia. Lc in tc dng ln mt ht tia catt trong khi n nm gia cc bn s t l vi
in tch ca n
F
in
= (hng s bit) . q
p dng nh lut II Newton, a = F/m, s cho php xc nh m/q
m const
q a
=
ch l mt s nm bt tng. Thomson cn phi bit vn tc ca ht tia catt
tnh ra gia tc ca n. Tuy nhin, vo lc , khng ai c thm ch l mt d on tc
ca tia catt to ra trong mt ng chn khng cho trc. Chm tia c v bng qua ng
chn khng hu nh tc thi, cho nn vic o thi gian ca n vi mt chic ng h bm
giy khng phi l vn n gin !
Gii php kho lo ca Thomson l quan st kt qu ca c lc in v lc t tc
dng ln chm tia. Lc t tc dng bi mt nam chm nht nh s ph thuc vo c in
tch ca tia catt v tc ca n
F
t
= (hng s bit #2). qv
Thomson lm vic vi lc t v lc in cho ti khi mi lc to ra mt kt qu
bng nhau trn chm tia, cho php ng tnh c tc
v = (hng s bit)/(hng s bit #2)
Bit c tc (vo c 10% tc nh sng trong c cu th nghim ca ng),
ng c th tm c gia tc v do l t s khi lng trn th tch, m/q. K thut ca
Thomson tng i th s (v c l lng hn, chng ta c th ni rng chng vn cn
trong giai on l sn phm ngh thut vo thi ), nn vi nhng phng php khc
nhau, ng i n cc gi tr m/q dao ng trong khong h s 2, c vi tia catt pht ra t
catt cu to t mt n cht. Gi tr tt nht hin nay l m/q = 5,69 x 10
-12
kg/C, ph hp
vi gii hn di ca ngng s liu ca Thomson.
Tia catt l mt ht h nguyn t: electron
Tuy nhin, v th nghim ca Thomson, iu quan trng khng phi l gi tr bng
s thc t ca m/q, m kt hp vi gi tr in tch nguyn t ca Millikan, n cho khi
lng ca ht tia catt nh hn hng ngn ln khi lng ca c nhng nguyn t nh
nht. Ngay c khi khng c kt qu ca Millikan, phi ch ti 14 nm sau mi c,
Thomson cng nhn t s m/q i vi tia catt nh hn hng ngn ln t s m/q o c
i vi cc nguyn t tch in trong dung dch ha hc. ng gii thch ng n y l
bng chng cho thy tia catt l nhng vin gch cu trc cn nh hn na ng gi
chng l electron hnh thnh nn chnh cc nguyn t. y l mt khng nh rt cp
tin, c nu ra vo lc cc nguyn t cha h c chng minh l tn ti ! C nhng
ngi s dng t nguyn t cng thng xem chng l s tru tng ha mang tnh ton
hc nhiu hn, ch khng phi l nhng i tng hiu theo ngha en. tng tm kim
cu trc bn trong ca cc nguyn t khng th chia tch b mt s ngi xem l in r,
nhng trong vng c 10 nm, quan nim ca Thomson c xc nhn y bi nhiu
th nghim chi tit hn.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Thomson bt u tr nn b thuyt phc trong th nghim ca ng rng tia catt quan
st thy pht ra t catt ca ng chn khng l nhng vin gch cu trc ca nguyn t - ci m
ngy nay chng ta gi l electron. Sau , ng tin hnh quan st vi catt lm bng nhiu kim loi
khc nhau, v nhn thy t s m/q hu nh bng nhau trong mi trng hp, c tnh n chnh
xc gii hn ca ng. Cho rng l ng nghi ng, ti sao ng phi c th vi nhiu kim loi khc
nhau ? Lm th no gi tr thch hp ca m/q li ng vai tr kim tra cho gi thuyt ca ng ?
B. Sinh vin ca ti hay thc mc t s m/q m Thomson o l gi tr cho mt electron, hay
cho ton b chm tia. Bn c th tr li cu hi ny khng ?
C. Thomson tm thy t s m/q ca mt electron nh hn hng ngn ln t s ca cc
nguyn t tch in trong dung dch ha hc. y c phi l gi rng electron c in tch ln hn
hay khng ? Hay l chng c khi lng nh hn ? C phi l khng c cch no ni nh vy ? Hy
gii thch. Lu rng kt qu ca Millikan mi nhiu nm na mi c, cho nn q cha bit.
D. Bn c th d on bt k l do thc t no l gii ti sao Thomson khng th no ch
cho mt electron bay qua khe trc khi ngt pin v tt chm tia, v ri o lng in tch bm trn
ant, nh vy cho php ng o c in tch ca mt electron mt cch trc tip ?
E. Ti sao khng th xc nh chnh m v q, thay cho t s ca chng, bng cch quan st
chuyn ng ca electron trong in trng v t trng ?
1.6 M hnh bnh bng lan rc nho ca nguyn t
Da trn th nghim ca ng, Thomson xut mt bc tranh ca nguyn t tr
nn ni ting l mu bnh bng lan rc nho. Trong nguyn t trung ha, l, c 4 electron vi
in tch tng cng -4e, nm trong mt hnh cu (bnh bng lan) c in tch +4e ri u
qua n. Ngi ta bit rng cc phn ng ha hc khng th bin i nguyn t ny
thnh nguyn t khc, nn trong ng cnh ca Thomson, mi qu cu bnh ca nguyn t
c mt bn knh, khi lng, v in tch dng c nh vnh cu, khc vi qu cu bnh
ca nguyn t khc. Tuy nhin, cc electron khng phi l c im c nh ca nguyn t
v c th c nhn thm hoc ly bt hnh thnh nn cc ion tch in. V d, mc d
ngy nay chng ta bit rng nguyn t trung ha c bn electron l nguyn t beryllium,
nhng cc nh khoa hc thi khng bit c bao nhiu electron c trong nhng nguyn
t trung ha khc nhau.

l/ M hnh bnh bng lan rc nho ca nguyn t vi bn n v in tch,
ngy nay chng ta bit y l beryllium.
M hnh ny r rng l khc vi m hnh m bn hc trng ph thng hoc
qua nn vn ha cng ng ca bn, theo in tch dng tp trung ti ht nhn nh xu
nm chnh gia nguyn t. Mt thay i khng km phn quan trng trong tng v
nguyn t l s nhn thc rng nguyn t v nhng ht h nguyn t thnh phn ca n x
s hon ton khc vi cc vt c kch thc hng ngy. Chng hn, chng ta s thy trong
phn sau rng mt electron c th nhiu hn mt ni ti mt thi im. M hnh bnh
bng lan rc nho l mt phn ca truyn thng lu di c gng to ra m hnh c gii ca
cc hin tng, v Thomson cng nhng ngi ng thi ca ng cha bao gi t vn
s thch ng ca vic xy dng mt m hnh nguyn t nh mt c my vi nhng b
phn nh bn trong n. Ngy nay, m hnh c gii ca nguyn t vn c s dng (v d
nh b lp rp m hnh phn t kiu chi m Watson v Crick s dng tm hiu
cu trc xon kp ca DNA), nhng cc nh khoa hc nhn thy rng cc i tng vt
cht ch l s tr gip cho qu trnh x l hnh nh v biu tng ca no ngh v cc
nguyn t.
Mc d khng c bng chng thc nghim r rng no cho nhiu chi tit ca m
hnh bnh bng lan rc nho, nhng cc nh vt l vn tin ln v bt u nghin cu nhng
hm ca n. V d, gi s bn c mt nguyn t 4 electron. C 4 electron s y ln
nhau, nhng chng cng u b ht v pha tm ca qu cu bnh. Kt qu s l mt s
dng sp xp i xng, n nh, trong tt c cc lc trit tiu ln nhau. Nhng ngi
kho lo vi ton hc sm thy rng cc electron trong mt nguyn t 4 electron s b tr
cc nh ca mt hnh chp theo kiu kim t thp Ai Cp thu nh, tc l mt t din u.
Suy lun ny ha ra sai lm, v n da trn nhng c im khng chnh xc ca m hnh
, nhng m hnh cng c thnh cng nht nh, mt vi thnh cng trong s chng ta
s ni ti ngay by gi.
V d 3. Dng in tch trong dy dn
Mt trong nhng hc tr ca ti l con trai ca mt ngi th in, v chnh anh ta cng
tr thnh mt ngi th in. Anh ta k vi ti lm sao m cha anh ta c i mnh vn t chi tin
rng cc electron tht s chy qua dy dn. Nu chng chy nh vy, ng gii thch, kim loi s
dn dn b ph hy, cui cng th v vn ra thnh bi.
Quan im ca ng khng phi khng c l da trn thc t l cc electron l nhng ht vt
cht, v vt cht bnh thng khng th truyn xuyn qua vt cht m khng to ra mt l trng
trong . Cc nh vt l th k th 19 s chia s quan im ny vi ng phn i m hnh ht tch
in ca dng in tch. Tuy nhin, trong m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho, cc electron c khi lng
rt thp, v do c l cng c kch thc rt nh. Khng c g ngc nhin khi chng c th chy
qua gia cc nguyn t m khng lm ph hy chng.
V d 4. Dng in tch bng qua mng t bo
H thn kinh ca bn hot ng trn c s cc tn hiu mang bi in tch i t t bo thn
kinh ny ti t bo thn kinh khc. C th ca bn v c bn u th lng, v cc nguyn t trong
mt cht lng th lun linh ng. iu ny c ngha l, khng ging nh trng thi in tch chy
trong dy dn rn, ton b cc nguyn t tch in c th chy trong h thn kinh ca bn.
V d 5. S pht x electron trong ng tia catt
Ti sao cc electron t bt ra khi catt ca ng chn khng ? Tt nhin, chng c
khuyn khch lm nh th bi lc y ca in tch m t trn catt v lc ht t pha li in
tch dng ca ant, nhng nhng lc ny khng mnh bt cc electron ra khi nguyn t
bng lc chnh nu chng lm c, th ton b c cu s bc hi ngay tc th v mi nguyn t
ng thi cng b x toc ra!
M hnh bnh bng lan rc nho a ti mt li gii thch n gin. Chng ta bit rng nhit
l nng lng ca chuyn ng ngu nhin ca cc nguyn t. Do , cc nguyn t trong bt k vt
no cng x y nhau mt cch d di mi lc, v mt vi trong s nhng va chm mnh
nh bt electron ra khi nguyn t. Nu nh iu ny xy ra gn b mt ca mt vt rn, th
electron c l c th b tht thot. Tuy nhin, bnh thng th s tht thot electron ny l mt qu
trnh t hn ch; s mt electron li cho vt mt in tch tng th dng, n s ht ch cu non
i lc kia tr li vi gia nh. (i vi cc vt nm trong khng kh ch khng phi trong chn
khng, cng s c mt s trao i cn bng ca cc electron gia khng kh v vt).
Cch hiu ny gii thch s m ln v le sng mu vng thn thin ca ng chn khng
ca chic radio c. khuyn khch s pht x electron t catt ca ng chn khng, catt c c
lm nng ln bng cun dy cp nhit.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Ngy nay, nhiu ngi nh ngha ion l mt nguyn t (hay phn t) b mt electron
hoc nhn thm electron. Hi lm th no ngi ta c th nh ngha t ion trc khi khm ph ra
electron ?
B. V nguyn t trung ha v in c bit l tn ti, nn phi c mt cht liu h nguyn
t tch in dng trit tiu vi cc electron tch in m trong nguyn t. Da trn nn tng kin
thc va mi bit sau nhng th nghim ca Millikan v Thomson, liu c th no cht liu tch in
dng c mt lng in tch khng b lng t ha hay khng ? N c th c lng t ha
bng n v +e hay khng ? Hay bng n v +2e ? Bng n v +5/7e ?

Tm tt chng
T kha chn lc
nguyn t ..................... n v c bn ca mt nguyn t ha hc
phn t ......................... mt nhm nguyn t gn cht vi nhau
lc in ....................... mt trong nhng lc c bn ca t nhin; mt lc
khng tip xc, c th y hoc ht
in tch . s o mc mnh m mt vt tham gia vo lc
in
ion . nguyn t hay phn t tch in
tia catt .. tia b n pht ra t catt trong ng chn khng;
Thomson ch ra rng l mt dng ht nh hn
nguyn t
electron .. tn do Thomson t cho ht cu thnh nn tia
catt
Lng t ha . m t s lng v d nh tin hoc in tch,
chng ch c th tn ti nhng lng nht nh

K hiu
q .................................... in tch
e ..................................... lng t in tch
Tm tt
Mi lc m chng ta gp trong cuc sng hng ngy rt li c hai loi c bn: lc
hp dn v lc in. Mt lc nh lc ma st hay lc nht pht sinh t lc in gia tng
nguyn t vi nhau.
Ging nh vic chng ta s dng t khi lng m t mc mnh m mt
vt tham gia vo lc hp dn, chng ta dng t in tch cho cng lc in ca n.
C hai loi in tch. Hai in tch cng loi y nhau ra, nhng nhng vt c in tch
khc nhau th ht nhau li. in tch c o bng n v coulomb (C).
M hnh ht mang in linh ng: Rt nhiu hin tng c th hiu d dng nu
chng ta tng tng vt cht gm hai loi ht tch in, t nht th chng cng
c phn no chuyn ng ra xung quanh.
in tch dng v in tch m: Nhng vt bnh thng khng b lm cho nhim
in c c hai loi in tch tri u n trong chng vi s lng bng nhau. Khi , vt
khng c xu hng tc dng lc in ln bt k vt no khc, v bt k lc ht no do mt
loi in tch s cn bng vi lc y t loi in tch kia. (Chng ta ni c xu hng
khng bi v mang vt n gn mt vt c lng in tch khng cn bng c th lm
cho in tch ca n tch ra xa nhau v lc s khng cn trit tiu do khong cch khng
bng nhau). Do , ngi ta m t hai loi in tch bng k hiu dng v m, cho nn
mt vt khng nhim in s c in tch ton phn bng khng.
nh lut Coulomb pht biu rng ln ca lc in gia hai ht mang in c
cho bi biu thc |F| = k |q
1
||q
2
|/r
2
.
Bo ton in tch: Mt l do cn c bn hn na cho vic s dng k hiu dng
v m cho in tch l vi nh ngha ny, in tch ton phn ca mt h c lp l mt i
lng c bo ton.
Lng t ha in tch: Th nghim git du ca Millikan cho thy in tch ton
phn ca mt vt ch c th l bi s nguyn ca mt n v c bn ca in tch (e). Kt
qu ny cng c cho tng cho rng dng in tch l chuyn ng ca nhng ht nh
xu ch khng phi chuyn ng ca mt s loi cht lng in b n.
Phn tch ca Einstein v chuyn ng Brown l bng chng dt khot u tin cho
s tn ti ca nguyn t. Th nghim ca Thomson vi ng chn khng chng minh s tn
ti ca mt loi ht vi m mi c t s khi lng trn in tch rt nh. Thomson nhn
thc mt cch ng n y l nhng vin gch cu trc ca vt cht cn nh hn c
nguyn t: l khm ph u tin ra mt ht h nguyn t. Nhng ht ny c gi l
electron.
Bng chng thc nghim trn y a
ti m hnh hu ch u tin ca cu trc bn
trong ca nguyn t, gi l m hnh bnh bng lan
rc nho. Theo m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho, qu
cu tch in dng c mt s nht nh cc
electron tch in m n vo n.

Bi tp
1. Hnh bn l mt neuron, mt loi t bo
cu to nn h thn kinh ca bn. Neuron m
nhn vic chuyn ti thng tin cm gic ln no,
v truyn lnh t no n cc c. Tt c nhng d
liu ny c truyn bng in, nhng ngay c khi
t bo nm ngh v khng truyn bt k thng tin
no, vn c mt lp in tch m bn trong
mng t bo, v mt lp in tch dng nm
ngay bn ngoi n. in tch ny di dng ion
ha tan trong cht lng bn trong v bn ngoi t
bo. Ti sao in tch m vn dnh vo bn
trong ca mng t bo, v tng t, ti sao in
tch dng khng tn mn ra khi mt bn ngoi ca t bo ?
2. Hy s dng thng tin dinh dng trn mt s thc phm ng gi thc hin mt
c tnh bc ln ca lng nng lng ha hc tr trong mt nguyn t thc phm,
bng n v joule (J). Gi s mt nguyn t tiu biu c khi lng
10
-26
kg. T thit lp mt c tnh th lng nng lng c trn quy m nguyn t.
(Ch rng cal trn bao b thc phm tht ra l kcal).
3. (a) Nhc li nng lng hp dn ca hai qu cu tng tc hp dn c cho bi
PE = - Gm
1
m
2
/r, trong r khong cch tm-ni-tm ca hai vt. Phng trnh tng t
cho hai qu cu tng tc in s l g ? Gii thch vic bn chn du cng hay du tr,
hy xt lc ht v lc y.
(b) S dng biu thc ny c tnh nng lng cn thit x toc mt nguyn t
bnh bng lan rc nho thuc loi mt electron, gi s n c bn knh
10
-10
m.
(c) So snh kt qu ny vi kt qu ca bi ton 2.

Bi ton 1. Hnh trn: Hnh nh thc ca
mt neuron. Hnh di: Hnh v n gin
ha mt on ca si trc (axon).
4. Mt n neon gm mt ng thy tinh di cha y neon, vi np kim loi hai
u. in tch dng c t mt u ca ng, v in tch m nm u kia. Lc in
pht sinh c th mnh, bt electron ra khi mt s nguyn t neon nht nh. Gi s cho
n gin rng ch mt electron b bt ra khi mt nguyn t neon. Khi mt electron b bt
ra khi mt nguyn t, c electron v nguyn t neon (lc ny l ion) u c in tch v
chng c gia tc bi lc tc dng bi hai u tch in ca ng. (Chng khng nhn ra
c bt k lc no ng k t pha nhng ion v electron khc bn trong ng, v ch c
mt phn thiu s rt nh nguyn t neon b ion ha). Cui cng nh sng c to ra khi
cc ion hp nht tr li vi cc electron. Hy cho mt so snh bng s v ln v hng
ca gia tc ca electron v ion.
5. Nu bn t hai nguyn t hydrogen gn nhau, chng s cm nhn mt lc ht,
v chng s ht nhau hnh thnh nn mt phn t. (Phn t gm hai nguyn t hydrogen l
dng bnh thng ca kh hydrogen). Ti sao chng li cm thy mt lc ht khi chng
gn nhau, v chng u trung ha v in ? C phi lc ht v lc y khng trit tiu nhau
hon ton ? S dng m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho (Hc tr c hc ha thng c gng
s dng nhng m hnh khc l gii thch hin tng ny, nhng nu bn khng th gii
thch n bng mt m hnh n gin, c th l bn cng chng hiu g m hnh khc l
mc d bn tng rng mnh hiu!).
6. Hnh bn biu din mt lp cu trc
ba chiu ca tinh th mui n. Cc nguyn t
m rng ra xa hn nhiu theo mi hng,
nhng y ch biu din mt hnh vung 6 x
6. Cc vng trn ln l ion chlorine, chng c
in tch e. Cc vng trn nh hn l ion natri,
vi in tch + e. Khong cch tm-ni-tm
gia nhng ion ln cn l khong 0,3 nm.
Nhng tinh th tht khng bao gi hon ho, v
tinh th biu din y c hai sai hng: mt
nguyn t b thiu mt ni, v mt nguyn t
lithium, v bng vng trn mu xm, xen vo
mt trong nhng l trng. Nu nguyn t
lithium c in tch + e, th u l hng v
ln ca lc tng hp tc dng ln n ? Gi s khng c sai hng no khc gn bn
trong tinh th ngoi hai sai hng nu r y. (Gi : Lc tc dng ln ion lithium
l tng vect ca tt c cc lc ca hng nghn triu triu nguyn t natri v chlorine,
chng r rng l qu kh tnh c. Tuy nhin, hu nh tt c nhng lc ny u b trit
tiu bi mt lc do mt ion pha i din ca nguyn t lithium tc dng).
7. Tri t v Mt Trng lin kt vi nhau bng lc hp dn. thay th, nu lc
ht l kt qu ca mi vt c in tch cng ln nhng tri du nhau, hy tm lng
in tch phi t trn mi vt c lc ht
cn thit.
8. Trong trn bn kt vng thi u bng
v tnh in, Jessica bt qu bng tch in
dng ca c ta, nm n i qua sn chi, ln
sang pha bn tri dc theo trc x. N b y bi
hai in tch dng khc. Hai in tch bng
nhau ny nm c nh trn trc y khong cch
cho trong hnh v. (a) Hy biu din lc tc dng
ln qu bng theo v tr x ca qu bng. (b) Hi
gi tr no ca x qu bng chu s gim tc ln
nht ? Biu din cu tr li ca bn theo b (Trch t mt bi ton ca Halliday v Resnick).


a/ Marie v Pierre Curie l nhng
ngi u tin tinh ch radium vi
s lng ln. Tnh phng x mnh
ca radium cho php thc hin
c nhng th nghim a n
mu hnh tinh nguyn t hin i,
trong cc electron quay trn
xung quanh ht nhn cu thnh t
proton v neutron.

Chng 2
HT NHN

2.1 S phng x
Becquerel khm ph ra hin tng phng x
Lm th no cc nh vt l lun ra c m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho l khng
chnh xc, v in tch dng ca nguyn t tp trung trong mt ht nhn nh xu, chnh
gia ? Cu chuyn bt u vi vic nh ha hc ngi Php Becquerel pht hin ra hin
tng phng x. Mi cho n khi khm ph ra s phng x, tt c mi qu trnh ca t
nhin u c cho l c nguyn nhn t cc phn ng ha hc, chng l s sp xp li
nhng kt hp khc nhau ca cc nguyn t. Nguyn t tc dng lc ln nhau khi chng
gn nhau, nn vic gn kt hoc khng gn kt chng s gii phng hoc d tr nng
lng in. Nng lng c th chuyn ha thnh dng khc hoc chuyn ha t dng
khc thnh, lc cy xanh s dng n trong nh sng Mt Tri to ra ng v
carbohydrate, hay khi mt a tr nh n ng, gii phng nng lng di dng ng
nng.
Becquerel pht hin ra mt qu trnh c v gii phng nng lng t mt ngun
mi khng bit khng c bn cht ha hc. Becquerel, ngi c cha v ng ni l nhng
nh vt l, tri qua hai chc nm u ca qung i nghin cu chuyn nghip ca ng
l mt k s cng dn thnh cng, ging dy vt l hc bn thi gian. ng c trao gh
ch nhim b mn vt l trng Muse dHistoire Naturelle ti Paris sau khi cha ng qua
i, trc ng ta gi gh . Gi th ng c nhiu thi gian dnh cho vt l hc, ng
bt u nghin cu tng tc ca nh sng v vt cht. ng tr nn hng th vi hin
tng ln quang, trong mt cht hp th nng lng t nh sng, ri gii phng nng
lng qua mt nh sng rc r ch tt i t t. Mt trong nhng cht m ng nghin cu l
hp cht ca uranium, mui UKSO
5
. Mt ngy vo nm 1896, bu tri ko y my
lm hng k hoch ca ng phi cht ny di nh sng Mt Tri quan st s hunh
quang ca n. ng cho n vo mt ngn ko, ngu nhin nm trn mt bn phim trng
kiu phim chp c mt sau l thy tinh. Bn phim c bc li cn thn, nhng vi
ngy sau khi Becquerel kim tra n trong mt cn phng ti trc khi mang ra s dng,
ng thy n b hng, c nh th n b phi ra hon ton trc nh sng.
Lch s mang li nhiu v d v nhng khm ph khoa hc xy ra nh th ny: mt
tr tu cnh gic v t m quyt nh nghin cu mt hin tng m a s ngi ta khng
ai nghi ngi vic gii thch n. Ban u Becquerel xc nh bng cch lm thm th nghim
m hiu ng c to ra bi mui uranium, bt chp lp giy dy bc bn phim chn
ht mi nh sng. ng th vi nhiu loi hp cht v nhn thy ch c mui uranium lm
c nh vy: hiu ng xy ra vi bt k hp cht uranium no, nhng khng xy ra vi
bt k hp cht no khng cha cc nguyn t uranium. Hiu ng t nht th cng b
chn li mt phn bi mt tm kim loi dy, v ng c th to ra bng ca ng tin
bng cch t chng vo gia uranium v tm phim. iu ny cho thy hiu ng truyn
i theo ng thng, cho nn n phi l mt loi tia no ch khng phi s r r ha
cht qua tm giy. ng dng t pht x, v hiu ng pht ra t mui uranium.

b/ Henri Becquerel (1852 1908)

c/ Tm phim ca Becquerel. Trong s phi sng
pha di hnh, ng nhn thy ng c th lm hp th
bc x, bt bng ca mt ch thp x Maltese t
gia tm phim v mui uranium.
y, Becquerel vn tin rng cc nguyn t uranium ang hp th nng lng t
nh sng v ri gii phng t t nng lng di dng nhng tia b n, v y l cch
thc m ng a hin tng vo trong bi thuyt trnh cng b u tin ca ng m t
nhng th nghim ca ng. Tht hp dn, nhng khng lm o ln mi th. Nhng sau
, khi ng th xc nh thi gian cn thit cho uranium s dng ht nng lng c cho
l d tr trong n bi nh sng, ng nhn thy n cha bao gi c v no yu i, cho d l
ng c i cho ti bao lu i na. Khng ch th, mt mu vt c em ra phi nh sng
Mt Tri mnh trong sut c bui chiu cng khng mnh hay km hot tnh hn mt mu
vt lun lun gi trong nh. y l c phi l mt s vi phm nguyn l bo ton nng
lng ? Nu nng lng khng n t s phi sng, th n c ngun gc t u ?
Ba loi pht x
Khng th xc nh trc tip ngun gc ca nng lng , thay v vy, cc nh vt
l cui th k 19 nghin cu hnh vi ca cc pht x mt khi chng c pht ra.
Becquerel ch ra rng phng x c th m xuyn qua vi vc v giy, nn vic hin nhin
trc tin phi thc hin l nghin cu chi tit hn chiu dy ca cht m phng x c th
xuyn qua. H sm nhn ra rng mt phn nht nh ca cng phng x s b loi tr
ngay c bi mt vi inch khng kh, nhng phn cn li khng b loi mt khi truyn i
qung khng kh di hn. Nh vy, r rng phng x l hn hp ca hn mt loi, trong
mt loi b chn li bi khng kh. Sau , h nhn thy trong s phn c th i xuyn qua
khng kh, mt lng na c th b loi mt bng mt mnh giy hay mt l kim loi rt
mng. Tuy nhin, ci cn li sau , l loi th ba, loi m xuyn cc mnh, mt s trong
s vn cn sau khi xuyn qua mt bc tng gch. H kt lun iu ny cho thy c ba
loi phng x, v khng h c cht tng m nht no xem tht ra chng l th g, h
t tn cho chng. Loi m xuyn t nht c gi ty tin l o (alpha), k t th nht ca
bng ch ci Hi Lp, v c th n | (beta), cui cng l (gamma) cho loi m xuyn
mnh nht.
Radium: mt ngun phng x cn mnh hn na
Nhng dng c o dng pht hin phng x tht th s: cc tm phim hay thm
ch l mt ngi (phng x gy ra le sng trong thy dch bn trong mt ngi, n c th
nhn thy nu nh trong phng rt ti). V phng php pht hin phng x qu th s v
khng nhy, nn nhng tin b khc b cn tr bi thc t lng phng x pht ra bi
uranium khng tht s rt ln. ng gp mang tnh sng cn ca nh vt l/ha hc Marie
Curie v chng b l Pierre l khm ph ra nguyn t radium, v tinh ch v tch c mt
lng ng k cht . Radium pht ra nhiu phng x hn uranium khong mt triu ln
trn n v khi lng, mang li kh nng thc hin nhng th nghim cn thit tm hiu
bn cht tht s ca phng x. S nguy him ca phng x i vi sc khe con ngi lc
y cha c bit ti, v Marie cht v bnh bch cu 30 nm sau . (Pierre th qua i
v mt v tai nn).
Ln theo bn cht ca tia alpha, beta v gamma
Khi radium tr nn sn dng, mt nh khoa hc tp s tn l Ernest Rutherford
ri qu hng New Zealand n Anh v bt u nghin cu phng x ti Phng th nghim
Cavendish. Thnh cng u tin ca chng trai x thuc a l o c t s khi lng
trn in tch ca tia beta. K thut v c bn ging nh k thut Thomson dng
o t s khi lng trn in tch ca tia catt, bng cch o s lch ca chng trong in
trng v t trng. S khc bit duy nht l ch thay catt ca ng chn khng bng
mt cc radium cung cp tia beta. Khng ch k thut s dng tng t nhau, m kt
qu thu c cng ging nhau. Tia beta c cng t s m/q nh tia catt, cho thy chng l
mt loi v ng nht. Ngy nay, hiu n gin, ngi ta dng t electron, v trnh
dng nhng t c xa nh tia catt v ht beta, nhng nhng tn gi c vn c s
dng rng ri, v iu cn thit khng hay cho hc sinh vt l l phi ghi nh c ba tn ny
l ch cng mt th.
Ban u, c v l tia alpha hay gamma u khng b lch trong in trng hoc t
trng, khin c v nh chng u khng tch in. Nhng Rutherford sm c c mt
nam chm mnh hn nhiu, v ng c th dng n lm lch tia alpha, nhng khng lm
lch c tia gamma. Tia alpha c gi tr m/q ln hn nhiu so vi tia beta (khong 4000
ln), y l l do ti sao chng kh b lch hng. Tia gamma khng tch in, v sau ny
c nhn ra l mt dng ca nh sng.
T s m/q ca ht alpha ha ra bng vi t s ny ca hai loi ion khc, He
++
(mt
nguyn t helium mt i hai electron) v H
2
+
(hai nguyn t hydrogen lin kt thnh mt
phn t v b mt mt electron), nn hnh nh chng ch l mt hay l ci g tng t.
Hnh di y biu din mt mu n gin ha ca th nghim kho lo ca Rutherford
chng t chng l ion He
++
. Nguyn t th kh radon, mt ngun pht ht alpha, c
a vo mt na ca mt bung thy tinh i. Thnh thy tinh chia bung ra lm hai c
ch to cc k mng, nn mt s ht alpha chuyn ng nhanh c th i xuyn qua n.
Bung pha bn kia, ban u c ht chn khng, t t bt u tch gp s ht alpha
(chng s nhanh chng bt ly electron t mi trng xung quanh v tr nn trung ha v
in). Sau , Rutherford xc nh c c mt kh helium trong bung th hai. Nh vy,
ht alpha c chng minh l ion He
++
. Ht nhn khi y vn cha c khm ph, nhng
trong thut ng hin i, chng ta m t ion He
++
l ht nhn ca nguyn t helium.

d/ Hnh v n gin ha th nghim nm 1908 ca
Rutherford, cho thy ht alpha l nguyn t helium
b ion ha hai ln.

e/ Nhng vin nhin liu uranium ny s c chn
vo thanh nhin liu kim loi dng trong l phn ng
ht nhn. Cc vin nhin liu pht ra bc x alpha
v beta m chic bao tay dy chn li c.
Tm li, y c ba loi bc x pht ra bi cc nguyn t phng x, v m t ca
chng nh sau:
ht o dng li bi vi inch khng kh ht nhn He
ht | dng li bi mt tm giy electron
tia m xuyn qua tm chn dy mt dng nh sng

Cu hi tho lun
A. a s ngun phng x pht ra tia alpha, beta v gamma, ch khng phi mt trong ba
loi. Trong th nghim radon, lm th no Rutherford bit c l ng ang nghin cu tia alpha ?
2.2 Mu hnh tinh nguyn t
Tnh hung lc ny dn n khm ph khng mong i l phn tch in dng ca
nguyn t l mt cc nh xu, m c, nm chnh gia nguyn t ch khng phi l
bt bnh trong m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho. Vo nm 1909, Rutherford l mt gio
s mi c phong, v c sinh vin lm vic di s hng dn ca ng. i vi chng
sinh vin non nt tn l Marsden, anh ta chn mt d n nghin cu vn c xem l
chn ngt nhng d thc hin.
Lc ny, mc d ngi ta bit rng ht alpha s b dng li bi mt tm giy,
nhng chng c th xuyn qua mt l kim loi mng. Marsden nghin cu vi l vng
ch dy 1000 nguyn t. (L vng c th ch to bng cch cho bc hi mt t vng
trong bung chn khng sao cho mt lp mng vng s lng trn mt bn knh thy tinh
hin vi. Sau , l vng c tch khi bn knh bng cch dm bn knh vo trong nc).
Rutherford va xc nh c trong nhng th nghim trc ca ng v tc
ca ht alpha do radium pht ra, mt tc v cng ln: 1,5 x 10
7
m/s. Nhng ngi th
nghim trong nhm lm vic ca Rutherford hnh dung chng l nhng qu i bc rt
nh, rt nhanh m xuyn qua phn bt bnh ca nguyn t vng to ln. Mt mnh giy
c b dy c mt trm ngn nguyn t hay ngn y s lm dng chng hon ton,
nhng vic m qua mt lp dy 1000 nguyn t cng ch lm chng chm i cht t v
lm chng hi lch khi ng i ban u ca mnh.

f/ Ernest Rutherford (1871 1937)

g/ Thit b th nghim ca Marsden v Rutherford
Nhim v c cho l chn ngt ca Marsden l s dng thit b trong hnh g/ o
xem bao lu th nhng ht alpha li b lch nhng gc khc nhau. Mt cc radium nh
xu nm trong hp pht ra ht alpha, v mt chm ht mng c to ra bng cch chn li
ht ht alpha, tr nhng ht xut hin i thng qua ng. Thng th b lch l vng ch
mt cht t, nn chng s i ti mn hnh rt ging vi mn hnh ca ng n hnh ti vi,
chng s gy ra le sng khi chm ln . y l v d u tin m chng ta bt gp ca
mt th nghim trong mt chm ht l i tng b pht hin ti mt thi im. C th
thc hin c iu ny v mi ht alpha mang qu nhiu ng nng, nn chng chuyn
ng khong chng tc nh cc electron trong th nghim ca Thomson, nhng chng
c khi lng ln hn chc ngn ln.
Marsden ngi trong phng ti, theo di thit b t gi ny sang gi khc v ghi li
s le sng trn mn hnh di chuyn sang nhng gc khc nhau. Tc le sng l cao
nht khi ng t mn hnh gc gn vi ng i thng ban u ca ht alpha, nhng nu
ng di theo mt vng nm ngoi bn knh, thnh thong ng cng nhn thy mt ht alpha
b lch mt gc ln. Sau khi nhn thy mt vi ht nh th ny, ng i n mt tng
in r l di chuyn mn hnh sang nhn nu nhng gc ln hn na cng xut hin ht
alpha, c l c nhng gc ln hn 90 .

h/ Ht alpha b tn x bi mt ht nhn vng. quy m ny, nguyn t vng c kch thc ca mt chic xe
hi, v th tt c cc ht alpha biu din trong hnh u tin gn mt cch khc thng n ht nhn vng.
i vi nhng ht alpha khc thng ny, lc in do cc electron tc dng l khng quan trng, v chng
nm xa hn ht nhn rt nhiu.
tng in r c tc dng: mt vi ht alpha b lch gc ln ti 180 , v
th nghim bnh thng tr thnh th nghim mang tnh lch s. Rutherford ni Chng ti
c th thu c mt s ht alpha di ngc tr li. N hu nh khng th tin c, nh th
bn bn mt qu n 15 inch ln mt ming giy v n bay tr li v chm vo bn. Kh
c li gii thch no theo nh m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho. Lc in mnh m no c
th lm cho mt s ht alpha, ang chuyn ng tc cc ln nh th, thay i mt
cch qu t ngt ? V mi nguyn t vng l trung ha in, nn n s khng th tc dng
lc ln ln mt ht alpha nm bn ngoi n. Tht vy, nu ht alpha rt gn hay nm bn
trong mt nguyn t nht nh, th lc s
khng nht thit phi trit tiu hon ton; nu
ht alpha tin rt gn n mt electron nht
nh, th dng thc 1/r
2
ca nh lut Coulomb
s mang li lc rt mnh. Nhng Marsden v
Rutherford bit mt ht alpha nng hn
8000 ln mt electron, v tht n gin l
khng th no mt vt c khi lng ln hn
b ny tr li t s va chm vi mt vt nh
hn trong khi nng lng v xung lng vn
bo ton. V nguyn tc, c kh nng mt ht
alpha i theo mt qu o rt gn mt electron,
v ri rt gn vi mt electron khc, v c th,
vi kt qu cui cng l b lch i mt gc ln,
nhng nhng tnh ton cn thn cho thy nhiu
chm trn gn gi nh th vi electron s
qu him hn hng triu ln gii thch ci
tht s quan st thy.
y, Rutherford v Marsden lm xut hin mt mu nguyn t khng c
ph bin v ch ti, trong tt c cc electron chuyn ng trn xung quanh mt li,
hay ht nhn, nh, tch in dng, ging ht nh cc hnh tinh chuyn ng trn xung
quanh Mt Tri. Ton b in tch dng v hu ht khi lng ca nguyn t tp trung
ht nhn, ch khng tri u trong nguyn t nh trong m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho.
Ht alpha tch in dng s b ht nhn vng y ra, nhng a s ht alpha s khng tin
gn n bt k ht nhn no ng i ca chng b lch qu nhiu. Tuy nhin, mt
vi ht tht s tin gn n mt ht nhn c th b ny tr li t mt s chm trn nh th,
v ht nhn ca nguyn t vng nng gp 50 ln ht alpha. Tht ra khng qu kh tm ra
cng thc cho tn s lch tng i qua nhng gc khc nhau, v tnh ton ny ph hp
kh tt vi s liu th nghim (trong vng 15%), c xt ti kh khn trong vic thc hin
cc thng k th nghim nhng gc him, rt ln.
Ci lc bt u l mt bi tp chn ngt mt chng sinh vin bt tay vo nghin
cu khoa hc cui cng l mt cuc cch mng trong s hiu bit ca chng ta v t nhin.
Tht vy, ton b cu chuyn nghe c v ging nh mt truyn thuyt lun l v phng
php khoa hc vi gi ca th loi Horatio Alger. c gi a nghi c l t hi ti sao
mu hnh tinh li b b qua hon ton cho ti khm ph ca Marsden v Rutherford. C
phi khoa hc tht s l mt s nghip mang tnh x hi, trong nhng tng nht nh
tr nn c chp nhn bi s p t, v nhng cch gii thch hp l khc li b b qua
mt cch ty tin ? Mt s nh khoa hc x hi hin nay ang lm x lng ca rt nhiu
khoa hc vi nhng bi bnh lun rt ging nh th ny, nhng trong trng hp ny, c
nhng l do rt hp l cho vic loi b mu hnh tinh. Nh bn s tm hiu chi tit hn
phn sau ca cun sch ny, bt k ht mang in no chu s gia tc cng lm tiu tan
nng lng di dng nh sng. Trong mu hnh tinh nguyn t, cc electron quay xung
quanh ht nhn theo nhng qu o trn hoc elip, ngha l chng chu s gia tc, ging
ht nh gia tc m bn cm nhn c khi ngi trong mt chic xe hi ang ngot cua.
Chng phi phng thch nng lng di dng nh sng, v cui cng chng s mt ht
nng lng ca mnh. Cc nguyn t khng t pht suy sp nh th, l l do ti sao m
hnh bnh bng lan rc nho, vi cc electron tnh ti ca n, ban u li c a chung
hn. Cng cn c nhng vn khc na. Theo mu hnh tinh, nguyn t mt electron s
bng phng, iu khng ph hp vi s thnh cng ca m hnh phn t vi nhng qu
cu biu din cho hydrogen v cc nguyn t. Nhng m hnh phn t ny cng t ra hot
ng tt nht nu s dng nhng kch thc nht nh cho cc nguyn t khc nhau,
nhng khng c l do r rng trong mu hnh tinh l gii ti sao bn knh qu o ca mt
electron phi l mt con s c nh. Tuy nhin, theo quan im ca kt qu ca Marsden-
Rutherford, y tr thnh nhng cu hi kh hiu mi trong vt l nguyn t, ch khng
phi l do hoi nghi mu hnh tinh nguyn t.
Mt s hin tng gii thch c bng mu hnh tinh nguyn t
Mu hnh tinh khng phi l m hnh ti hu, hon ho ca nguyn t, nhng
khng nn nh gi thp sc mnh ca n. N cho php chng ta hnh dung ng n rt
nhiu hin tng.
V d, hy xt s khc bit gia phi kim, kim loi c t tnh, v kim loi khng c
t tnh. Nh biu din trong hnh j, kim loi khc vi phi kim ch cc electron lp ngoi
cng ca n t do hn. Kim loi c th b t ha s sp chuyn ng quay ca mt s
electron ca n sao cho trc ca chng song song nhau. Nhc li lc t l lc tc dng bi
cc in tch chuyn ng; chng ta khng bn v ton hc v hnh hc ca lc t, nhng
tht d thy s nh hng ngu nhin ca cc nguyn t trong cht phi t tnh s dn n
s trit tiu cc lc.
Mc d mu hnh tinh khng tr li ngay nhng cu hi i loi nh ti sao
nguyn t ny l kim loi, cn nguyn t kia l phi kim, nhng nhng tng ny tht kh
hay khng th no quan nim c trong m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Trong thc t, cc in tch cng loi th y nhau, v cc in tch khc loi th ht
nhau. Gi s quy lut din ra ngc li, cho lc y gia cc in tch tri du v lc ht gia
nhng in tch cng du. V tr lc by gi s ra sao ?

j/ Mu hnh tinh p dng cho mt phi kim (1), mt kim loi khng b t ha (2) v mt kim loi b
t ha (3). Lu l nhng hnh ny v n gin ha i nhiu. Cc electron ca mt nguyn t
khng quay trn xung quanh ht nhn trong cng mt mt phng. Rt him c trng hp no mt
kim loi b t ha mnh n 100% nguyn t ca n c trc quay sp thng hng nhau nh trong
hnh.
2.3 S nguyn t
Nh ni ti trong cu hi tho lun trong mt phn trc, cc nh khoa hc
thuc giai on ny c mt tng rt gn ng c bao nhiu n v in tch nm
trong ht nhn ca cc nguyn t ha hc khc nhau. Mc d ngy nay chng ta lin tng
s n v in tch ht nhn vi v tr ca nguyn t trong bng tun hon ha hc, v gi
n l s nguyn t, nhng h th khng h c tng g v mt mi quan h nh th. Bng
tun hon ca Mendeleev trng ch nh mt cng c mang tnh t chc ha, ch khng c
tm quan trng vt l cn thit no c. V mi th m Mendeleec lm cng hp l nu
nh bn chuyn ln ngc bng li, hoc o pha bn tri v bn phi ca n, hay thm
ch bn mun nh s nguyn t lin tip vi nhng s nguyn th cng c tnh trng cho
bn lm nh vy. Bng tun hon gc ca Mendeleev trong thc t l ln ngc so vi
bng tun hon hin nay.

k/ Bng tun hon ha hc hin i, c nh s nguyn t. Bng tun hon nguyn gc ca Mendeleev ln
ngc so vi bng ny.
Trong thi k ngay sau khi khm ph ra ht nhn, cc nh vt l ch c s c tnh
th v in tch ca nhng ht nhn khc nhau. Trong trng hp ca ht nhn nh nht,
h d dng tm c s electron ti a m h c th bt ra bng nhng phng php khc
nhau: phn ng ha hc, cho phng in, chiu nh sng cc tm, v vn vn. V d, h c
th d dng bc ra mt hoc hai electron khi helium, to ra He
+
hay He
++
, nhng khng ai
to ra c He
+++
, c th on chng l do in tch ht nhn ca helium ch l +2e. Tht
khng may, ch c mt vi nguyn t nh nht c th b bc ra hon ton, v cng c nhiu
electron b bt ra, th cc electron tch in m cn li s b gi cng cht. S nguyn t
ca cc nguyn t nng ch c th ngoi suy th t cc nguyn t nh, trong s nguyn
t vo khong phn na khi lng nguyn t biu din bng n v khi lng nguyn t
hydrogen. V d, vng c khi lng gp khong 197 ln hydrogen, nn s nguyn t ca
n c c tnh l khong phn na gi tr , hay u trn di 100. Ngy nay chng
ta bit n l 79.
Cui cng, chng ta gii quyt vn nh th no ? Bc mn b n ca in tch
ht nhn cui cng b chc thng thnh cng bng hai k thut khc nhau, cho kt qu
ph hp nhau. Mt b th nghim, s dng tia X, c thc hin bi chng trai tr Henry
Mosely, ngi c ti nng khoa hc sm hi sinh trong mt trn nh gia cc quc chu
u tranh ginh quyn s hu x Dardanelles, trong cuc xung t v ngha khi y gi l
cuc chin nhm kt thc mi cuc chin, cn ngy nay gi l Th chin th nht.

l/ Ht alpha tin gn hn nhiu n st ht nhn ng in tch thp b lch qua gc nh nhau.
V phn tch ca Mosely yu cu mt vi khi nim m n y bn vn cha quen
thuc, nn thay v vy, chng ta s m t k thut do James Chadwick s dng vo khong
thi gian . Mt ci li na ca vic m t nhng th nghim ca Chadwick l chng bo
trc s ra i ca k thut hin i quan trng nghin cu s va chm ca cc ht h
nguyn t. trng i hc, ti tng lm vic vi mt v gio s c c vn ca c vn
lun n ca ng l Chadwick, v ng k mt s mu chuyn l th v nh khoa hc .
Chadwick nhn bn ngoi hi bnh trai v hon ton cung tn vi khoa hc, cho ti khi
ng b bt gi trong nh t c trong Th chin th hai, ng vn phnh ph nhng k giam
gi ng cho php ng chm nhng b phn radio v nt ng c th c gng thc hin
nhng th nghim vt l.
Th nghim ca Chadwick hot ng nh th ny. Gi s bn tin hnh hai php o
tn x ht alpha theo kiu Rutherford, th nghim u vi l vng lm bia nh trong th
nghim gc ca Rutherford, v th nghim th hai vi mt l ng. Trong c hai trng
hp u c th thu c gc lch ln, nhng nh ch r trong hinh m, ht alpha phi hng
gn nh thng v pha ht nhn ng c cng gc lch nh xy ra vi nhng ht alpha
xa mc tiu hn nhiu; in tch ca ht nhn vng ln hn nhiu so vi in tch ca ht
nhn ng, nn n tc dng lc ln ln ht alpha ngay c khi ht ny xa. Tnh hung rt
ging vi mt ngi bt mt chi tr nm phi tiu. Ging nh khng th nhm mt ht
alpha ln mt ht nhn no trn bia, ngi b bt mt tht s khng th no nhm c
phi tiu. Thu c mt va chm rt gn vi ht nhn ng tng t nh nm lt vo vng
trn trong trn bng phng tiu. Cn na n hn na l ngi ta lun c c may nm trng
vng trn ngoi, n bao ph s inch vung ln hn. Tng t, nu bn o tn sut ht
alpha b tn x bi ht nhn ng mt s gc nht nh, v d gia 19 v 20 , v ri
tin hnh cng php o cng gc vi ht nhn vng, bn s thu c t l phn trm
cho vng cao hn nhiu so vi cho ng.
Trn thc t, t s in tch ca hai ht nhn c th thu c t t s cng c xc
nh bng thc nghim ny. S dng k hiu chun Z cho s nguyn t (in tch ca ht
nhn chia cho e), phng trnh sau c th chng minh c (v d 1):
Z
vng
2
=
S ht alpha b tn x bi vng gc 19 - 20
o

Z
ng
2
S ht alpha b tn x bi ng gc 19 - 20
o

m/ Ht alpha phi hng thng ti vng trn pha trc ng hnh tr tng tng to ra s tn x gc
gia 19 v 20 . Din tch ca vng trn ny c gi l tit din cho s tn x gc 19-20 , v n l
din tch lt ct ngang ca ng tr.
Bng cch tin hnh nhng php o nh th i vi bia xy dng t tt c cc
nguyn t, ngi ta c th suy ra t s ca tt c cc s nguyn t, v v s nguyn t ca
nhng nguyn t nh nht c bit, nn s nguyn t c th gn cho ton b bng h
thng tun hon. Theo Mosely, s nguyn t ca ng, bc v platinum l 29, 47 v 78,
tng ng tt vi v tr ca chng trong bng tun hon. S liu ca Chadwick cho ba
nguyn t trn l 29,3; 46,3 v 77,4, vi sai s khong 1,5 ln in tch nguyn t, nn hai
th nghim ph hp tt vi nhau.
y, khng nht thit bn phi sn sng a nhng con s vo phng trnh
trn cho mt bi tp nh hay gii bi ton! Mc tiu tng th ca ti trong chng ny l
gii thch lm sao chng ta bit c nhng g chng ta bit v cc nguyn t. Mt li th
ca vic m t th nghim ca Chadwick l phng php rt ging vi phng php s
dng trong nhng th nghim vt l ht hin i, v tng dng trong php phn tch
quan h gn gi vi khi nim ngy nay gp mi ngc ngch, l khi nim tit din.
Trong s tng t vi bng phng tiu, tit din s l din tch ca vng trn m bn nm
ti. L do tim n sau pht minh ra t tit din c th hnh dung nh trong hnh m. Theo
ngn ng ny, pht minh ra mu hnh tinh ca Rutherford n t khm ph bt ng ca
ng rng c mt tit din khc khng cho ht alpha tn x khi vng nhng gc ln, v
Chadwick xc nhn s xc nh s nguyn t ca Rutherford bng cch o tit din tn x
ht alpha.
V d 1. Bng chng cho mi quan h gia Z v s tn x
Phng trnh trn c th thu nhn t bng chng khng cht ch lm sau y. lm
lch ht alpha mt gc nht nh, cn phi c mt thnh phn ng lng nht nh theo hng
vung gc vi ng lng ban u ca n. Mc d lc do ht nhn tc dng ln ht alpha khng
phi l mt hng s, nhng chng ta c th gi s n xp x l mt hng s trong thi gian ht alpha
trong khong cch, ni v d, bng 150% khong cch ca n ti im gn nht, v lc l bng
khng trc v sau phn chuyn ng . (Nu chng ta chn 120% hay 200%, th khng c s
chnh lch no trong kt qu cui cng, v kt qu cui cng l mt t s nn cc nh hng ln t
v mu s s trit tiu ln nhau). Trong s gn ng v lc khng i, bin thin thnh phn
vung gc ca ht alpha khi bng FAt. nh lut Coulomb cho pht biu lc t l vi Z/r
2
. Mc
d r tht s thay i mt cht trong khong thi gian chn, nhng vn c th xem n l mt s
khng i, v chng ta ch tnh t s gia hai kt qu th nghim. V chng ta ly gn ng lc tc
dng theo thi gian trong khi khong cch khng qu ln so vi khong cch n im gn nht,
nn khong thi gian At phi t l vi r, v xung lng ngang truyn cho ht alpha, FAt, t l vi
(Z/r
2
)r hay Z/r. Nu chng ta so snh ht alpha tn x cng gc t vng v ng, th Ap bng nhau
trong c hai trng hp, v h thc ApoZ/r cho chng ta bit ht alpha b tn x t ng gc
phi hng theo mt ng thng nm gn trc chnh gia hn mt khong bng vi Z
vng
/Z
ng
.
Nu bn tng tng vng phng tiu l ni m ht alpha phi chm ti, th vng trn cho th
nghim vng cng cn xng nh vng trn cho th nghim ng, nhng n ln hn Z
vng
/Z
ng
ln.
Ngha l, khng nhng bn knh ca vng trn ln hn chng y, m chiu dy ca vng bn ngoi
ca ln hn theo t l vi bn knh ca n, ch khng ging nh cc vng trong bng phng tiu
bnh thng. Khi bn lm cho hnh dng v quy m ca vt ln hn theo kiu nh chp nh phng
to, th din tch ca n tng t l vi bnh phng ca h s phng i, nn din tch ca vng phng
tiu trong th nghim vng tng ln (Z
vng
/Z
ng
)
2
ln. V ht alpha c nhm hon ton ngu nhin,
nn c hi cho mt ht alpha chm trong vng t l vi din tch ca vng, iu chng minh cho
phng trnh cho trn.
Nh mt v d cho vic s dng hin i th nghim tn x v php o tit din, c
l bn tng nghe ni ti bng chng thc nghim gn y cho s tn ti ca mt ht gi
l quark top. Trong s 12 ht h nguyn t hin nay c tin l nhng thnh phn nh nht
ca vt cht, 6 dng thuc mt h gi l quark, khc vi 6 dng kia ch lc ht mnh
lm cho cc quark dnh cht vo nhau (Su ht kia gm c electron cng vi nm ht na,
k l hn). Ch c hai loi quark c tm thy vn d t nhin trong vt cht l quark top
v quark down, chng l ht cu thnh nn proton v neutron, cn 4 ht kia trn l thuyt
c tin on l tn ti, nn cng li c 6 ht. (Thut ng k qui quark c ngun gc t
mt dng trong truyn ca James Joyce Ba quark cho ngi Mark). Mi cho n gn y,
ch c 5 loi quark c chng minh l tn ti qua cc th nghim, v quark th su, quark
top, ch c trn l thuyt. Khng c tia hi vng no cho vic pht hin quark top mt cch
trc tip, v n c tnh phng x v ch tn ti trong mt phn v cng nh ca mt giy
trc khi bc hi. Thay v vy, cc nh nghin cu tm kim n ti Phng th nghim my
gia tc quc gia Fermi gn Chicago, M, o tit din tn x ca ht nhn khi ht nhn
khc. Th nghim rt ging vi th nghim ca Rutherford v Chadwick, ngoi tr ch ht
nhn ti phi c nng ln n tc cao hn nhiu trong mt my gia tc ht. Va chm
thu c vi ht nhn bia qu mnh nn c hai ht nhn b ph hy hon ton, nhng, nh
Einstein chng minh, nng lng c th chuyn ha thnh vt cht, v nng lng ca va
chm to ra mt chm ht phng x, k l, ging nh trn ma mt g cht ngi do mt
qu n pho gy ra trong mt trn nh thy kiu xa. Trong s nhng ht ny c mt s
quark top. Tit din o c l tit din cho s sn sinh nhng kt hp nht nh ca
nhng ht th cp ny. Tuy khc v chi tit, nhng nguyn tc l ging nhau nh s
dng hi u th k: bn p th g vo nhau v xem cc mnh v bay ra nhn thy
ci bn trong chng. Phng php c th snh nh dng sng trng bn vo ci ng
h v ri nghin cu cc mnh v bay ra tm hiu xem ng h hot ng nh th no.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Biu trn, biu din cc ht alpha b ht nhn vng lm lch i, c v vi gi
nh rng cc ht alpha n theo nhng ng thng nm nhng khong cch khc nhau tnh t
ht nhn. Ti sao chng khng n dc theo cng mt ng thng, v chng u cng i ra t cng
mt ng ?
B. Ti sao phi hiu, nh ch r trong hnh, rng cc qu o tn x ct nhau gc 19
o
v
20
o
?
C. Rutherford bit vn tc ca ht alpha do radium pht ra, v d on phn tch in
dng ca nguyn t vng c in tch khong +100e (ngy nay chng ta bit l +79e). Xt thc t
l mt s ht alpha b lch 180
o
, lm th no khi ng c th s dng s bo ton nng lng
thu c mt gii hn trn cho kch thc ca ht nhn vng ? ( n gin, gi s kch thc ca
ht alpha l khng ng k so vi ht nhn vng, v b qua thc t l ht nhn vng git li mt cht
do va chm, ly thm mt t ng nng).
2.4 Cu trc ca ht nhn
Proton
Thc t in tch ht nhn u l bi s nguyn ca e khin nhiu nh vt l ngh
rng ht nhn c l gm nhng ht nh hn c in tch ring l +e, ch khng phi l mt
cht im. Bng chng ng h cho tng ny xut hin khng bao lu sau . Rutherford
gii thch nu ng bn ph cc nguyn t ca mt nguyn t rt nh bng ht alpha, th
in tch nh ca ht nhn bia s mang li lc y rt yu. C l mt vi ht alpha s
n va chm trc din, tin gn n ni chng xm nhp tht s vo mt s ht nhn bia.
Ht alpha chnh l mt ht nhn, nn y s l va chm gia hai ht nhn, v s va chm
din ra d di do tc cao. Rutherford o trng m vng trong mt th nghim vi
ht alpha p vo bia cha cc nguyn t nitrogen. Cc ht tch in c pht hin bay ra
khi bia ging nh cc phn bay ra khi chic xe hi trong mt v tai nn va chm tc
cao. Php o s lch ca nhng ht ny trong in trng v t trng cho thy chng c
cng t s in tch trn khi lng nh cc nguyn t hydrogen b ion ha mt ln.
Rutherford kt lun rng c nhng ht tch in ring phng on gi in tch ca ht
nhn, v sau ny chng c t tn l proton. Ht nhn hydrogen gm mt proton, v ni
chung, s nguyn t ca mt nguyn t cho bit s proton cha trong tng ht nhn ca
n. Khi lng ca proton ln hn khi lng ca electron khong 1800 ln.
Neutron
S tht p v n gin nu nh mi ht nhn u c th cu thnh ch t cc
proton, nhng khng phi nh vy. Nu bn chu mt cht t thi gian quan st bng tun
hon ha hc, bn s sm lu thy mc d mt s khi lng nguyn t rt gn vi bi
s nguyn ca khi lng nguyn t hydrogen, nhng nhiu nguyn t khc th khng nh
vy. Ngay c khi khi lng nguyn t gn vi s nguyn nht, th khi lng ca mt
nguyn t ngoi hydrogen lun ln hn s nguyn t ca n, ch khng bng s nguyn
t. Chng hn, nguyn t helium c hai proton, nhng khi lng ca n gp 4 ln khi
lng nguyn t hydrogen.
Chadwick lm sng t tnh trng ln xn bng cch chng minh s tn ti ca mt
ht h nguyn t mi. Khng ging nh electron v proton l nhng ht mang in, ht
ny trung ha v in, v ng t tn cho n l neutron. Th nghim ca Chadwick c
m t chi tit trong chng 4, quyn 2 ca lot bi ging ny, nhng ni chung phng
php l phi mt mu nguyn t nh beryllium trc dng ht alpha pht ra t mt cc
radium. Beryllium ch c 4 proton, nn mt ht alpha tnh c nhm thng ti mt ht nhn
beryllium c th tht s va chm vi n ch khng b lc y in y lch sang va chm
bn. Cc neutron c quan st thy di dng mt dng bc x mi pht ra t va chm,
v Chadwick suy lun ng n rng chng l nhng thnh phn khng cn nghi ng g
na ca ht nhn b khm ph ra. Nh m t trong cun Cc nh lut bo ton,
Chadwick cng xc nh c khi lng ca neutron, n rt gn vi khi lng ca
proton.

Tm li, nguyn t cu thnh t ba loi ht sau:
in tch
Khi lng tnh theo n
v khi lng proton
V tr trong nguyn t
Proton + e 1 Trong ht nhn
Neutron 0 1,001 Trong ht nhn
Electron - e 1/1836 Xung quanh ht nhn

m/ V d cu trc ca nguyn t hydrogen (hnh trn) v helium (hnh di). kch c ny, qu o ca
electron s c kch thc c sn trng.
S tn ti ca neutron gii thch khi
lng b n ca cc nguyn t. Chng hn,
helium c khi lng rt gn vi bn ln khi
lng hydrogen. y l do ngoi hai proton
ca n ra, n cn cha thm hai neutron. Khi
lng ca mt nguyn t v c bn c xc
nh bng tng s neutron v proton. Tng s
neutron v proton do thng c gi l
s khi ca nguyn t.
ng v
By gi chng ta c cch hiu r
rng ca thc t l helium nng gn gp bn
ln hydrogen, v tng t cho tt c s
nguyn t gn vi mt bi s nguyn ln khi
lng ca hydrogen. Nhng chng hn cn
ng th sao, n c khi lng nguyn t gp
63,5 ln hydrogen ? R rng khng th no
ngh rng c n thm mt na neutron na!
Li gii c tm ra bng cch o t s khi
lng trn in tch ca cc nguyn t b ion
ha bc mt (cc nguyn t mt i mt
electron). K thut v c bn ging nh k
thut m Thomson s dng cho tia catt,
ngoi tr ch ton b cc nguyn t khng
t pht bt ra khi b mt vt nh cc
electron thnh thong vn lm. Hnh o cho
mt v d cc ion c to ra v bm vo
gia hai bn tch in nh th no gia tc.

o/ Mt mu thit b Thomson ci tin dng o t s
khi lng trn in tch ca cc ion ch khng phi
electron. Mt mu nh ca nguyn t ang nghi vn,
trong v d ca chng ta l ng, c un si trong l
to ra mt lp hi mng. (Mt ng chn khng lin
tc ht ln bung chnh, gi n khi b tch gp
cht kh lm dng chm ion). Mt s nguyn t hi b
ion ha bi tia la in hoc tia cc tm. Cc ion i ra
khi ming vi v i vo vng gia cc bn tch in
khi c gia tc hng ln pha trn ca hnh. Nh
trong th nghim Thomson, t s khi lng trn in
tch c suy ra t lch ca chm tia.
Bm mt chm ion ng vo dng c , chng ta tm thy mt iu tht ngc
nhin chm tia b tch ra lm hai phn ! Cc nh ha hc vn nng cao c tin vo s
gi nh rng mi nguyn t ca mt nguyn t cho trc l ng nht, nhng chng ta tm
thy 69% nguyn t ng c mt khi lng, v 31% li c khi lng khc. Khng
nhng th, c hai khi lng u rt gn vi bi s nguyn ca khi lng hydrogen (ln
lt l 63 v 65). ng c c s ng nht ha tnh ca n t s proton trong ht nhn
ca n, 29, v cc phn ng ha hc hot ng bng lc in. Nhng r rng l mt s
nguyn t ng c 63 29 = 34 neutron, trong khi mt s khc c 65 29 = 36 neutron.
S nguyn t ca ng - 63,5 phn nh t l ca loi khi lng 63 v loi khi lng 65.
Cc trng thi khi lng khc nhau ca mt nguyn t cho trc c gi l ng v ca
nguyn t .
Cc ng v c th c gi tn bng cch thm s khi vo gc trn bn tri ca k
hiu nguyn t, v d
65
Cu. V d:

v Ti sao in tch dng v in tch m ca cc bn gia tc trong thit b tch ng v li o
ngc so vi thit b Thomson ?
Cc phn ng ha hc u l s trao i hoc chia s electron: ht nhn phi ngi
ngoi tr khiu v ny v lc y in ngn cn chng tin ti gn tip xc vi nhau.
Mc d proton tht s c nh hng v cng quan trng ln qu trnh ha hc v lc in
ca chng, nhng neutron c th khng c nh hng no ln phn ng ha hc ca
nguyn t. Chng hn, khng th no tch
63
Cu ra khi
65
Cu bng phn ng ha hc. y
l l do ti sao cc nh ha hc cha bao gi nhn ra s tn ti ca cc ng v khc nhau.
(Nhng ng v khc nhau, chnh xc hon ton phi x s hi khc nhau, v cc nguyn
t cng nng th chuyn ng cng chm, v do phn ng hi khc nhau mt cht v
cng . S khc bit rt nh ny c s dng, chng hn, tch nhng ng v
uranium cn thit cho ch to bom nguyn t. Tnh nh yu ca hiu ng ny khin cho
qu trnh tch l mt qu trnh chm chp v kh khn, l iu chng ta phi cm n v
nh th m v kh ht nhn khng c ch to bi tng nhm bng ng khng b trn
hnh tinh).
Kch thc v hnh dng ca ht nhn
Vt cht hu nh u l ht nhn nu chng ta m chng bng trng lng,
nhng tnh theo th tch th ht nhn khng nhiu nh th. Bn knh ca mt neutron hoc
proton rt gn vi 1 fm (1 fm = 10
-15
m), cho nn d l mt ht nhn ch ln vi s khi
208 vn c ng knh ch khong 13 fm, nh hn mi ngn ln ng knh ca mt
nguyn t in hnh. Tri vi hnh tng quen thuc ca ht nhn l mt qu cu nh, ha
ra th nhiu ht nhn li c dng thon di, ging nh qu bng bu dc M, v mt s th c
hnh dng khng i xng mt cch k l ging nh qu l, hay con kiwi.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Gi s ton b v tr l mt chic hp ng cc (rt ln), v nhn hng ha c gi s
l cho khch hng thn thnh bit l bao nhiu phn trm bn trong hng ha l ht nhn. Nh vy,
proton neutron s khi
1
H 1 0 0 + 1 = 1
4
He 2 2 2 + 2 = 4
12
C 6 6 6 + 6 = 12
14
C 6 8 6 + 8 = 14
262
Ha 105 157 105 + 157 = 262

i khi th s c bao nhiu phn trm ht nhn nu dn nhn theo khi lng ? Cn khi dn nhn
theo th tch th sao ?

p/ Nh my in ht nhn ti Cattenom, Php. Khng ging nh cc nh my chy than v du la cung cp
a phn ngun in cho nc M, mt nh my in ht nhn nh th ny khng gii phng cht c hay cc
kh nh knh vo bu kh quyn ca Tri t, v do khng gp phn vo s m ln ton cu. Khi trng
thot ra t nh my ny l hi nc khng phng x. Mc d nh my in ht nhn lm pht sinh cht thi
ht nhn c thi gian sng lu di, nhng ngi ta cho rng cht thi t gy e da cho sinh quyn hn cc
kh nh knh.
2.5 Lc ht nhn mnh, phn r alpha v s phn hch
Mt khi cc nh vt l nhn ra ht nhn gm c nhng proton tch in dng v
neutron khng mang in, h li c trong tay mt vn phi gii quyt. Lc in gia cc
proton u l lc y, nn ht nhn phi d dng bay tn ra tng mnh! L do m mi ht
nhn trong c th bn khng n tung tc thi ti thi im ny l cn c mt lc khc na
tc dng. Lc ny, gi l lc ht nhn mnh, lun lun l lc ht, v tc dng gia neutron
vi neutron, neutron vi proton, v proton vi proton vi ln xp x bng nhau. Lc ht
nhn mnh khng c bt k tc dng no ln electron, l l do ti sao n khng nh
hng ti cc phn ng ha hc.

q/ Lc ht nhn mnh t ngt rt mnh khi khong
cch di 1 fm.

Khng ging nh lc in, lc c ln cho bi nh lut Coulomb c dng n
gin, khng c cng thc n gin no cho mc m lc ht nhn ph thuc vo khong
cch. Ni i khi, n pht huy tc dng trong ngng ~ 1 fm, nhng gim cc k nhanh
nhng khong cch ln hn (nhanh hn 1/r
2
nhiu). V bn knh ca mt neutron hay
proton l vo khong 1 fm, ngha l khi mt b neutron v proton gi cht vo nhau
hnh thnh nn ht nhn, nn lc ht nhn mnh ch hiu qu gia nhng ht ln cn.
Hnh r minh ha cch thc lc ht nhn mnh tc dng gi ht nhn bnh thng
li vi nhau, nhng n khng th gi ht nhn rt nng khi b ph v thnh tng phn.
Trong hnh r/1, mt proton gia mt ht nhn cacbon cm nhn lc ht nhn mnh (cc
mi tn) ht t nhng ln cn gn nht ca n. Cc lc u c hng khc nhau, v c
xu hng trit tiu nhau. iu tng t cng ng cho cc lc in y (khng ch trong
hnh). Trong hnh r/2, mt proton ra ca ht nhn ch c cc ln cn mt pha, v do
tt c lc ht nhn mnh tc dng ln n c xu hng ht n tr vo. Mc d tt c lc
in t nm proton kia (mi tn en) u y n ra khi ht nhn, nhng chng khng
thng c lc ht nhn mnh.

r/1. Cc lc trit tiu nhau. 2. Cc lc khng trit tiu nhau. 3. Trong mt ht nhn nng, s lng ln lc
y in c th thm mt lc so snh c vi lc ht nhn mnh.
4. Pht x alpha. 5. S phn hch.
Trong mt ht nhn rt nng, r/3, mt proton ra ch c vi ln cn gn ht
n ng k thng qua lc ht nhn mnh, nhng mi proton khc trong ht nhn tc dng
mt lc y in ln n. Nu ht nhn ln, th lc y in tng hp c th thng
c sc ht ca lc mnh, v ht nhn c th nh ra mt proton. Tuy nhin, s pht x
proton kh him; loi phn r phng x ph bin hn ht nhn nng l phn r alpha,
minh ha trong hnh r/4. [Phn r alpha ph bin hn v ht alpha l s sp xp rt bn ca
cc neutron v proton]. S khng cn bng lc tng t nh trn, nhng k b phng ra l
ht alpha (hai proton v hai neutron) ch khng phi mt proton.
Ht nhn cng c kh nng tch thnh hai mnh c kch thc xp x bng nhau,
r/5, mt qu trnh gi l s phn hch. Lu l ngoi hai mnh v ln, cn c mt chm
neutron ring l. Trong qu bom phn hch ht nhn hoc l phn ng phn hch ht nhn,
mt s neutron ny bay ra v va chm vi ht nhn khc, lm cho chng cng chu s phn
hch. Kt qu l mt phn ng dy chuyn.
Khi mt ht nhn c th chu mt trong nhng qu trnh ny, ngi ta ni n c
tnh phng x v chu s phn r phng x. Mt s ht nhn xut hin t nhin trn Tri
t c tnh phng x. Thut ng phng x c ngun gc t hnh nh ca Becquerel v
nhng tia pht ra t mt th g , ch khng phi t sng v tuyn, chng l mt hin
tng hon ton khc. Thut ng phn r cng c th hi d nhm ln, v n m ch ht
nhn chuyn ha thnh bi hay d dng bin mt tht ra th n tch thnh hai ht nhn
mi vi cng tng s proton v neutron, nn thut ng bin i phng x s thch hp
hn. Mc d cc electron ca nguyn t gc ch l khn gi trong qu trnh phn r phng
x yu, nhng chng ta thng ni km cht ch l nguyn t phng x ch khng ni
ht nhn phng x.
S ngu nhin trong vt l hc
Lm sao mt nguyn t quyt nh khi no th phn r ? Chng ta c th tng
tng iu ging nh mt ngi nh b mi mt ph hoi cng ngy cng suy yu i, cho
n cui cng th n ci ngy tr nh n s sp xung. Tuy nhin, cc th nghim
khng thnh cng trong vic pht hin chic ng h tc tc nh th nm di nn nh;
bng chng l mi nguyn t ca mt ng v cho trc l hon ton ng nht. Ti sao
mt nguyn t uranium li phn r vo lc ny, trong ngy hm nay, cn nguyn t kia th
sng thm hng triu nm na ? Cu tr li c v n l hon ton ngu nhin. Chng ta c
th pht biu chung chung v thi gian trung bnh cn thit cho mt ng v nht nh phn
r, hay cn bao lu cho phn na s nguyn t trong mt vt phn r (chu k bn r ca
n), nhng chng ta cha bao gi c th tin on c hnh vi ca mt nguyn t nht
nh.
y l v d u tin m chng ta gp phi ca s ngu nhin khng th trnh c
trong cc nh lut vt l. Nu s ngu nhin ny khin cho bn bc bi, hn bn l mt k
nghim tc. Cu ni ni ting ca Einstein l ti b thuyt phc rng ng ta (Cha)
khng chi tr xc xc. S khng a tnh ngu nhin ca Einstein, v s lin tng ca
ng v tnh quyt nh lun vi thn thnh, quay li vi quan nim thi k Khai sng xem
v tr l mt b my khng l ch c a vo chuyn ng ban u bi ng sng to.
Vt l hc phi c xy dng li ton b trong th k th 20 hp nht vi tnh ngu
nhin c bn ca vt l, v cuc cch mng hin i ny l ch ca quyn th su trong
lot bi ging ny. c bit, chng ta s gc li s pht trin ca khi nim chu k bn ra
cho n lc y.
2.6 Lc ht nhn yu; phn r beta
Mi qu trnh ht nhn m chng ta ni ti trn u lin quan ti s sp xp
ca cc proton v neutron, khng c s thay i no tng s proton hay tng s neutron.
By gi hy xt t l neutron v proton trong c th bn v trong hnh tinh Tri t:
neutron v proton nhiu xp x bng nhau trong ht nhn cacbon v oxygen trong c th
bn, v cng nh trong nikel v st cu thnh nn a phn Tri t. T l khong chng 50
50. Nhng, nh tho lun chi tit hn trong phn 2.10 khng bt buc, nhng nguyn t
ha hc duy nht c to ra vi s lng ng k trong Big Bang l hydrogen (khong
90%) v helium (khong 10%). Nu v tr s khai hu nh khng c g c ngoi cc
nguyn t hydrogen, ht nhn ca chng ch l proton, th tt c neutron t u m c ?
Cu tr li l c mt lc ht nhn na, lc ht nhn yu, c kh nng chuyn ha
neutron thnh proton v ngc li. Hai phn ng c kh nng l:
n p + e
-
+
v [phn hy electron]
v
p n + e
+
+ v [phn hy positron]
(Cng cn c mt loi th ba gi l bt electron, trong mt proton tm ly mt trong s
cc electron ca nguyn t v chng to ra mt neutron v mt neutrino).
Trong khi phn hy alpha v s phn hch ch l s phn chia li ca nhng ht
tn ti trc , th nhng phn ng ny lin quan ti s phn hy mt ht v hnh thnh
ba ht mi trc khng tn ti.
y c ba ht mi bn cha bao gi gp t trc ti gi. K hiu e
+
dnh cho
phn electron, ht ging ht electron v mi mt, tr ch in tch ca n l dng ch
khng phi m. Phn electron cn c gi l positron. Khng ai bit ti sao electron th
ph bin trong v tr, cn phn electron th li khan him. Khi mt phn electron chm
phi mt electron, chng hy ln nhau, to ra tia gamma, v y l nh mnh ca mi
phn electron sinh ra bi s phng x t nhin trn Tri t. Phn electron l mt v d
ca phn vt cht. Mt nguyn t hon ton phn vt cht s gm cc phn proton, phn
electron v phn neutron. Mc d tng ht phn vt cht xut hin ph bin trong t nhin
do s phng x t nhin v tia v tr, nhng ch c mt vi nguyn t hon ton phn
hydrogen c to ra bng phng php nhn to.
K hiu v dnh cho mt ht gi l neutrino, v
v c ngha l phn neutrino.

Neutrino v phn neutrino u khng c in tch (v th mi c tn).
Gi chng ta hy lit k bn lc c bn ca vt l:
- lc hp dn
- lc in t
- lc ht nhn mnh
- lc ht nhn yu
Cc lc khc m chng ta bit, nh lc ma st v lc thng thng, u pht
sinh t tng tc in t gia cc nguyn t, v do khng c xem l lc c bn ca
vt l hc.
V d 2. Phn r ca
212
Pb
Nh mt v d, hy xt ng v phng x ca ch
212
Pb. N gm 82 proton v 130 neutron.
N phn r bi qu trnh n p + e
-
+
v . Proton mi sinh c gi bn trong ht nhn bng lc ht

nhn mnh, nn ht nhn mi cha 83 proton v 129 neutron. C 83 proton khin n l nguyn t
bismuth, nn n s l nguyn t
212
Bi.
Trong mt phn ng ging nh phn ng ny, electron bay ra tc cao (thng
gn tc nh sng), v electron thot ra l th khin cho mt lng ln loi phng x ny
tr nn nguy him. Electron thot ra l ci u tin mch nc cho cc nh khoa hc u
nhng nm 1900 v s tn ti ca loi phng x ny. V h khng bit cc ht pht ra l
electron, nn h gi chng l ht beta, v loi phn r phng x ny do c tn l phn r
beta. Mt thut ng sng sa hn nhng km thng dng gi hai qu trnh ny l phn hy
electron v phn hy positron.
Neutrino hay phn neutrino pht ra trong mt phn ng p nh th b qua ht mi
vt cht, v n khng c in tch nn n c min tr lc in, v n cng vn tch khi
tng tc ht nhn mnh. Cho d l n bay ra thng xung t, th hu nh nht nh n s
i qua ton b Tri t m khng tng tc vi bt k nguyn t no theo bt k kiu no.
N s bay ra ngoi khng gian xa thm mi mi. Hnh vi ca neutrino khin n cc k kh
pht hin, v khi phn r beta ln u tin c pht hin, khng ai nhn ra neutrino tn
ti. Ngy nay chng ta bit neutrino mang ht mt s nng lng sinh ra trong phn ng,
nhng vo lc , ngi ta thy hnh nh nng lng ton phn sau phn ng (khng tnh
n nng lng ca neutrino) ln hn nng lng ton phn trc phn ng, vi phm s
bo ton nng lng. Cc nh vt l sn sng nm nguyn l bo ton nng lng ra
ngoi ca s nh mt nh lut c bn ca vt l khi bng chng gin tip dn h ti kt
lun rng neutrino tn ti.

Vn neutrino Mt Tri
Nhng ht neutrino ny l g ? Ti sao trc y bn cha h nghe ni ti chng ?
Khng phi v chng khan him khong mt t neutrino i xuyn qua c th bn trong
mi micro giy, nhng cho n gn y hu nh ngi ta chng bit g v chng. c to
ra nh mt hiu ng ph ca phn ng ht nhn cung cp nng lng cho Mt Tri v
nhng ngi sao khc, nhng mnh vt cht ma qu ny c cho l ht c s lng nhiu
nht trong v tr. Nhng chng tng tc qu yu vi vt cht thng thng nn hu nh
ton b neutrino i vo Tri t pha bn ny s i ra pha bn kia hnh tinh ca chng ta
m khng h b lm cho chm li.
Ci nhn trm tht s ca chng ta vo tnh cht ca neutrino hay lng trnh n t
mt my d khng l t trong mt m thic Nht Bn, s. Mt i cc nh vt l quc t
trang b cho hm m ph kn nhng b cm bin nh sng, v ri lp y ton b mi
th trong nc tinh khit n mc bn c th nhn xuyn qua n mt trm mt, so vi chi
vi mt nc vi chy bnh thng. Dng neutrino lin tc i qua 50 triu lt nc, ging
nh chng gy ngp lt mi th khc xung quanh chng ta, v a s chng khng bao
gi tng tc vi mt phn t nc. Tuy nhin, mt phn trm rt nh tht s t hy trong
nc, v le sng nh xu m chng to ra c th pht hin bi cc ng chn khng c kch
thc bng qu bng chuyn bi bin nm sp hng trong hm m ti en. a s neutrino
xung quanh chng ta n t Mt Tri, nhng v nhng l do k thut, loi my d kiu
nc ny li nhy hn vi nhng neutrino km ph bin nhng c nng lng tnh cao hn
to ra khi cc tia v tr va chm vi bu kh quyn ca Tri t.
Neutrino c bit l c ba mi, c th phn
bit chng bng nhng ht sinh ra khi chng va chm
vi vt cht. Mt neutrino mi electron to ra mt
electron bnh thng khi chng phn hy, cn hai loi
kia to ra nhng ht k l hn gi l ht mu v tau. Hy
ngh ba loi neutrino l scla, vani v du. Khi bn
mua mt nn kem scla, bn mong rng n s gi v
scla khi bn n n. Kt qu khng mong i t th
nghim Nht Bn l mt s neutrino thay i mi v
gia thi gian khi chng c to ra bi tia v tr v
thi im khi chng nhp nhy chng t tn ti trong
nc. Trong chng mc no , n ging nh nn kem
scla ca bn t chuyn ha mt cch k diu sang
v du khi bn quay lng sang ch khc.
Lm th no cc nh vt l tm hiu c s
thay i mi v ? Th nghim pht hin mt s
neutrino pht sinh trong bu kh quyn pha trn Nht
Bn, v cng c nhiu neutrino n t nhng phn xa
xi trn Tri t. Mt neutrino to ra pha trn i Ty
Dng n Nht Bn t di lng t, v th nghim c th phn bit nhng neutrino
xuyn t di ln ny vi neutrino a phng xuyn t trn xung. H tm thy hn hp
neutrino n t pha di khc vi hn hp neutrino n t pha trn, vi mt s neutrino
mi electron v mi tau r rng bin i thnh neutrino mi mu trong hnh trnh ca chng
xuyn qua Tri t. Nhng neutrino n t pha trn khng c thi gian bin i mi
trong hnh trnh ngn hn nhiu ca chng.

s/ My d neutrino ny ang trong qu
trnh bm y nc siu tinh khit.
iu ny c hiu l bng chng cho
thy neutrino lin tc bin i ti lui gia ba mi.
Trn c s l thuyt, ngi ta tin rng mt s dao
ng nh th ch c th xy ra nu nh neutrino
c khi lng. y ch c th c mt c tnh
th v khi lng : hnh nh neutrino c khi
lng u trong khong ln cn mt phn t
khi lng ca mt electron, hay khong 10
-39
kg.
Nu khi lng neutrino qu nh nh vy,
n c cn l vt cht khng ? N c ngha vi
cc nh thin vn hc. Neutrino l nhng ht duy
nht c th dng kho st nhng hin tng
nht nh. V d, chng l my d trc tip duy
nht m chng ta c kim tra m hnh ca
chng ta v li ca Mt Tri ca chng ta, ngun nng lng cho mi s sng trn Tri
t. Mt khi cc nh thin vn c c s nm bt tt v nhng tnh cht c bn ca
neutrino, h c th bt u ngh mt cch nghim tc vic s dng chng cho mc ch
thin vn hc. Nh trong nm 2006, khi lng neutrino c xc nhn bng mt th
nghim da trn my gia tc, v nhng quan st neutrino v ang hot ng trong vi
nm Nam Cc, s dng khi bng t nhin khng l theo kiu ging nh nc dng
trong th nghim Nht Bn.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Trong cc phn ng n p + e
-
+
v v p n + e
+
+ v, hy kim tra in tch c bo
ton. Trong phn r beta, khi mt trong nhng phn ng ny xy ra vi mt neutron hay proton
trong mt ht nhn, mt hay nhiu tia gamma cng c th c pht ra. Hin tng ny c nh
hng ti s bo ton in tch ? C kh nng cho mt s electron na c gii phng m khng vi
phm s bo ton in tch hay khng ?
B. Khi mt phn electron v mt electron hy nhau, chng to ra hai tia gamma. in tch
c c bo ton trong phn ng ny ?

r/ Mt my d chn di hm ti knh thin vn
neutrino IceCube Nam Cc.

u/ 1. Ngun gc nng lng Mt Tri ca chng ta l s nhit hch ht nhn, nn s nhit hch ht nhn
cng l ngun cung cp nng lng cho mi s sng trn Tri t, trong c cnh rng nhit i ny
Fatu-Hiva, 2. 3. S gii phng nng lng ln u tin bi s nhit hch ht nhn bng cng ngh ca con
ngi l v th Ivy Mike nm 1952 ti Enewetak Atoll. 4. Dy my d tia gamma ny c tn l
GAMMASPHERE. Khi hot ng, dy ny ng li, v mt chm ion to ra bi mt my gia tc ht va
chm vi bia ti tm ca n, to ra phn ng nhit hch ht nhn. Nghin cu tia gamma c th cung cp
thng tin v cu trc ca ht nhn nng chy, nhng trng thi thng khng tm thy trong t nhin. 5. S
phn hch ht nhn ha hn mt ngun nng lng sch, v tn. Tuy nhin, mc tiu ca nng lng nhit
hch ht nhn c th thc hin v mt thng mi vn cn kh nm c, do nhng kh khn k thut, nh
vic giam gi bng t mt khi plasma (kh ion ha) mt nhit v mt cao. Hnh ny cho thy l
phn ng th nghim JET, vi thit b m pha bn tri, v ang hot ng pha bn phi.
2.7 S nhit hch
Nh chng ta thy, ht nhn nng c xu hng tch ra v mi proton b tng
proton khc trong ht nhn y, nhng ch b ht bi nhng ln cn gn nht ca n. Ht
nhn v thnh hai mnh, v ngay khi hai mnh cch nhau hn 1 fm, lc ht nhn mnh
khng cn lm cho hai mnh ht nhau na. Lc y in khi gia tc chng, lm cho
chng thu c mt lng ln ng nng. S gii phng ng nng ny l ci cung cp
nng lng cho l phn ng ht nhn v bom phn hch.
Khi dng nh ht nhn nh nht l bn nht, nhng khng phi nh vy. Hy
so snh mt ht nhn cc nh nh
4
He vi mt ht nhn no nng hn nh
16
O. Mt
neutron hay proton trong
4
He c th b ba ht kia ht, nhng trong
16
O, c th c 5 hay 6
lng ging ht n. Do ht nhn
16
O bn hn.
Ha ra nhng ht nhn bn nht u l nhng ht nhn xung quanh nickel v st, c
khong 30 proton v 30 neutron. Ging nh mt ht nhn qu nng bn vng c th gii
phng nng lng bng cch tch thnh hai mnh gn vi kch thc bn nht, ht nhn
nh c th gii phng nng lng nu nh bn gn chng li vi nhau to ra ht nhn ln
hn gn vi kch thc bn nht. Hp nht mt ht nhn vi ht nhn khc gi l s nhit
hch ht nhn. Nhit hch ht nhn l ci mang li nng lng cho Mt Tri v nhng ngi
sao khc.
2.8 Nng lng ht nhn v nng lng lin kt
Theo cch tng t nh phn ng ha hc c th phn loi l ta nhit (gii phng
nng lng) hay thu nhit (yu cu nng lng phn ng), cc phn ng ht nhn c th
gii phng hoc s dng ht nng lng. Nng lng c trong phn ng ht nhn ln hn
rt nhiu ln. Phi t hng ngn tn than mi to ra c nng lng ln nh nng
lng do mt kg nhin liu ca nh my in ht nhn to ra.
Mc d cc phn ng ht nhn tiu hao nng lng (phn ng thu nng lng) c
th khi to trong my gia tc, trong mt ht nhn c cho m vo mt ht nhn khc
tc cao, nhng chng khng xy ra trong t nhin, khng xy ra c trong Mt Tri.
n gin l v lng ng nng cn thit khng sn c.
tm lng nng lng tiu hao hoc gii phng trong mt phn ng ht nhn,
bn cn phi bit bao nhiu nng lng tng tc ht nhn, U
hn
, c d tr hoc gii
phng. Cc nh thc nghim xc nh c lng nng lng ht nhn d tr trong ht
nhn ca mi nguyn t bn, cng nh nhiu nguyn t khng bn. y l lng cng c
hc cn thit tch ht nhn ra thnh tng neutron v proton ca n, v ngy nay gi l
nng lng lin kt ht nhn.
V d 3. Phn ng xy ra trong Mt Tri
Mt Tri sn sinh nng lng ca n qua mt chui phn ng nhit hch ht nhn. Mt
trong cc phn ng l
1
H +
2
H
3
He +
Nng lng tha hu nh u c mang bi tia gamma (ch khng phi bi ng nng
ca nguyn t
3
He). Nng lng lin kt tnh bng n v pJ (pico joule) l
1
H 0 pJ
2
H 0,35593 pJ
3
He 1,23489 pJ
Nng lng ht nhn ton phn ban u l 0 pJ + 0,35593 pJ, v nng lng ht nhn cui
cng l 1,23489 pJ, nn theo s bo ton nng lng, tia gamma phi mang khi nng lng
0,87896 pJ. Tia gamma khi b Mt Tri hp th v chuyn ha thnh nhit.
v Ti sao nng lng lin kt ca
1
H chnh xc bng khng ?
S chuyn ha khi lng thnh nng lng v nng lng thnh khi lng
Nu bn cng khi lng ca ba ht sinh ra trong phn ng n p + e
-
+ v
, bn s thy
chng khng bng vi khi lng ca neutron, nn khi lng khng c bo ton. Mt v d cn
hin nhin hn na l s hy ca mt electron vi mt positron,
e
-
+ e
+
2, trong khi lng ban u b trit tiu hon ton, v tia gamma khng c khi
lng. S khng bo ton khi lng khng ch l mt tnh cht ca phn ng ht nhn. N cng
xy ra trong cc phn ng ha hc, nhng s thay i khi lng qu nh pht hin vi nhng
chic cn thng thng trong phng th nghim.
L do khi lng khng bo ton l khi lng chuyn ha thnh nng lng, theo
phng trnh ni ting ca Einstein, E = mc
2
, trong c l tc nh sng. Trong phn ng e
-
+ e
+

2, chng hn, tng tng cho n gin l electron v positron ang chuyn ng rt chm khi
chng va chm, nn chng khng c nng lng khi u no ng k. Chng ta ang bt u vi
khi lng v khng c nng lng, v kt thc vi hai tia gamma c nng lng nhng khng c
khi lng. Phng trnh E = mc
2
ca Einstein cho chng ta bit h s chuyn i gia khi lng
v nng lng bng vi bnh phng ca tc nh sng. V c l mt s rt ln, nn nng lng
tiu hao hoc gii phng bi mt phn ng ha hc ch l ra phn thay i nh xu khi lng.
Nhng trong phn ng ht nhn, phn ng c mt lng ln nng lng, s thay i khi lng c
th nhiu ln ti mt phn ngn. Lu l trong ng cnh ny, c khng nht thit l tc ca ht
no. Chng ta ch s dng gi tr bng s ca n lm h s chuyn i. Cng nn lu l E = mc
2

khng c ngha l mt vt c khi lng m c ng nng bng vi mc
2
, m nng lng m t bi
phng trnh E = mc
2
l nng lng bn c th gii phng nu bn ph hy mt ht v chuyn ton
b khi lng ca n thnh nng lng, v nng lng s cng thm vi ng nng hay th nng
m vt c.
By gi c phi chng ta b la ly mt hai nh lut bo ton hon ho mt cch tuyt
vi, nh lut bo ton khi lng v nh lut bo ton nng lng? Khng, theo Einstein, i
lng bo ton l E + mc
2
, khng phi ring E cng khng phi ring m. i lng E + mc
2
c
gi l khi lng-nng lng, v t trc n nay khng h c s vi phm no i vi nh lut bo
ton khi lng-nng lng c quan st thy. Trong a s nhng tnh hung thc t, hon ton c
th xem khi lng v nng lng l nhng i lng bo ton c lp.
Ngy nay, tht d dng gii thch ti sao cc proton n c (ht nhn hydrogen) c tm
thy trong t nhin, nhng neutron ngi ta ch gp bn trong ht nhn, ch khng thy ring l.
Trong qu trnh n p + e
-
+ v
, tng khi lng sau cng nh hn khi lng neutron, nn khi

lng chuyn ha thnh nng lng. Trong phn hy beta ca proton, p n + e
+
+ v, khi lng
sau cng ln hn khi lng ban u, nn cn phi cung cp mt s nng lng chuyn ha
thnh khi lng. Mt proton nm trong mt nguyn t hydrogen khng th phn hy, v n khng
c ngun cp nng lng. Ch nhng proton nm bn trong ht nhn c th phn hy, v ch khi no
s chnh lch th nng gia ht nhn ban u v ht nhn mi gy ra s gii phng nng lng.
Nhng bt k neutron n c no c to ra trong nhng phn ng t nhin hoc nhn to u s
phn hy trong vng khong vi giy, gii phng mt s nng lng.
Phng trnh E = mc
2
xut hin t nhin nh l mt phn ca thuyt tng i c bit ca
Einstein, chng ta s khng nghin cu l thuyt lc ny. Vn ch yu y ch l lm sng t
xem khi lng bin i u trong mt s phn ng ht nhn m chng ta ni ti.
Hnh v l mt cch sc tch biu din s a dng ca ht nhn. Mi biu din
mt s proton v neutron nht nh. mu en l ht nhn bn, tc l cn cung cp nng
lng lm bin i n thnh ht nhn khc. mu xm l ton b nhng ht nhn
khng bn c nghin cu bng thc nghim. Mt s ht nhn ny tn ti trung bnh
hng t nm trc khi phn r v c tm thy trong t nhin, nhng mt s c thi
gian sng trung bnh ngn hn nhiu, v ch c th to ra v nghin cu trong phng th
nghim.

v/ Nhng ht nhn bit, biu din trn biu s proton theo s neutron. Lu hai ht nhn hng di
cng c khng proton. Mt ht ch l mt neutron n c. Cn ht kia l mt cm bn neutron.
Tetraneutron ny c bo co, gy bt ng, l mt h lin kt thu c t mt th nghim nm 2002.
Kt qu c th gy tranh ci. Nu ng, n s ng s tn ti ca mt loi vt cht t trc n nay
khng bit, l git neutron, chng ta c th ngh l mt nguyn t khng c proton hay electron no.
ng cong m cc ht nhn bn nm dc theo gi l ng cong n nh. Ht
nhn nm dc theo ng ny c t l neutron trn proton bn vng nht. i vi ht nhn
nh, s pha trn bn nht l khong 50 50, nhng chng ta c th thy nhng ht nhn
nng bn c s neutron nhiu hn s proton hai hoc ba ln. y l do lc y in ca tt
c cc proton trong ht nhn nng cng li thnh mt lc mnh c xu hng lm n v ra.
S c mt ca mt s lng ln neutron lm tng khong cch gia cc proton, v cng
lm tng s lc ht do lc ht nhn mnh.

2.9 Tc dng sinh hc ca bc x ion ha
L mt ngi ging dy khoa hc, ti cm thy nn lng khi khng tm thy u
trong s lng tp ch khng l a tin v thm ha Chernobyl tht s a ra s trnh by
bng s v lng bc x m ngi ta phi hng chu. Bt k ai c kh nng hiu c
nhng thng k th thao hay bo co thi tit cng u phi c kh nng hiu c nhng
php o nh th, min l mt ci g ging nh on thanh minh sau c xen vo u
trong bi bo :
S phi bc x c o bng n v milirem. Mt ngi trung bnh hng chu
khong 200 milirem mi nm t cc ngun phng x t nhin.
Vi bi cnh ny, ngi ta c th i n kt lun c tnh am hiu da trn nhng
pht biu nh Tr em Phn Lan nhn lng phng x trung bnh l ___ milirem trn
mc phng x t nhin do thm ha Cernobyl.
Mt milirem, hay 1mrem, tt nhin l mt phn ngn ca mt rem, nhng mt rem
l g ? N o lng nng lng/kg gi ln c th bi bc x ion ha, nhn cho mt h s
cht lng tnh s nguy hi cho sc khe gy ra bi bc x alpha, beta, gamma,
neutron hay nhng loi bc x khc. Ch c bc x ion ha c tnh n, v bc x khng
ion ha ch n gin lm nng c th ch khng git cht t bo hay lm bin i DNA.
Chng hn, ht alpha thng chuyn ng qu nhanh nn ng nng ca chng lm
ion ha hng ngn nguyn t, nhng cng c th c ht alpha chuyn ng qu chm nn
n s khng c ng nng lm ion ha c mt nguyn t thi.

w/ Mt ngi nh b b hoang gn Chernobyl.

x/ Bn biu din mc bc x gn ni xy ra
thm ha Chernobyl. Ti ranh gii ca nhng khu
vc b nhim nng nht (vng mu ), ngi ta
phi hng chu khong 1300 milirem/nm, hay gp
khong 4 ln mc phng x t nhin. Trong khu vc
mu hng, bc x vn cn dy c, s phi bc x
c th so snh vi mc t nhin tm thy mt thnh
ph c cao trn mc nc bin ln nh thnh ph
Denver.
Tuy nhiu ngi quen vi hnh nh v nhng k khng l d thng, nhng
khng c kh nng cho mt ng vt a bo bin thi nh th. Trong a s trng hp,
mt ht ca bc x ion ha s khng chm ti DNA, v cho d n c chm ti, th n s
ch nh hng ti DNA ca mt t bo n c, ch khng phi mi t bo trong c th
ng vt. Thng thng, t bo d dng b tiu dit, v DNA khng th m nhn
chc nng thch hp na. Tuy nhin, i khi DNA b bin i to nn t bo ung th.
Chng hn, ung th da c th do nh sng t ngoi chm ti t bo da trn c th ngi
tm nng gy ra. Nu t bo b ung th v bt u sinh si khng c kim sot, ngi
bnh s cht cng vi ung bu hai mi nm sau .
Ngoi ung th, hiu ng kch tnh duy nht khc na c th gy ra t s bin i
DNA ca mt t bo l nu t bo l tinh trng hay trng, th n c th gy ra chng v
sinh hoc tr d dng. n ng tng i min dch vi nhng tn hi sinh sn do bc x
gy ra, v t bo tinh trng ca h thng xuyn c thay th. Ph n d b v sinh hn
do h gi cng mt b bung trng trong sut qung i h sng.
Mt liu lng 500.000 mrem chiu ln ton c th ngi s git cht ngi
trong vng mt tun hay tng ng khong thi gian . Tht may mn, ch c mt s t
ngi tng b phi n mc : mt nh khoa hc lm vic D n Mahattan, mt
s nn nhn ca v n Nagasaki v Hiroshima, v 31 cng nhn ti Chernobyl. Ci cht
xy ra do hng lot t bo b tiu dit, nht l t bo sn xut mu ca ty xng.
Nhng mc thp hn, vo c 100.000 mrem ging ln mt s ngi ti Nagasaki
v Hiroshima. Khng c triu chng cp tnh no gy ra t mc hng x ny, nhng
nhng loi ung th nht nh c bit ph bin nhng ngi ny. Ban u ngi ta cho
rng bc x gy ra nhiu t bin mang n nhng d tt khi sinh, nhng rt t tc dng di
truyn nh th c quan st thy.
Ngi ta mt rt nhiu thi gian tranh lun v nh hng ca nhng mc rt
thp ca bc x ion ha. Tia X dng trong y khoa, chng hn, c th gy ra liu lng
phng x vo c 100 mrem, tc l thp hn hai ln mc phng x nn bnh thng. Liu
lng phng x vt qu mc nn trung bnh nh th c th nhn c nhng ngi
sng ni c cao trn mc nc bin ln, hay nhng ngi c s tp trung cao kh
radon trong nh h. Tht khng may (hay may mn, ty theo cch bn nhn nhn n), mc
ri ro do ung th hay d tt khi sinh c nguyn nhn t nhng mc hng x ny l
cc k nh, v do hu nh khng th o c. Nh i vi nhiu ha cht b nghi ng l
gy ung th, phng php thc t duy nht c tnh s ri ro l cho cc con vt trong
phng th nghim hng liu lng phng x ln hn nhiu bc, v ri gi s s nguy hi
cho sc khe t l trc tip vi liu lng phng x. Di nhng gi nh ny, s ri ro do
tia X nha s s dng hay radon trong tng nh l khng ng k mc c nhn, v ch
ng k di dng s tng mt cht t l ung th trong dn c. L mt vn ca chnh
sch x hi, s hng chu bc x qu mc khng phi l mt vn sc khe chung qu to
tt so vi tai nn giao thng hay t ht thuc l.
Cu hi tho lun
A. C phi h s cht lng i vi neutrino l rt nh, v chng hu nh khng tng tc
vi c th bn ?
B. C phi mt ngun pht ht alpha c th gy ra nhng loi ung th khc nhau ty thuc
vo ngun bn ngoi c th hay nm trong mu ngi b nhim ? Cn ngun pht tia gamma
th sao ?
2.10 S hnh thnh cc nguyn t
S hnh thnh hydrogen v helium trong Big Bang
C phi mi nguyn t ha hc cu thnh nn chng ta u c ngun gc t trong
Big Bang ? Nhit trong nhng micro giy u tin sau Big Bang l qu cao nn cc
nguyn t v ht nhn ni chung khng th gi li vi nhau. Sau khi mi th lnh xung
cho nguyn t v ht nhn tn ti, c mt thi k khong chng ba pht trong nhit
v mt cao cho s nhit hch xy ra, nhng khng qu cao nn cc nguyn t c
th gi li vi nhau. Chng ta c c s hiu bit tt v tng tn v cc nh lut vt l
p dng di nhng iu kin ny, nn cc nh l thuyt c th ni qu quyt rng nguyn
t duy nht nng hn hydrogen c to ra vi s lng ng k l helium.
Chng ta l bi sao
Trong trng hp , mi nguyn t ha
hc c t u ? Cc nh thin vn tin gn ti
cu tr li. Bng cch nghin cu s kt hp ca
nhng bc sng nh sng, gi l quang ph,
pht ra t nhng ngi sao khc nhau, h c
th xc nh loi nguyn t m chng cha.
(Chng ta s ni nhiu hn v quang ph phn
cui cun sch ny). H nhn thy cc sao chia
ra lm hai loi. Mt loi hu nh 100% l
hydrogen v helium, cn loi kia cha 99%
hydrogen v helium v 1% cc nguyn t khc.
H gii thch y l hai th h sao. Th h th
nht hnh thnh t nhng m kh cn mi
nguyn t Big Bang, v thnh phn ca chng
phn nh thnh phn ca v tr s khai. Phn
ng nhit hch ht nhn, m nh chng chiu

y/ Tinh vn Con Cua l tn d ca mt v n
sao siu mi. Hu nh mi nguyn t cu thnh
nn hnh tinh ca chng ta c ngun gc t
nhng v n nh th.
sng, ch lm tng t l tng i ca helium so vi hydrogen, ch khng to ra bt k
nguyn t nng hn no.
Tuy nhin, nhng thnh vin thuc th h th nht m chng ta thy ngy nay ch
l nhng thnh vin sng mt thi gian lu di. Nhng ngi sao nh bn xn vi nhin
liu ca chng hn so vi nhng ngi sao ln, chng c thi gian sng ngn. Nhng ngi
sao ln thuc th h th nht va hon tt cuc i ca chng. Gn cui qung thi gian
sng ca n, ngi sao cn kit hydrogen v chu mt lot s ti cu trc d di v ngon
mc khi n lm tan chy nhng nguyn t ngy cng nng hn. Nhng ngi sao rt ln kt
thc chui s kin ny bng s bng n sao siu mi, trong mt s vt cht ca chng
b nm vo khng gian, cn phn cn li th sp li thnh mt i tng k l, nh l
en hay sao neutron.
Th h sau th hai, trong s Mt Tri ca chng ta l mt v d, c c t nhng
m my kh c lm giu thm nhng nguyn t nng do s bng n sao siu mi.
l nhng nguyn t nng cu to nn hnh tinh ca chng ta v c th ca chng ta.
S tng hp nhn to cc nguyn t nng
Cc nguyn t ln ti uranium, s
nguyn t 92, c to ra bi nhng qu
trnh thin vn ny. Cao hn s nguyn t
, lc y in ca cc proton tng ln dn
ti chu k bn r cng ngn li. Cho d mt
sao siu mi mt t nm trc y tht s
to ra mt s lng ca mt nguyn t nh
berkelium, s nguyn t 97, nhng n
khng cn g trong lp v Tri t ngy
nay. Nhng nguyn t nng nht u c
to ra bng nhng phn ng nhit hch nhn
to trong cc my gia tc. Nh vo nm
2006, nguyn t nng nht c to ra l
nguyn t 116. [Mt khng nh trc
to ra c nguyn t 116 do mt nhm ti
Berbeley cng b ha ra l mt tr gian ln
khoa hc, nhng nguyn t sau
c to ra bi mt nhm khc, ti Dubna,
Nga].
Mc d vic to ra mt nguyn t
mi, tc l mt nguyn t c s proton mi
l, v phng din lch s c xem l
mt thnh tu y quyn r, nhng i vi
nh vt l ht nhn, vic to ra mt nguyn
t c s neutron cho n nay khng ai thy
cng c tm quan trng khng km. S
neutron ln nht t c t trc n nay
l 179. Mt mc tiu tru ngi ca loi nghin cu ny l tin on l thuyt c th c
mt c o n nh nm ngoi chp biu ht nhn c kho st t m trc y,
ni ti trong phn 2.8. Ging ht nh s lng electron nht nh a ti s n nh ha
tnh ca cc cht kh tr (helium, neon, argon), s lng neutron v proton nht nh
cng a ti s sp xp n nh c bit ca cc qu o. Nhng tnh ton li li thp nin
1960 cho bit c th c ht nhn tng i bn c khong 114 proton v 184 neutron. Cc
ng v ca nguyn t 114 v 116 c to ra trc y c chu k bn ra trong ngng

z/ Cu to ca my gia tc UNILAC c, mt trong
nhng my c s dng cho th nghim to ra nhng
nguyn t rt nng. Trong mt th nghim nh th, sn
phm nhit hch ny tr li qua mt dng c gi l
SHIP (khng c trong hnh) tch chng ra da trn t
s in tch trn khi lng ca chng v c bn, n
ch l mt mu quy m ln ca thit b ca Thomson.
Mt th nghim tiu biu hot ng trong vi thng, v
sn phm ca hng t phn ng nhit hch sinh ra trong
thi gian ny, ch mt hoc hai c th mang li s sn
sinh cc nguyn t siu nng. Trong phn cn li, ht
nhn tan chy v tan ngay tc th. SHIP c dng
nhn dng s lng nh phn ng tt v tch chng
ra khi ton cnh d di ny.
giy hoc mili giy. Gi tr ny khng th xem l rt lu, nhng thi gian sng trong
ngng micro giy th in hnh hn i vi cc nguyn t siu nng c khm ph
trc y. Cn c suy on cho rng nhng ng v siu nng nht nh s bn c
to ra vi s lng chng hn cn c hay dng trong cc phn ng ha hc.

Tm tt chng 2
T kha chn lc
ht alpha .. mt dng phng x gm cc ht nhn helium
ht beta mt dng phng x gm cc electron
tia gamma ... mt dng phng x gm mt dng nh sng tn s
rt cao
proton .. mt ht tch in dng, mt trong cc loi cu
thnh nn ht nhn
neutron mt ht khng tch in, mt loi khc cu thnh
nn ht nhn
ng v mt trong nhng bin th kh d ca nguyn t
ca mt nguyn t cho trc, c mt s lng
neutron nht nh
s nguyn t ... s proton trong ht nhn ca mt nguyn t, xc
nh n l nguyn t g
khi lng nguyn t khi lng ca mt nguyn t
s khi s proton cng vi s neutron trong mt ht nhn,
xp x t l vi khi lng nguyn t ca n
lc ht nhn mnh . lc gi ht nhn li vi nhau chng li lc y
in
lc ht nhn yu lc gy ra phn r beta
phn r beta phn r phng x ca mt ht nhn qua phn ng
n p + e
-
+ v
, hay n p + e
+
+ v; gi nh th
v mt electron hay phn electron cng cn gi l
ht beta
phn r alpha .. phn r phng x ca mt ht nhn thng qua s
pht ra mt ht alpha
phn hch phn r phng x ca mt ht nhn bng cch tch
thnh hai mnh
nhit hch .. phn ng ht nhn trong hai ht nhn gn cht
vi nhau hnh thnh nn mt ht nhn ln hn
milirem .. n v o hng phng x ca mt ngi

K hiu
e
-
................................. electron
e
+
................................ phn electron, ging nh electron nhng c in tch
dng
n ................................. neutron
p ................................. proton
v ................................. neutrino
v
................................ phn neutrino

K hiu v thut ng khc
Z ................................. s nguyn t (s proton trong mt ht nhn)
N ................................. s neutron trong mt ht nhn
A ................................. s khi (N + Z)
Tm tt
Rutherford v Marsden quan st thy mt s ht alpha t mt chm ht va chm
vi mt l vng mng ny tr li nhng gc ln ti 180 . iu ny khng th gii thch
theo m hnh bnh bng lan rc nho c a chung khi y, v a n vic chp nhn
mu hnh tinh nguyn t, trong cc electron quay trn xung quanh mt ht nhn nh
xu, tch in dng. Cc th nghim thm na cho thy chnh bn thn ht nhn l mt
cm proton tch in dng v neutron khng mang in.
Ht nhn phng x l ht nhn c kh nng gii phng nng lng. a s loi
phng x ph bin l phn r alpha (pht ra ht nhn helium), phn r beta (s chuyn ha
neutron thnh proton v ngc li), v phn r gamma (pht ra loi nh sng tn s rt
cao). Cc sao c cp nng lng bng phn ng nhit hch ht nhn, trong hai ht
nhn nh va chm v hnh thnh nn mt ht nhn ln hn, ng thi gii phng nng
lng.
S hng chu ca con ngi trc bc x ion ha c o bng n v milirem.
Mt ngi in hnh phi hng chu khong 200 mrem bc x nn t nhin/nm.
Tm c quyn Ba pht u tin ca Steven Weinberg. Cun sch ny m t ba
pht u tin ca s tn ti ca v tr.
Bi tp
1. Mt nguyn t helium t sp xp n nh th ny ti mt thi im. Hy tm
hng v ln ca lc tc dng ln electron pha bn phi. Hai proton trong ht nhn qu
gn nhau (~ 1 fm) nn bn c th xem chng nm chng ln nhau.
2. Nguyn t helium ca bi ton 1 c mt s tri nghim mi, i qua mt s bin
i s sng, v sau t sp xp theo cu hnh nh trong hnh. u l hng v ln
ca lc tc dng ln electron di ? (V ng ko di lm sng t cch bn s dng
gc xc nh hng).
3. Gi s bn gi hai tay ca mnh pha trc mt, cch nhau 10 cm.
(a) Hy c tnh tng s electron trong mi tay.
(b) Hy c tnh lc y tng cng ca tt c electron trong mt tay tc dng ln tt
c electron trong tay kia.
(c) Ti sao bn khng cm nhn c hai tay bn ang y ln nhau ?
(d) Hy c tnh bao nhiu in tch ca mt proton c th khc v ln vi in
tch ca mt electron m khng to ra mt lc ng ch no gia hai tay bn.

4. Gi s mt proton trong ht nhn ch i lch khi b mt ht nhn , v chu
mt lc ht nhn mnh khong 8 kN t nhng neutron v proton ln cn ht n tr vo.
Hy so snh gi tr s ny vi lc y in t nhng proton khc, v xc nhn lc tng hp
l lc ht. Ht nhn ch c dng rt gn hnh cu, v c bn knh khong 6,5 fm.
5. Nhng ht h nguyn t tn l muon x s ging ht electron, ngoi tr khi
lng muon ln hn 206,77 ln. Muon lin tc bn ph Tri t, l mt phn ca dng ht
n t khng gian, gi l tia v tr. Khi mt muon va chm vi mt nguyn t, n c th
thay th mt trong cc electron ca n. Nu nguyn t l nguyn t hydrogen, th muon
c qu o trung bnh gn proton hn 206,77 ln so vi electron b bn ra. Hi lc in
chu bi muon ln hn lc in chu bi electron trc bao nhiu ln ?
6. Qu trnh ht nhn ca phn r beta bng cch bt electron c m t trong
phn ch thch mc 2.6. Phn ng l p + e
-
n + v.
(a) Hy ch ra in tch c bo ton trong phn ng ny.
(b) S bo ton gia nng lng v khi lng c ni ti trong phn 2.8. Da
trn nhng tng ny, hy gii thch ti sao s bt electron khng xy ra trong nguyn t
hydrogen. (Nu n xy ra, vt cht s khng tn ti!)
7.
234
Pu phn r hoc l bng phn hy electron, hoc l bng phn hy alpha. (Mt
ht nhn
234
Pu cho trc c th phn r theo mt trong hai kiu, n l ngu nhin) Cc
ng v to ra di dng sn phm ca hai mode phn r ny l g?

Chng 3
MCH IN, PHN I
Tha b, th no l mt a tr ngoan ?
Micheal Faraday, khi tr li n hong Victoria v nhng dng c in trong phng
th nghim ca ng dng lm g.
Cch y vi nm, v ti v ti mua mt cn nh c c tnh. C tnh l mt c ch
sng cn theo xu th pht trin nh, nhm thuyt phc ngi ta ng tr khon tin th
chp ln hn s tin h c th hnh dung ra lc ban u. Du sao, mt trong nhng c
im mang li c tnh cho ngi nh ca chng ti l n c, xy hn vo trong tng nh,
mt b ba my chi pachinko. Nhng dng c c bc kiu Nht Bn ny thuc loi ging
nh my chi pinball thng ng. (Nhng bi bo hp php chng ti mua t tay nhng
ngi bn bo vi v cho chng ti bit chng ch nhm mc ch tiu khin) Tht
khng may, ch mt trong ba my l hot ng khi chng ti chuyn n , v n sm
tiu tng trn tay chng ti. ang thnh mt k nghin pachinko, ti quyt nh sa n,
nhng ni th d hn lm. Bn trong n l c mt c ch Rube Goldsberg thc s gm cc
n by, mc kha, l xo, v ng trt. Tnh t cao n su trong mu ca ti, cng
vi trnh tin s vt l ca mnh, cho ti cm gic nht nh s thnh cng, v sau cng
n mang li s tht bi hon ton lm ti mt ht tinh thn.
Ngm li tht bi ca mnh, ti nhn ra mc phc tp ca cc dng c c gii
m ti s dng t ngy ny sang ngy khc. Ngoi chic xe hi v ci saxophone ca ti,
mi dng c cng ngh trong h thng ym tr cuc sng hin i ca chng l in
ch khng phi c.
3.1 Dng in
Thng nht mi loi in
Chng ta b vy quanh bi nhng th m chng ta nghe ni l in, nhng r
rng cn lu chng mi c chung th xc nhn l chung nhm vi nhau. C mi quan
h g gia cch thc nhng mng tt dnh vo nhau v cch thc pin thp sng bng n ?
Chng ta nghe ni ti c con c chnh in v no ca mnh v l do g vn t nhin c
tnh cht in, nhng tht ra chng c ci g chung ?
Nh vt l hc ngi Anh Micheal Faraday (1791 1867) bt tay vo gii quyt
vn ny. ng nghin cu in t nhiu ngun a dng trong c c c chnh in!
xem chng c to ra nhng tc dng ging nhau khng, v d nh va chm v tia la in,
lc ht v lc y. Chng hn, nung nng l cch dy tc bng n t ti nng
rc ln v pht ra nh sng. Cm ng t l mt hiu ng do chnh Faraday khm ph lin
kt in hc v t hc. Chng ta s khng nghin cu hiu ng ny, n l c s cho cc
my pht in, chi tit s c ni ti trong phn sau ca cun sch ny.
ngun kt qu
sc tia la ht v y nng ln
c xt
pin
ng vt ()
cm ng
t

Bng trn trnh by tm tt mt s kt qu
ca Faraday. Cc du kim cho bit Faraday hay
nhng ngi ng thi ca ng c th xc nhn
mt ngun in nht nh c kh nng to ra nhng
hiu ng nht nh. (H r rng tht bi trong
vic chng minh lc ht v y gia nhng vt tch
in bng c chnh in, mc d nhng ngi th
hin i nghin cu chi tit cc loi ny v c th
hiu c mi c tnh in ca chng tng t cc
dng thc in khc).
Kt qu ca Faraday cho thy khng c s
khc bit c bn no v cc loi in do nhng
ngun khc nhau cung cp. Chng u to ra nhng
hiu ng a dng ging ht nhau. Faraday vit Kt lun chung phi rt ra t b thu thp
thc t ny l in, cho d ngun pht ra n l g i na, u ging nhau v bn cht ca
n.
Nu cc loi in l cng mt th, vy
th th l g ? Cu tr li c cung cp bi
thc t l mi ngun in u c th lm cho
cc vt y hoc ht ln nhau. Chng ta s
dng t tch in m t tnh cht ca mt
vt cho php n tham gia vo nhng lc in
nh th, v chng ta bit rng in tch c mt
trong vt cht di dng ht nhn v electron.
R rng l nhng hin tng in ny rt li l
chuyn ng ca cc ht tch in trong vt
cht.
Dng in
Nu hin tng c bn l chuyn
ng ca cc ht mang in, th lm sao chng
ta c th vch ra mt s o bng s c ch ca
n ? Chng ta c th m t dng chy ca
sng d dng bng vn tc ca nc, nhng
vn tc s khng thch hp i vi mc tiu
in, v chng ta phi tnh n bao nhiu in

a/ Gymnotus carapo, mt loi c in, s
dng tn hiu in cm nhn mi trng
v truyn tin vi nhng ng loi khc ca
n.
tch c trong cc ht mang in chuyn ng, v trong bt k trng hp no cng khng
c dng c thc t bn ti ca hng in c th cho chng ta bit vn tc ca cc ht
mang in. Th nghim cho thy cng ca nhng hiu ng in khc nhau t l vi
mt i lng khc: s coulomb in tch i qua mt im nht nh trong mt giy.
Tng t nh dng nc chy, i lng ny c gi l dng in, I. n v
coulomb/giy ca n thng c s dng ngn hn l ampere, 1 A = 1 C/s.
S kho lo ch yu c trong nh ngha ny l lm sao m hai loi in tch.
Dng nc chy ra t vi nc cu thnh t cc nguyn t cha cc ht tch in, nhng
n khng to ra hiu ng no cho chng ta lin tng ti dng in. Chng hn, bn khng
bao gi b sc in khi bn b mt vi nc phun vo. Loi th nghim ny cho thy hiu
ng c to ra bi chuyn ng ca mt loi ht tch in c th b trit tiu bi
chuyn ng ca loi ht tch in tri du trong cng hng . Trong nc, mi nguyn
t oxygen c in tch + 8e b bao quanh bi 8 electron c in tch e, v tng t nh
th i vi nguyn t hydrogen.
Do , chng ta c th trau chut nh ngha dng in ca mnh nh sau:
nh ngha dng in
Khi cc ht tch in trao i gia cc vng khng gian A v B th dng in chy
t A sang B l
q
I
t
A
=
A

trong q A l s thay i in tch ton phn ca vng B xy ra trong khong thi
gian t A .
Trong v d vi nc trong vn cy, c th ca bn bt c lng in tch
dng v m bng nhau, nn khng gy ra s thay i in tch ton phn ca bn, cho nn
dng in chy qua bn l bng khng.
V d 1. Gii thch
q
t
A
A

Phi hiu biu thc / q t A A nh th no khi dng in khng phi l khng i ?
Bn thy nhiu phng trnh thuc dng ny trc y: / , / x t F p t A A = A A ... y
u l s m t tc bin thin, v chng u yu cu tc bin thin khng i. Nu tc bin
thin khng phi khng i, th bn phi s dng dc ca ng tip tuyn trn th. dc
ca ng tip tuyn tng ng vi o hm trong tnh ton; ng dng ca php tnh s c ni
ti trong phn 3.6.
V d 2. Ion chuyn ng qua mng t bo
Hnh c/ biu din cc ion, c ghi tn vi in tch ca chng, chuyn ng vo hoc ra khi
mng ca ba t bo. Nu cc ion u i qua mng t bo trong cng khong thi gian nh nhau, th
dng in chy vo t bo so snh vi nhau nh th no ?
T bo A c dng in dng i vo n, v in tch ca n tng ln, tc l c gi tr q A
dng.
T bo B c cng dng in nh t bo A, v vic mt mt n v in tch m cng lm
tng in tch ton phn ca n ln mt n v.
in tch ton phn ca t bo C gim ba n v, nn c dng in m, ln i vo.
T bo D mt mt n v in tch nn c c dng in m, nh i vo.

c/ V d 2
C v tht l khi ni rng mt ht tch in m chuyn ng theo mt chiu to ra
dng in chy theo chiu kia, nhng chuyn ny kh bnh thng. Nh chng ta s thy,
dng in chy qua dy dn kim loi thng qua s chuyn ng ca cc electron, chng
tch in m, nn hng chuyn ng ca cc electron trong mch in lun lun ngc
vi hng ca dng in. Tt nhin, s tin li bit bao nhiu nu nh Benjamin Franklin
nh ngha du ca in tch m v dng theo kiu ngc li, v nhiu dng c in hot
ng trn c s dy dn kim loi.

V d 3. S electron chy qua bng n
Nu mt bng n c dng in 1,0A chy qua, hi c bao nhiu electron i qua dy tc
trong 1 giy ?
Chng ta ch tnh s electron chy thnh dng, nn chng ta c th b qua cc du dng
v m. Gii phng trnh Aq = I At cho dng in tch 1,0 C trong khong thi gian ny. S electron
l
s electron = 1,0 C/e = 6,2 x 10
18

3.2 Mch in
Lm th no chng ta c th t cho dng in hot ng ? Phng php duy nht
iu khin in tch m chng ta bit trc y l tch in cho cc cht khc nhau, v
d nh nha cao su v lng th, bng cch c xt chng ln nhau. Hnh d/1 cho thy mt
c gng s dng k thut ny thp sng mt bng n. Phng php ny khng n. Tht
vy, dng in s chy qua bng n, v cc electron c th chuyn ng qua dy kim loi,
v cc electron d tha trn thanh nha do s i qua dy dn v bng n do lc ht ca
lng th tch in dng v lc y ca cc electron khc. Vn l ch sau mt phn
v cng nh ca giy ca dng in, c thanh nha v lng th u mt ht in tch. S
khng c dng in chy qua na, v bng n s tt.
Hnh d/2 biu din mt c cu hot ng c. Pin y in tch qua mch in, v
c th xoay chuyn n theo vng. (Chng ta s c nhiu th ni hn phn sau cun
sch ny v s hot ng ca pin) Dng ny c gi l mt dng in kn. Ngy nay, t
mch in n su vo tm tr i vi a s mi ngi, nhng ngha ban u ca n
l truyn i xung quanh v thc hin mt hnh trnh khp kn, ging nh mt v quan ta
ci nga i khp vng hoang vu phn pht s cng bng cho tng thnh ph vo mt
ngy nht nh.
Lu l mt v d nh hnh d/3 s khng hot ng. Dy dn s nhanh chng bt
u thu c mt in tch thc, v n khng c cch no gii phng lng in tch
chy vo n. Lc y ca in tch ny s khin n cng lc cng kh gi thm bt k in
tch no na vo, v chng bao lu th lc in tc dng bi pin s trit tiu nhau hon
ton. Ton b qu trnh din ra nhanh n ni si dy tc khng c thi gian nng v
sng ln. Mch in ny c gi l mch h. Hin tng ging ht nh th s xy ra nu
nh mch in kn trong hnh d/2 b ct t u bng mt ci ko, v trn thc t
nguyn tc hot ng ca mt cng tc bng n l ng/m khe h trong mch in.

d/ 1. in tnh hot ng rt nhanh.
2. Mt mch in thc t.
3. Mt mch in h.
4. Nguyn tc hot ng ca ampere k.
5. o dng in bng ampere k.

nh ngha dng in m chng ta pht trin c hiu qu to ln ch n d o.
Trong hot ng in thc t, ngi ta hu nh lun lun o dng in, ch khng phi
in tch. Dng c dng o dng in gi l ampere k. Mt ampere k n gin, hnh
d/4, gm mt cun dy nam chm c lc lm xon mt ci kim st di sc cn ca l xo.
Dng in cng ln th lc cng mnh. Mc d cu to ca ampere k c th khc i,
nhng vic s dng chng lun lun ging nhau. Chng ta ct ngang ng i ca dng
in v t vo gia mt my o, ging nh mt -ct nm trn ng, d/5. Vn c mt
mch in kn, v chng no pin v bng n cn ni vi nhau, ampere k ch l mt on
khc ca dy dn m thi.
Chng ta phi t ampere k vo ch no trong mch in ? Liu ta c th t n
pha bn tri ca mch in, chng hn, thay cho bn phi c khng ?S bo ton in
tch cho chng ta bit iu ny c th thc hin c m khng c s khc bit no c.
in tch khng b ph hy hay s dng ht bi bng n, nn chng ta s o c cng
mt dng in cho d l pha bn no cng vy. Ci b s dng ht l nng lng d
tr trong pin, n chuyn ha thnh nhit v nng lng nh sng.
3.3 in th
n v volt
Mch in c th dng gi tn hiu, lu tr thng tin, hay thc hin tnh ton,
nhng mc ch ph bin nht ca chng t trc n nay l thao tc nng lng, nh
trong v d pin v bng n trong mc trc. Chng ta bit bng n c tc o bng
n v watt, tc l bao nhiu joule/giy nng lng chng c th chuyn ha thnh nhit v
nh sng, nhng lm sao iu ny li quan h vi dng in tch nh o trong ampere k ?
Bng cch tng t, gi s bn ca bn, ngi khng hc vt l, khng tm c vic g
tt hn l ngi nm nhng kin c kh. S calo anh ta t chy mi gi nht nh s ph
thuc vo s lng kin c anh ta nm trong mt pht, nhng n cng s t l vi lng
cng c hc m anh ta thc hin trn tng kin c. Nu cng vic ca anh ta l nm chng
vo mt va c kh, anh ta s mt nhanh hn k ch lm cng vic chuyn c t xe ti
xung. Trong n v h mt
s joule
=
s kin c
x
s joule
giy giy kin c
Tng t, tc bin i nng lng bi pin s khng ch ph thuc vo bao
nhiu coulomb trn giy n y qua mt mch in, m cn ph thuc vo bao nhiu cng
c hc n thc hin trn tng coulomb in tch
s joule
=
s coulomb
x
s joule
giy giy coulomb
hay cng sut = dng in x cng trn n v in tch
n v J/C c gi gn li l volt, 1 V = 1 J/C,
theo tn nh vt l ngi Italia Alessandro Volta. Mi ngi
u bit pin c nh gi theo n v volt, nhng khi
nim in th tng qut hn; ha ra in th l mt tnh cht
ca mi im trong khng gian. hiu k hn, hy ngh
thn trng hn v ci din ra trong pin v mch in bng
n.
Khi nim in th
thc hin cng trn mt ht tch in, tt nhin l
pin phi tc dng lc ln n. Vy pin thc hin vic ny
nh th no ? Ch c mt th c th tc dng lc ln mt
ht tch in l mt ht tch in khc. C nh th l nhng
kin c y v ht nhau vo va c kh! y c th l mt
tnh hung qu phc tp. Cho d l chng ta bit c bao nhiu in tch dng v m d
tha ti mi im trong mch in (trn thc t th chng ta khng bit c), th chng ta
phi tnh v s lc bng nh lut Coulomb, thc hin mi php cng vect, v cui cng
tnh c bao nhiu cng thc hin trn cc in tch khi chng chuyn ng qua. Cn
khip m hn na, c ti hn mt loi ht mang in chuyn ng: electron l th chuyn
ng trong dy dn v dy tc bng n, cn ion l nhng ht mang in tch chuyn ng
bn trong pin. Tht may mn, c hai cch chng ta c th l n gin ha mi th:
Trng thi khng bin i. Khng ging nh c cu tng tng trong
chng ta c gng thp sng mt bng n bng mt thanh nha v mt mnh lng
th, mch in ny t n duy tr trng thi cn bng (c l sau khong thi gian
chng mt micro giy sau khi rp mch in). Dng in n nh, v khi in
tch chy ra khi mt ni no ca mch in, n c thay th bng cng lng
in tch chy vo. Lng in tch dng hay m d tha trong bt c phn no
ca mch in, do , vn gi khng i. Tng t, khi chng ta nhn mt dng
sng chy, nc vn tri i nhng dng sng khng bin mt.
Lc ch ph thuc vo v tr. V s phn b in tch l khng thay i, nn lc
in tng hp tc dng ln mt ht tch in ch ph thuc vo in tch ring ca
n v vo v tr ca n. Nu mt ht tch in khc cng loi i n ng v tr
vo lc sau, n s cm nhn mt lc ng bng nh c.
Quan st th hai cho chng ta bit khng c s khc bit no v s tri nghim ca
mt ht tch in so vi mt ht tch in khc. Nu chng ta chn mt ht ch ti, v
tnh lng cng thc hin trn n bi lc in khi n i t im A n im B dc theo
mt qu o nht nh, th cng lng cng ny s thc hin trn bt k ht tch in no
khc cng loi vi n i theo cng qu o . Cho d hnh dung, hy ngh v qu o bt
u t mt cc ca pin, i qua dy tc ca bng n, v kt thc ti in cc bn kia. Khi
mt vt chu mt lc ch ph thuc vo v tr ca n (v khi nhng iu kin k thut khc
c tha mn), chng ta c th nh ngha nng lng in gn vi v tr ca vt . Cng
do lc in thc hin trn ht khi n di chuyn t im A ti im B bng vi gim
nng lng in gia A v B. Nng lng in ny l th chuyn ha thnh nhng dng
nng lng khc, nh nhit v nh sng. V vy, chng ta nh ngha in th ni chung l
nng lng in trn n v in tch:
nh ngha hiu in th
Hiu in th gia hai im trong khng gian c nh ngha l
AV = AU
in
/q
trong AU
in
l bin thin nng lng in ca mt ht c in tch q khi n
i t im u ti im cui.
Cng sut tiu th (tc l tc chuyn ha
nng lng bi dng in) c cho bi phng
trnh
P = I AV
V d 4. Nng lng d tr trong pin
Pin sc 1,2 V trong hnh f c dn nhn
1800 miliampere-gi. Hi pin ny c th d tr nng
lng ti a bng bao nhiu ?
Mt ampere-gi l mt n v dng in nhn vi mt n v thi gian. Dng in l in
tch trn n v thi gian, nn ampere-gi tht ra l mt n v hi l ca in tch
(1 A) (1 h) = (1 C/s) (3600 s) = 3600C
Do , 1800 mAh s l 1800 x 10
-3
x 3600 C = 6,5 x 10
3
C.
l mt s khng l ht tch in, nhng gim nng lng in ton phn s ch bng
in tch tng cng ca chng nhn vi hiu in th qua chng di chuyn
AU
in
= qAV = (6,5 x 10
3
C) (1,2 V) = 7,8 kJ
V d 5. n v volt-ampere
Chung ca thng c nh gi bng n v volt-ampere. S kt hp n v ny c
ngha l g ?
Dng in nhn vi hiu in th cho n v cng sut, P = I AV, nn VA tht ra ch l mt
cch ghi watt khng chun. Chng cho chng ta bit cng sut m chung ca yu cu.
V d 6. Cng sut tiu hao bi pin v bng n
Nu mt pin 9,0 V gy ra dng 1,0 A chy qua mt bng n, hi cng sut tiu th l bao
nhiu ?
in th c tnh ca pin cho chng ta bit hiu in th c thit k duy tr gia hai cc
ca n.
P = I AV = 9,0 A.V = 9,0 (C/s) (J/C) = 9,0 J/s = 9,0 W
iu ng k duy nht trong bi ton ny l n v. Ngi ta nhanh chng quen vi vic
chuyn nhng kt hp thng dng nh A.V sang nhng n v n gin hn.
y l mt s cu hi v tr li v khi nim in th.
Hi: OK, vy th tht ra in th l g ?

f/ V d 4
Tr li: Mt dng c ging nh pin c in tch dng v m bn trong n y cc in
tch khc chy vng trn theo mch in ngoi. Pin c in th cng cao th c mt in tch
trong n cng dy, n s thc hin cng ln hn ln tng ht tch in chuyn ng qua mch
ngoi.
Nhm tng t vi hp dn, bn c th t mt bnh gung ti y mt thc nc cao
hay mt thc nc ngn, nhng mt kg nc ri qua hiu th nng hp dn cng ln s cng c
nhiu nng lng trao cho bnh gung y thc.
Hi: Ti sao chng ta nh ngha in th l nng lng in chia cho in tch, thay v ch
nh ngha n l mt dng nng lng in ?
Tr li: Ngi ta tr li rng l nh ngha duy nht lm cho phng trnh P = IAV hot
ng. Cu tr li tng qut hn l chng ta mun nh ngha c hiu in th gia hai im bt
k trong khng gian m khng cn phi bit trc c bao nhiu in tch m cc ht chuyn ng
gia chng s c. Nu bn mt ci pin 9V ln li ca mnh, th cc ht tch in i qua li ca
bn v mang cho bn cm gic nga ran khng phi l cc electron m l cc ion, chng c th c
in tch +e, - 2e, hay bt c gi tr thc no khc. Nh sn xut c l mong i pin c s dng
ch yu trong mch in vi dy kim loi, trong cc ht tch in chy thnh dng l cc
electron vi in tch e. Nu dng ht tch in chy qua li bn c in tch 2e, th hiu th
nng ca chng s ln gp i, nhng chia cho in tch 2e ca chng theo nh ngha s vn cho
kt qu l 9 V.
Hi: C phi c hai vai tr tch bit cho cc ht tch in trong mch in, mt loi vn
dm chn ti ch v tc dng lc, v loi kia th chuyn ng di tc dng ca nhng lc ?
Tr li: Khng. Mi ht tch in ng thi m nhn c hai vai tr. nh lut III Newton
ni rng bt c ht no c lc in tc dng ln n cng phi tc dng mt lc in tr li ht kia.
Khng h c k di chuyn ch nh hay k tc dng lc ch nh.
Hi: Ti sao nh ngha in th ch ni ti hiu in th ?
Tr li: Hon ton OK nh ngha in th l V = U
in
/q. Nhng nhc li, ch c hiu
nng lng tng tc, U, l c ngha vt l trc tip. Tng t, hiu in th tht s c ch hn
in th tuyt i. Volt k o hiu in th, ch khng o in th tuyt i.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Con ln l mt dng ging nh mch in, nhng n s dng lc hp dn tc dng ln
xe hi thay cho lc in. Ci g ng vai tr in th cao trong trng hp con ln ? Cn dng in
cao chy qua con ln l ci g ?
B. Bnh lun nhng pht biu sau:
Anh ta chm trng dy dn, v 10.000 V i qua anh ta.
Chic pin c in tch 9 V.
Bn dng ht in tch ca pin.
C. Khi bn mt chic pin 9 V chm vo li mnh, c in tch dng v in tch m
u i qua nc bt ca bn. Cc ion i theo ng no ?
D. C mt ln ti chm trng mt mu thit b vt l c ni dy khng ng cch, v
nhn mt hiu in th vi nghn volt qua tay mnh. Ci g l nguyn nhn gy sc khng sc
lm hi n ti ?
3.4 in tr
in tr
phn trc, chng ta d dng quan st thy mt thc t l mt mch in pin
v bng n nhanh chng c t vo dng n nh, nhng ti sao li nh vy ? nh lut
II Newton, a = F/m, hnh nh tin on rng lc n nh tc dng ln nhng ht tch in
phi lm cho chng chy vng trn trong mch in cng lc cng nhanh hn. Cu tr
li l khi cc ht tch in chy qua vt cht, lun lun c nhng lc, tng t nh lc ma
st, cn tr chuyn ng . Nhng lc ny cn phi a vo nh lut II Newton, nn n
tht ra l a = F
tnghp
/m, ch khng phi a = F/m. Nu, bng cch tng t, bn y mt
ci st chy trn sn nh tc khng i, tc l vi gia tc bng khng, th lc tng
hp tc dng ln n phi bng khng. Sau khi bn y chic st chuyn ng, lc ma st
ca sn nh s trit tiu chnh xc vi lc ca bn. Nng lng ha hc d tr trong c th
bn ang chuyn ha thnh nhit trong ci st v sn nh, v khng cn lm tng ng
nng ca ci st na. Tng t, nng lng ha hc bn trong pin chuyn ha thnh nhit,
ch khng lm tng lin tc ng nng ca ca cc ht tch in. S bin i nng lng
thnh nhit c th l mt tn tht trong mt s mch in, v d nh chip my tnh, nhng
n l cn thit trong trng hp bng n si t, loi bng n cn phi nng sng
ln. Cho d bn c thch n hay khng th loi hiu ng nhit ny vn c xy ra bt c khi
no cc ht tch in chuyn ng qua vt cht.
Ci g xc nh lng nhit ? Mt bng n flash c thit k lm vic vi pin
9 V c th c dn nhn 1,0 watt, mt bng khc dn 5,0 watt. Chng hot ng nh th
no ? Ngay c khng cn bit tng tn loi ma st ny mc nguyn t, bn c th
lin h nhit tiu hao vi dng in chy thng qua phng trnh P = I AV. Nu hai bng
n flash c hai gi tr P khc nhau khi s dng vi cng mt pin duy tr cng mt hiu
in th AV, th bng n 5,0 watt cho dng in lp gp 5 ln chy qua n.
i vi nhiu cht, gm c tungsten ch to nn si tc bng n, th nghim cho
thy lng in s chy qua n t l thun vi hiu in th t vo hai u ca n. i vi
mt vt cu to t mt cht nh th, chng ta nh ngha in tr ca n nh sau:
nh ngha in tr
Nu mt vt nm trong mt mch in biu hin dng in t l thun vi hiu in
th hai u ca n, th chng ta nh ngha in tr ca n l t s khng i
R = AV / I
n v ca in tr l volt/ampere,
thng c gi tt l ohm, k hiu bng ch
ci Hi Lp in hoa omega, O.
V d 7. in tr ca bng n
Mt bng n flash c cp ngun bng mt
pin 9 V c in tr 10 O. Hi dng in chy qua n
bng bao nhiu ?
Gii phng trnh nh ngha in tr cho I, ta
c

nh lut Ohm pht biu rng nhiu
cht, gm nhiu cht rn v mt s cht lng,
biu hin loi hnh vi ny, t nht l i vi
nhng hiu in th khng qu ln. Tht ra nh lut Ohm c gi l nh lut khng
c ngha l mi cht u tun theo n, hay c n tm quan trng c s nh nh lut
Newton chng hn. Cc cht gi l omic hay phi omic ty thuc vo chng c tun theo
nh lut Ohm hay khng.
Nu cc vt c kch thc v hnh dng ging nhau ch to t hai cht omic khc
nhau c in tr khc nhau, chng ta ni mt cht c in tr ln hn cht kia hay km
dn in hn cht kia u c. Cc cht, v d nh kim loi, c tnh dn rt mnh, c
ni l cht dn in tt. Nhng cht c tnh dn qu km, v d nh g hay cao su, c
phn loi l cht cch in. Khng c s khc bit su sc no gia hai loi cht. Mt s
cht, v d nh silicon, nm gia hai thi cc , v c gi l cht bn dn.
mc trc gic, chng ta c th hiu tng in tr bng cch to ra m
thanh hhhhhh v ffffff. a dng khng kh ra khi ming bn, bn phi s dng
c honh nn khng kh trong ngc mnh. S chnh lch p sut gia khng kh trong
ngc bn v khng kh bn ngoi ming bn tng t nh s chnh lch in th. Khi bn
pht ra m h, bn iu khin ming v c hng mnh theo kiu cho php khng kh chy
ra d dng. Dng khng kh mnh ging nh dng in ln. Chia cho dng in ln trong
nh ngha in tr c ngha l chng ta c in tr nh. Chng ta ni in tr nh ca
ming v c hng bn cho php dng in ln chy qua. Khi bn pht m f, bn lm tng
in tr v gy ra dng chy nh hn.
Lu mc d in tr ca mt vt ph thuc vo cht cu to nn n, nhng chng
ta khng th ni n gin l in tr ca
vng hay in tr ca g. Hnh h biu din
bn vt v d c dy gn hai u ni vo
mch in. Nu chng cu to t cng mt
cht, chng s vn c in tr khc nhau, v
hnh dng v kch thc ca chng khc
nhau. Chng ta s bn ti vn ny chi tit
hn trong chng sau, nhng tht khng c g
ngc nhin nu in tr ca h/2 ln hn ca
h/1 hnh nh nc chy qua ng, tuy khng
ng lm, nhng n mang li cho chng ta s
trc gic tt. Vt h/3 s c in tr nh hn
h/1 v cc ht tch in i qua n on ng
ngn hn.
Cc cht siu dn
Mi cht u biu hin mt s bin
thin v in tr theo nhit (hin tng ny c khai thc trong b n nhit lm nhit
k c th tip xc d dng vi mt mch in). K l hn na, ngi ta thy a s kim loi
biu hin s thay i t ngt n in tr bng khng khi nhit lnh ti mt nhit
ti hn nht nh. Khi , ngi ta gi chng l cht siu dn. V mt l thuyt, cc cht
siu dn s cho php ch to nhiu dng c ln, v d nh cc cun dy nam chm dng
li on xe la. Trong thc t, nhit ti hn ca tt c cc kim loi rt thp, v yu cu
phi lm chng tht lnh khin vic ng dng chng khng c tnh kinh t, ngoi tr
nhng ng dng chuyn bit nh trong my gia tc ht cho nghin cu vt l.
Nhng gn y cc nh khoa hc c pht hin tht ngc nhin rng nhng cht
ceramic nht nh l cht siu dn nhit cao hn mt cht. Ro chn k thut hin nay
l tm kim phng php ch to dy dn t nhng cht d v ny. Wall Street hin ang
u t hng t la cho vic pht trin nhng dng c siu dn dng cho in thoi cm
tay da trn nhng cht liu ny. Nm 2001, thnh ph Copenhagen thay th mt on
ngn mng li in ca mnh bng cp siu dn, v hin nay chng ang hot ng v
cp in cho ngi tiu dng.

h/ Bn vt cu to t cng mt cht nhng c in
tr khc nhau.
Hin nay, ni chung khng c l thuyt no v siu dn lm tha mn c mi
ngi, mc d s siu dn trong kim loi c hiu kh tt. Tht khng may, ti cha
tm ra li gii thch c bn ca s siu dn trong kim loi hot ng quy m cng nghip.
i/ Mt on siu dn ca my gia tc ATLAS ti Phng th
nghim quc gia M, gn Chicago. N c dng gia tc
chm ion n vi phn trm ca tc nh sng, dng cho
nghin cu vt l ht nhn. B mt mu bc sng bng ch to
t nguyn t niobium, mt cht siu dn nhit tng i
cao so vi nhng kim loi khc tng i cao nhng cng
ngang vi nhit ca helium lng! Chm ion i qua cc l
trong hai hnh tr nh hai u ca thanh cong. in tch chy
ti lui gia chng tn s 12 triu chu trnh mi giy, nn
chng chuyn ha thnh dng v m. Chm tch in dng
gm nhng phun tro ngn mi ln khi chng trong mt
trong cc on n s b ht v pha trc bi in tch m trn
hnh tr pha trc v b y ra pha trc bi in tch
dng ng sau. Dng in khng l ny (xem v d 9) s
nhanh chng lm tan chy bt k kim loi no khng siu dn,
nhng trong cht siu dn chng khng h to ra cht nhit
no.

in th khng i trn mt vt dn
tng v cht siu dn a chng ta n cu hi chng ta mong i mt vt s
x s nh th no nu n c ch to t mt cht dn in rt tt. Cc cht siu dn l
trng hp cc oan, nhng thng th mt dy dn kim loi c th xem l mt vt dn
hon ho, chng hn nu nh cc phn ca mch in ngoi dy dn ra ch to t nhng
cht dn in km hn nhiu. iu g xy ra nu R bng khng trong phng trnh R =
AU/I ? Kt qu ca php chia hai s cho nhau ch c th bng khng nu nh s trn t
bng khng. iu ny cho chng ta bit nu chng ta chn bt k hai im no trong mt
vt dn hon ho, th hiu in th gia chng phi bng khng. Ni cch khc, ton b vt
dn phi cng mt in th.
in th khng i c ngha l khng c cng no c thc hin trn in tch khi
n di chuyn t im ny ti im kia trong vt dn. Nu cng bng khng c thc hin
ch dc theo mt qu o nht nh gia hai im c bit , th n c ngha l cng
dng c thc hin dc theo mt phn ca qu o v cng m thc hin trn phn cn
li, kt qu l chng kh ln nhau. Nhng khng c cch no m cng c th t ti bng
khng i vi mi qu o c th c, tr khi lc in tc dng ln in tch thc t l bng
khng ti mi im. V d, gi s bn to ra mt in tch tnh bng cch c chn bn ln
tm thm, v ri bn gi mt s in tch ln nm ca, n l mt vt dn tt. Lm th
no in tch c th bn trong nm ca m khng tc dng bt k lc no ln bt k
im no bn trong n ? Cu tr li kh d duy nht l in tch chuyn ng trn cho
n khi n t phn b theo mt cu hnh thch hp sao cho lc do cc phn in tch nh
d tha trn b mt ln bt c ht mang in no bn trong nm ca chnh xc trit tiu ln
nhau.
Chng ta c th gii thch hnh vi ny nu nh chng ta gi s rng in tch nm
trn nm ca cui cng s c t vo trng thi cn bng bn. V nm ca l mt vt
dn nn in tch t do di chuyn trong n. Nu n t do chuyn ng v bt k phn no
ca n cng chu mt lc tng hp khc khng do phn in tch cn li tc dng, th n s
chuyn ng v chng ta khng c c trng thi cn bng.
Thnh ra l in tch nm trn mt vt dn, mt khi t ti cu hnh cn bng, th
hon ton nm trn b mt, ch khng phi phn bn trong. Chng ta s khng chng minh
iu ny, nhng n c th gii thch c bng trc gic. Chng hn, gi s in tch ton
phn trn mt vt dn l m, tc l n c tha electron. Nhng electron ny s y ln
nhau, v lc y ny c xu hng y chng ln pha trn b mt, v nm trn b mt cho
php chng nm xa nhau nht
Ngn mch
phn trc, chng ta gi nh mt vt dn hon ho. Vy th th no l mt
vt dn tt, nu n khng phi l vt dn hon ho ? Khi , chng ta c th gii phng
trnh AV = IR. Mt dng in c bnh thng s cho kt qu rt nh khi chng ta nhn n
vi in tr ca mt vt dn tt, v d nh dy kim loi. Hiu in th gia hai u dy khi
s gn nh khng i. Mt khc, nu
dng in l cc ln, th chng ta c s
chnh lch in th ng k. y l iu xy
ra trong mt on mch: mt mch in
trong mt ng dn in tr thp ni
gia hai cc ca ngun cp in th. Lu
l t ny c s dng trong ng cnh c
bit hn nhiu so vi ngha ph bin ca
thut ng nm m ch bt c s c in no.
Chng hn, nu bn ngn mch mt chic
pin 9V nh biu din trong hnh j, bn s to
dng in c l ln ti mt ngn ampe, a
ti gi tr P = IAV rt ln. Dy dn s
nng ln!
v iu g s xy ra vi chic pin b ngn mch nh th ny ?
in tr
Trong bt c dng in no, bn s thy mt vi nguyn t mch in ging nh
mch v trong hnh di y. Nhng in tr ny n gin l mt khi tr vt liu ohm
tnh c dy dn gn hai u.
Trong ng cnh ny, a s sinh vin thy kh hiu ni ti sao in tr li c s
dng bn trong chic radio hay my vi tnh. Hin nhin l chng ta mun bng n hay
bp in c mt thnh phn mch in lm cn tr dng in v nng ln, nhng nng ln
l th phin phc trong radio hay my vi tnh. Khng cn bn chi xa xi, hy dng mt s
tng t c hc c c mt nim chung xem ti sao in tr li c s dng trong
radio.

k/ K hiu ca in tr trong mch in
Nhng b phn chnh ca my thu radio l nten, b iu chnh chn tn s, v b
khuch i gia c tn hiu mnh pht ra loa. B iu chnh cng hng tn s c
chn, ging nh v d cng hng c ni ti quyn 3 ca lot bi ging ny. Hnh vi
ca b cng hng c ph thuc vo ba th: qun tnh ca n, cng ca n, v mc
ma st hay tt dn. Hai thng s u nm nh ca ng cong cng hng, cn mc tt
dn xc nh chiu rng ca cng hng. Trong b iu chnh radio, chng ta c mt h
dao ng in cng hng mt tn s nht nh. Thay cho mt vt chuyn ng ti lui,
nhng dao ng ny gm nhng dng in ban u chy theo mt hng, sau chy theo

j/ Ngn mch mt chic pin. Ch : bn c th t lm
phng mnh hoc lm pht ra la ! Nu bn mun th
nh th ny, hy ni dy trong thi gian rt ngn, s
dng pin in th thp, v trnh chm vo pin hoc
dy, c hai vt u nng ln.
hng ngc li. Trong mt h c hc, s tt dn c ngha l s mt mt nng lng dao
ng di dng nhit, v nim ging ht nh vy c p dng cho mt h in hc:
in tr mang li s tt dn, v do iu khin chiu rng cng hng. Nu chng ta loi
tr mi s cn tr trong mch iu chnh, bng cch khng gn in tr hoc bng cch
no loi b hn s cn tr in vn c ca dy dn, chng ta s c mt ci radio v
dng. S cng hng ca b iu chnh s qu hp nn chng ta khng bao gi c th
t gn ti tn s thch hp mang i t i pht thanh. Vai tr ca qun tnh v cng do
nhng thnh phn khc ca mch in m nhn, chng ta s khng ni ti (t in v
cun cm).

l/ V d in tr vi cc m mu
Mu
en
Nu

Cam
Vng
Lc
Lam
Tm
Xm
Trng
Bc
Vng
ngha
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10%
5%
m/ M mu dng
trong in tr
Nhiu dng c in hot ng trn c s s cn tr in v nh lut Ohm, mc d
chng khng c nhng thnh phn nh bn trong chng trng ging nh in tr thng
thng Sau y l mt s v d.
Bng n
Khng c g c bit v dy tc bng n bn c th d dng ch to mt ci
bng n bng cch ct mt eo hp trn mnh giy gi ko cao su v ni mnh giy gi
vi cc cc ca mt chic pin 9V. Vn l ch n s bc chy ngay tc th. Edison
gii quyt thch thc k thut ny bng cch cho dy tc vo trong mt bng ht chn
khng, ngn cn s chy, v s chy cn n oxygen.
Polygraph
Polygraph, hay my d nm, l mt b dng c o dng ghi li nhng s o
vt l ca s cng thng tm l ca cc i tng, v d nh s m hi hay nhp tim dn
dp. Php o m hi thc t hot ng trn nguyn tc da kh l mt cht cch in tt,
nhng da m m hi l mt vt dn. Tt nhin mt i tng chn tht c th tr nn bn
chn v hon cnh , v mt k la di c l thm ch khng m hi. Cc nh thc
hnh ca phng php khng nh rng h c th ni ln s khc bit, nhng bn cn
suy ngh thn trng trc khi cho php bn thn mnh kim tra polygraph. a s ta n
M khng chp nhn bng chng polygraph, nhng mt s ng ch thng c ngn chn
nhng ngi lao ng khng lng thin bng cch kim tra polygraph i vi ngi np
n xin vic, mt s lm dng c th xp ngang vi php phn tch ch k mang tnh khoa
hc gi to.
Cu ch
Cu ch l dng c xen vo gia mch in theo kiu ni tip ging nh ampe k.
N n gin l mt mu dy dn ch to t kim loi c im nng chy tng i thp.
Nu dng in qu mnh chy qua cu ch, n s tan chy, lm h mch in. Mc ch
ca vic s dng cu ch l m bo dy dn trong nh khng mang dng in qu ln
khin chng nng n mc bc la. a s nh hin i s dng cu dao ngt in thay
cho cu ch, mc d cu ch vn c dng ph bin trong xe hi v trong nhng dng c
nh. Cu dao ngt mch hot ng bng mt cun dy nam chm, n lm h mch khi
dng in chy qua ln. Thun li l ch mt khi bn tt ngun mt s thit b ht
nhiu dng in, bn c th lp tc o cng tc ng. Trong thi thnh hnh ca cu chi,
ngi ta c th gp phi rc ri khng c cu ch thay th, hay thm ch dng mt si dy
nhm thay th, b qua c yu cu an ton
Volt k
Volt k khng g hn chnh l mt my o in c gi tr in tr cao m qua
dng in buc phi chy qua. nh lut Ohm lin h dng in chy qua in tr t l
thun vi hiu in th gia hai u n, nn in k c th chia theo n v volt da
trn gi tr bit ca in tr. Hai u ca volt k gn vi hai ni ca mch in m gia
chng ta mun o hiu in th, n/2. Ch mc cng knh ca loi hnh v theo
kiu ny, v s kh khn khi din t ci g ni vi ci g. y l l do v sao hnh v mch
in thng c biu din di dng gin . Hnh n/3 l gin biu din hnh n/2.
C cu thit t o dng in v hiu in th l khc nhau. Khi chng ta dng
in, chng ta tm xem c bao nhiu cht i qua, nn chng ta t in k ni m ton
b dng in buc phi i qua n. Tuy nhin, hiu in th khng phi l lng cht i
qua, m n l s o nng lng in. Nu ampe k ging nh ci ng h nc nh bn,
thi volt k ging nh mt ci so o cho bn bit thc nc cao bao nhiu, nn bn c th
xc nh bao nhiu nng lng s c gii phng bi tng kilogam nc ri xung.
Chng ta khng cn buc nc phi i qua ci so o! Sp xp trong hnh n/3 l mt mc
song song: c mt ng ba ng, ti mt s dng in s chy theo mt li, v mt s
s chy theo li kia. Hnh n/4 l cch mc dy ni tip: ton b dng in s ln lt i qua
tt c mi thnh phn mch in. Chng ta s kho st mch in ni tip v song song chi
tit hn trong chng tip theo.
Nu bn ni volt k khng ng, ni tip vi bng n v pin, th in tr trong ln
ca n s chn dng in xung thp n mc bng n khng sng ln c. Bn s lm
nh hng gay gt n mch in khi c o mt vi th g v n.
Ni ampe k khng ng, ni song song, cn thm t hn na. Ampe k khng c
g ngoi mt si dy bn trong n mang li in tr, nn l s mt s la chn, a phn
dng in s chy qua n ch khng qua bng n. Trn thc t, dng in qu ln chy
qua ampe k c nguy c gy chy pin hay dng c o, v c th l c hai! V l do ny, a
s ampe k u c cu ch hay b ngt mch bn trong n. Mt s mu ampe k s ngt
cu dao ngt mch ca n v to ra m thanh bo hiu c th nghe r khi ri vo tnh
hung ny, cn mt s mu khc ch n gin l n cu ch v ngng hot ng cho n
khi bn thay cu ch mi.


n/1. Mt biu n gin cch hot ng ca volt k.
2. o hiu in th hai u bng n. 3. Cng thit t
trn nhng di dng gin . 4. Cch o dng in
khc vi o hiu in th
Cu hi tho lun
A. Trong hnh n/1, c s khc bit no v hiu in th o c khng nu nh chng ta
gn hai u volt k vi hai im khc dc theo cng on dy dn ?
B. Gii thch ti sao s khng chnh xc khi nh ngha in tr l lng in tch m vt
khng cho php chy qua.
3.5 Tnh dn in ca vt cht
nh lut Ohm c mt tnh cht ng ch , l dng in s chy p li s
chnh lch in th c gi tr nh ti mc m chng ta cn c th cn thn to ra c.
Tng t nh vic y mt ci st trn nn nh, v d nh mt con b y trt ci st trn
nn nh, mc d tc rt chm. Con b khng th lm c vic ny v lc ma st tnh,
chng ta ngh l mt hiu ng pht sinh t khuynh hng ca nhng ch li v lm vi
m trn ci st v nn nh kha li vi nhau. Thc t th nh lut Ohm p dng cho hu
ht cht rn c mt cch gii thch th v: t nht th cng c mt s electron khng b
kha chn hon ton trong bt k nguyn t c bit no.
Tng qut hn, chng ta c th hi c bao nhiu in tch tht s chy trong nhng
cht rn, cht lng, v cht kh khc nhau. Cu hi ny s a chng ta ti ch gii thch
nhiu hin tng th v, nh tia st, lp v xanh xanh gn trn cc cc ca bnh xe hi, v
nhu cu in phn trong thc ung th thao.
Cht rn
Theo thut ng nguyn t, c trng xc nh ca cht rn l cc nguyn t ca n
lin kt cht ch vi nhau, v ht nhn khng th chuyn ng qu xa v tr cn bng ca
chng. Nh vy, cc electron, ch khng phi ion, l ht mang in khi dng in chy
trong cht rn. S tht ny c Tolman v Stewart xc minh bng thc nghim, trong
mt th nghim trong h xoay trn mt cun dy ln ri bt ng lm n dng li. H
thy dng in trong dy ngay tc th sau khi cun dy dng li, cho thy cc ht mang
in khng phi b kha c nh vo mt nguyn t c bit no tip tc chuyn di v
qun tnh ring ca chng, ngay c sau khi vt cht ca dy ni chung dng li. Hng
ca dng in cho thy cc ht mang in m ang tip tc chuyn di. Tuy nhin, dng
in ch tn ti trong mt khonh khc; v khi cc ht mang in m tp trung u cui
dng ca dy, th nhng ht khc b ngn gia nhp vo v lc y in ca chng, cng
nh lc ht t pha u ngc dng, ni cn li in tch ton phn dng. Tolman v
Stewart cn xc nh c c t s khi lng trn in tch ca cc ht . Chng ta
khng cn i vo phn tch chi tit y, nhng cc ht c khi lng ln s kh gim tc,
dn ti xung in mnh hn v lu hn, cn cc ht c in tch ln s chu lc in mnh
hn lm hm chng li, gy ra xung in yu hn v ngn hn. Nh th, t s khi lng
trn in tch xc nh c ph hp vi t s m/q ca electron trong phm vi chnh xc
ca th nghim , v c bn xc minh cc ht l electron.
Thc t ch c cc electron mang in trong cht rn, ch khng phi ion, c nhiu
ng dng quan trng. Mt v d l n gii thch ti sao cc dy khng b c sn hay ha
thnh bi sau khi dn in mt thi gian di. Cc electron rt nh (c th xem nh cht
im), v tht d hnh dung chng truyn qua gia cc khe h gia cc nguyn t m
khng to ra ch trng hay khe nt trong cu trc nguyn t. Vi nhng ngi c cht
kin thc ha hc, n cng gii thch c ti sao mi cht dn in tt nht u nm bn
tri ca bng tun hon ha hc. Nhng nguyn t trong vng ch lin kt rt lng lo
vi nhng electron lp ngoi cng ca chng.

Cht kh
Cc phn t trong cht kh tri qua a s thi gian cch nhau nhng khong cch
ln, nn chng khng th dn in theo cch nh cht rn, bng cch chuyn di electron
t nguyn t ny sang nguyn t khc. Do , khng c g phi ngc nhin trc vic cht
kh l mt cht cch in tt.
Cht kh cng thng phi ohm tnh. Khi cc in tch tri du thit lp trn mt
m my ging v mt t bn di, s chnh lch in th cng lc cng ln dn. Tuy
nhin, khng h c dng in no chy mi cho n khi hiu in th t ti mt gi tr
ngng no v chng ta c mt v d n tng v ci c gi l tia la in hay s
phng in. Nu khng kh tun theo nh lut Ohm, th dng in gia m my v mt
t s tng mt cch u n n gin khi hiu in th tng ln, ch khng bng khng
cho n khi hiu in th t ti gi tr ngng. Hnh vi ny c th gii thch nh sau. Ti
mt s ch, lc in tc dng ln cc electron v ht nhn ca cc phn t khng kh tr
nn mnh n mc cc electron b bt ra khi mt s phn t. Khi , cc electron gia tc
v pha m my hoc mt t, ty thuc pha no tch in dng, v cc ion dng gia
tc v pha ngc li. Khi nhng ht mang in ny gia tc, chng va chm v lm ion ha
cc phn t khc, to nn t thc ht pht trin nhanh chng.
Cht lng
Cc phn t cht lng c th trt qua nhau, nn cc ion cng nh electron u c
th mang dng in. Nc tinh khit l mt cht dn in km v cc phn t nc c xu
hng gi cht cc electron ca chng, v do khng c nhiu electron hay ion sn c
chuyn di. Tuy nhin, nc c th tr thnh mt cht dn in kh tt, nu chng ha tan
thm mt lng nh nhng cht nht nh gi l cht in phn, chng thng l mui. V
d, nu chng ta thm mui n, NaCl, vo nc, cc phn t NaCl s phn li thnh cc ion
Na
+
v Cl
-
, khi chng c th chuyn di v to ra dng in. y l nguyn nhn v sao
dng in c th chy gia cc t bo trong c th bn: th lng ca t bo c ha tan mt
t mui. Khi chng ta m hi, chng ta khng ch mt nc m cn mt cht in phn,
nn s kh nc ng vai tr hy hoi h thng in t bo ca chng ta. y l l do cho
s c mt ca cht khong trong thc ung th thao v nc cp thm cho tr em b tiu
chy.
V dng in trong cht lng ton b l cc ion, nn khng c g ngc nhin khi
chng ta nhn thy bng chng vt cht khi n xy ra. V d, sau khi dng bnh xe hi mt
thi gian, axit H
2
SO
4
trong bnh tr nn cn kit cc ion hydrogen, chng l ht mang in
ch yu khp kn dng in bn trong bnh. Khi , phn SO
4
tha li hnh thnh nn mt
lp bi mu xanh nhn thy c trn cc cc ca bnh.
Tc ca dng in v tn hiu in
Khi ti ni chuyn in thoi vi m v ca mnh cch y hai ngn dm, ti
khng thy s tr hon no trong khi cc tn hiu truyn ti lui trong hnh trnh di
ca n. Do , cc tn hiu in phi truyn rt nhanh, nhng chnh xc l nhanh c no ?
Cu tr li kh tinh vi. chc chn, chng ta hy t gii hn ch xt dng in trong kim
loi, chng bao gm cc electron.
Bn thn cc electron c l ch di chuyn tc vi ngn dm mt gi, v chuyn
ng ca chng l chuyn ng nhit ch yu l ngu nhin. Nh vy, cc electron trong
chic in thoi ca ti khng th chy ti chy lui gia California v New York nhanh
mang cc tn hiu in. Cho d chuyn ng ngn-dm-mt-gi ca chng l chuyn
ng c t chc ch khng phi ngu nhin, nhng chng vn phi mt nhiu pht i
v. Trn thc t, trung bnh cn mt nhiu thi gian hn na cho electron thc hin cuc
hnh trnh. Dng in trong dy ch gm mt s tri git chung chm chp, tc vo
bc vi centimt mt giy, ha cng vi chuyn ng nhit ngu nhin nhanh hn. Chng
ta c th so snh tc ny vi s di c t t sang pha ty ca dn s nc M. Nu
chng ta quay phim v s chuyn di ca ton b dn c nc M t khng gian bn
ngoi, v c th chiu n tc cao sao cho ngi ta c v i li hi h nh nhng con
kin, chng ta ngh chuyn ng l kh ngu nhin, v trong tc thi chng ta khng
ch ti s chuyn dch sang pha ty. Ch sau nhiu nm chng ta mi nhn ra s dn
trn sang min ty vt qu s ngi i sang pha ng, nn dn c California tng
ln.
Vy ti sao tn hiu in li truyn nhanh nh th nu nh tc tri git trung
bnh l qu chm ? Cu tr li l mt s nhiu lon trong h thng in truyn i nhanh
hn rt nhiu so vi chnh cc in tch. hnh dung, bn hy cho nhng qu bng golf
vo y trong mt ci ng v sau chn thm mt qu na u pha bn ny, khin cho
mt qu ri ra u bn kia. Lc truyn n u kia ch trong mt phn ca giy, nhng
trong khong thi gian cc qu bng ch i c vi centimt.
V thc t s dn in qu phc tp nn chng ta thng m t hin tng bng
nhng biu tng khng chnh xc v mt k thut. iu ny cn ph hp chng no
chng ta cn bit chng ch l nhng biu tng. V d, gi s tng thng Php v tng
thng Nga bt tay nhau, v v chnh khch nc Php tnh c bt c mt in tch
dng, in tch lm sc v chnh khch ngi Nga kia. Chng ta c th ni rng cc
ht tch in dng c tha trong c th v ngi Php, chng u y ln nhau, khin ci
bt tay l mt c hi cc in tch phn b ra xa nhau. Trn thc t, phi mt hng pht
cc ion trong c th ca mt ngi mi c th tht s tri git su vo c th mt ngi
khc. Ci tht s xy ra l trong c th ca ngi nhn c sc c sn nhng ion dng
v m khc nhau t do di chuyn. Ngay trc khi bn tay tch in ca k th phm chm
vo bn tay m m hi ca ngi nn nhn, cc in tch trong c th ca ngi b sc
bt u y cc ion dng v ht cc ion m trong c th ngi kia. Cm gic sc rt
nhanh gy ra bi s phng t ngt ca cc ion ca nn nhn qua khong cch c l l mt
micromt, hiu ng ny xy ra ng thi trong ton b c th, mc d n din ra mnh hn
cnh tay v bn tay, v chng gn c th ngi kia hn.
3.6 p dng tnh ton
Nh ni v d 1, vic nh ngha dng in l tc bin thin in tch theo
thi gian phi c biu din li di dng o hm trong trng hp tc
bin thin khng phi l mt hng s.
dq
I
dt
=
V d 8. Tm dng in, cho bit in tch
Mt qu khinh kh cu tch in ri xung t, v in tch ca n bt u thot vo Tri
t. Gi s in tich trn kh cu c cho bi q = ae
-bt
. Tm dng in di dng mt hm ca thi
gian v gii thch cu tr li.
Ly o hm, ta c:
bt
dq
I abe
dt
= =
Hm ly tha tin n khng khi s m cng c gi tr m ln. iu ny c ngha l c in
tch v dng in u gim ln theo thi gian. Cn nh rng in tch tin ti khng, v khi cu
ang mt dn in tch ca n. Cng phi hiu rng dng in gim v ln, v in tch khng th
chy qua cng mt tc mi mi m khng gim dn n khng.
V d 9. Tm in tch, cho bit dng in
Trong on my gia tc ATLAS biu din trn hnh i, dng in chy ti lui gia hai hnh
tr c cho bi I = a cosbt. Hi in tch trn mt trong cc tr c dng hm g theo thi gian ?
Chng ta bit dng in v mun tm in tch, tc l chng ta bit o hm v mun
tm nguyn hm mang li o hm . iu ny c ngha l chng ta phi ly tch phn
0
cos sin
a
q Idt a btdt bt q
b
= = = +
} }

trong q
0
l hng s tch phn.
Chng ta c th lm sng t kt qu ny gii thch ti sao cn s dng cht siu dn.
Hng s b phi rt ln, v dng in c cho dao ng ti lui hng triu ln mi giy. Nhn vo kt
qu cui cng, chng ta thy nu b l mt s rt ln, v q l mt lng in tch ng k, th a cng
phi l mt s rt ln. Nu a l mt con s ln th dng in phi rt ln, nn n s lm nng my
gia tc ln rt nhiu nu nh n chy qua mt vt dn bnh thng.

Tm tt chng
T kha chn lc
dng in .. tc in tch i qua mt ranh gii nht nh
ampe . n v h mt ca dng in, 1A = 1C/s
ampe k dng c o dng in
mch in . mt dng c in trong in tch c th
quay tr li v tr xut pht ca n, ch khng
phng in mt ln ri bin mt
mch h mch in khng thc hin c chc nng
ca n v c khe h trong n
ngn mch mch in khng thc hin c chc nng v
in tch c cho i qua mt li tt in
tr thp, thay v i qua mt ng dn thc
hin mt ci g c ch
in th th nng in trn n v in tch c bi mt
ht mang in nm mt ni nht nh trong
khng gian
volt .. n v h mt ca in th, 1V = 1J/C
volt k . dng c o hiu in th
ohm tnh . m t mt cht trong dng in gia hai
im t l thun vi hiu in th gia chng
in tr t s ca hiu in th v dng in trong mt
vt cu to t mt cht ohm tnh
ohm . n v h mt ca in tr, 1O = 1V/A
K hiu
I .................................. dng in
A ................................. n v ampe
V ................................. in th
V ................................. n v volt
R ................................. in tr
O ................................ n v ohm
Thut ng v k hiu khc
th in km chnh thc hn t in th dng y,
mc d tn gi d gy nhm ln, nhng n
khng ng nht vi th nng in
eV . n v nng lng, bng e nhn vi 1 volt; 1,6
x 10
19
J
Tm tt
Mi hin tng in u pht sinh t s c mt hay dch chuyn ca cc in tch.
a s thit b in thc t hot ng trn c s chuyn ng ca in tch vng quanh mt
mch in hon chnh, nn in tch c th chy vng trn v khng bin mt u bn
kia. S o hu dng nht ca dng in l cng dng in, I = Aq/At.
Mt thit b in c nhim v l chuyn ha t dng ny sang dng khc, v d,
mt bng n, s dng nng lng tc ph thuc c vo mc nhanh m dng in
chy qua n v bao nhiu cng c thc hin trn mi n v in tch. i lng th hai
va ni c bit l hiu in th gia im dng in i vo v im dng in i ra khi
n. V c mt loi th nng lin quan ti lc in, nn lng cng m chng thc hin
bng vi hiu th nng gia hai im, v v vy chng ta c th nh ngha hiu in th
trc tip di dng th nng in, AV = APE
in
/q. Tc tiu hao nng lng l P = I AV.
Nhiu hin tng in quan trng ch c th gii thch c nu chng ta hiu c
ch ca dng in chy mc nguyn t. Trong kim loi, dng in c mang bi cc
electron, trong cht lng l cc ion. Cht kh bnh thng l mt cht dn in km, tr khi
cc nguyn t ca chng b tc ng lc in mnh n mc chng b ion ha.
Nhiu cht, gm tt c cht rn, phn ng vi lc in theo cch dng in gia hai
im t l thun vi hiu in th gia hai im . Mt cht nh th c gi l c ohm
tnh, v mt vt cu thnh t mt cht ohm tnh c th c lng gi qua in tr ca n,
R = AV/I. Mt h qu quan trng l mt vt dn hon ho, c R = 0, phi c cng mt in
th ti mi im bn trong n.

Bi tp
1. Mt in tr c hiu in th AV gia hai u n, cho dng in I chy qua.
(a) Tm phng trnh cho cng sut tiu hao di dng nhit ch theo cc bin I v
R, loi b AV.
(b) Nu ng dy in dn vo nh bn mang mt dng in cho trc no ,
hy lm sng t tng phn phng trnh ca bn gii thch xem in tr ca dy dn l
ln hay nh.
2. (a) Hy biu din cng sut tiu hao bi mt in tr ch theo R v AV, loi b I.
(b) in trong nh bn ch yu l 110V, nhng mch in cho bp in, iu ha
khng kh, my git v my sy thng l 220V. Hai loi mch in ny c cm hnh
dng khc nhau. Gi s bn mc li dy ca my sy sao cho n c th cm vo in
110V. in tr sinh ra nhit ca my sy lc bnh thng l 200W. Hi lc ny n tht s
tiu th bao nhiu cng sut ?
3. Nh cp trong bi
ging, khi mt vt dn t ti cn
bng trong in tch ca n nm
c nh, th lun lun c mt lc
in bng khng tc dng ln mt
in tch nm bn trong n, v bt k
in tch d tha no s t dn ln
trn mt ca n. Lp in tch mt t
sp xp sao cho to ra mt lc tng
hp bng khng tc dng ln bt c
im no bn trong vt. (Nu khng
th in tch t do bn trong vt
khng th no nm yn c) Gi s
bn c mt vt dn hnh git nc mt ging nh hnh bn. V git nc mt l mt vt
dn nn c nhng in tch t do khp ni bn trong n, nhng hy xt mt ht mang
in t do nm ni nh du vng trn trng. Gii thch ti sao, to ra lc bng khng
tc dng ln in tch ny, lp in tch mt phi dy c hn phn nhn ca git nc
mt. (Nguyn nhn tng t gii thch ti sao ct thu li li c lm nhn. Nhng m
my ging tch in khin cho cc in tch dng v m chuyn ng ti hai u i din
ca ct. u nhn pha trn ca ct thu li, in tch c xu hng tp trung ch nhn,
v in tch ny ht ly tia chp).
4. S dng kt qu bi tp 3 chng 1, tm phng trnh cho in th ti mt im
cch in tch im Q mt khong r (Ly
V = 0 bt c u m bn thch).
5. Tr li bi tp 6 chng 1 v
tinh th natri cloride, gi s ion lithium
nhy t ch trng sang chim gi mt
trong bn ch trng ln cn gn n nht.
Hi n s nhy sang ch trng no, v nu
n bt u nm ngh, th n s ch
trong bao lu ? (N vn tip tc v chuyn
ng v gia tc sau , nhng chng ta
khng xt ti iu ny) [Gi : Cch gii
tng t nh i vi nhng bi ton khc,
nhng bn phi lm vic vi in th v
th nng ch khng phi lc].
6. Tr li vi anh bn neuron quen
thuc ca chng ta trong bi tp 1 chng
1, by gi hy xem iu g xy ra khi dy
thn kinh b kch thch truyn thng tin. Khi git cht pha trn (thn t bo) b kch
thch, n lm cho cc ion Na
+
i vo phn trn ca phn ui (axon). Xung in ny sau
truyn xung axon, ging nh la chy lan xung t u cu ch, vi cc ion Na
+
mi
u ban u i ra, sau li quay vo. Nu 10
10
ion Na
+
i qua mng t bo trong 5 ms, th
dng in sinh ra c ln bao nhiu ?

7. Nu mt bng n in hnh tiu th khong 900 mA t mch in gia dng 110
V, th in tr ca n bng bao nhiu ? (ng quan tm l trong thc t dng in bin
thin lin tc).
8. Ngy nay, ngay c mt chic xe hi sang trng loi ln nh Cadillac cng c th
c h thng in c cng sut tng i thp, v n khng cn thc hin nhiu cng vic
ngoi vic thp sng cc bng n, bt m ca, vn vn. Tuy nhin, trong tng lai gn,
cc nh ch to ln k hoch bt u sn xut nhng chic xe c h thng in mnh
hn khong nm ln. Nh th s cho php nhng b phn tiu hao nng lng nht nh
nh ci bm nc bt m ng c in v tt i khi chng khng cn thit na hin nay
chng chy trc tip t ng c, nn chng khng th tt c. Ngi ta cn c th ch to
loi ng c c th tt khi gp n v ri m tr li m khng cn khi ng li, v cc
van c th c cp ngun bng in. H thng in ca xe hi c acquy 12 V (vi b np
in 14 V), nhng nhng h thng mi s c bnh acquy 36 V (vi b np in 42 V).
(a) Gi s bnh acquy trong mt chic xe hi i mi c dng chy mt dng
c yu cu cng sut ngang vi dng c tng ng trong xe i c. Da trn nhng c
im va nu trn, hy so snh dng in chy trong dy dn ca h thng in ca xe
i mi so vi xe i c ?
(b) Mc ch thc t ca vic dng in th cao hn l s dng nhng dng c
yu cu cng sut ln hn. Bn c th on xem v sao ngi ta quyt nh i sang dng
acquy 36 V ch khng tng cng sut m khng tng hiu in th ?
9. (a) Bn ly mt a LP ra khi bao ng ca n, v n cn mt in tch tnh
in 1 nC. Bn cho n quay tc bnh thng
1
33
3
vng/pht, v in tch chuyn
ng theo vng trn to nn dng in. Hi cng dng in bng bao nhiu ampe ?
(b) Mc d mu hnh tinh nguyn t c th hot ng c m khng cn bt k
gi tr no cho bn knh qu o ca cc electron, nhng nhng m hnh tin b hn m
chng ta s nghin cu trong phn sau b sch ny tin on nhng bn knh xc nh. Nu
electron c tng tng ang quay trn xung quanh ht nhn vi tc 2,2 x 10
6
m/s,
trong mt qu o c bn knh 0,5 An Minh, th cng dng in c gi tr bao nhiu ?
10. Chng ta ni l cc in tr lm tiu tn nhit, tc l chng ta gi s P = I
AV lun lun ln hn khng. Hi I AV c th no l s m i vi mt in tr ? Nu th,
hi ngi ta c th ch to mt ci t lnh bng cch mc vo mt in tr theo kiu
sao cho n hp th nhit thay v tiu tn nhit ?
11. Bn nhn c mt chic pin, mt ci bng n v mt on dy dn. Hy v t
nht l hai c cu ca nhng thit b ny mang li kt qu l bng n sng, v t nht l
hai c cu khng lm sng bng n (ng v gin ). Nu bn khng chc chn iu g
s xy ra, hy mn dng c t ch thy gio ca bn v hy th n. Lu l bng n c
hai tip xc in: mt l kim loi lp ngoi, v mt l ch u nhn.
12. Trong mt dy dn c mang dng in 1 pA, hi bn phi i bao lu, tnh
trung bnh, thy electron tip theo i qua mt im cho trc ? Biu din p s ca bn
bng n v mili giy.
0 160 t Dq / I e / I , s A = = =
13. Hnh bn di l gin n gin ca mt ng phng electron theo kiu ng
phng dng trong th nghim Thomson, hay ng phng to ra chm electron trong ng
hnh tivi. Cc electron t bt ra khi in cc m (catt) sau gia tc v pha in cc
dng, in cc c l trng bn trong n. (Mt khi chng i qua l trng, chng s chm
dn. Tuy nhin, nu hai in cc kh gn nhau, th s chm dn ny l mt hiu ng nh,
v lc ht v lc y m cc electron chu c xu hng trit tiu ln nhau).
(a) Nu hiu in th gia hai in cc l AV, th vn tc ca electron khi n l ra
B l bao nhiu ? (Gi s vn tc ban u ca n, A, l khng ng k).
5,9 x 10
7
m/s (20% c)
(b) nh gi cu tr li ca bn bng s cho trng hp trong AV = 10 kV, v so
snh kt qu vi tc nh sng.
14. Hnh trn biu din mt gin n gin ca ci gi l my gia tc tandem,
dng gia tc chm ion ln ti tc vo bc 1% tc nh sng. Ht nhn ca nhng
ion ny va chm vi ht nhn ca nhng nguyn t trong bia, to ra phn ng ht nhn
dng cho cc th nghim nghin cu cu trc ca ht nhn. Lp v bn ngoi ca my gia
tc l mt vt dn in th bng khng (tc l cng in th vi mt t). in cc
chnh gia, gi l in cc, nm mc in th dng cao, c l l hng triu volt. Cc
ion m c in tch 1 n v (tc l cc nguyn t c d mt electron) c to ra pha
bn ngoi pha bn phi, thng l bng phn ng ha hc vi cesium, mt nguyn t ha
hc c xu hng gii phng electron mnh m. Lc in v t tng i yu c dng
a nhng ion 1 n v ny vo my gia tc, chng b ht v pha in cc. Mc d
gia in cc c mt l trng bn trong n cho cc ion i qua, nhng trong c mt
l cabon rt mng m chng phi xuyn qua. i qua tm chn s tc mt mt s electron,
lm cho nguyn t bin i thnh ion dng c in tch + n ln in tch nguyn t. Gi
th nguyn t mang in dng, nn n b in cc y, v gia tc theo ng i ca n ra
khi my gia tc.
(a) Tm vn tc v ca chm ion dng l ra theo n, khi lng m ca chng v in
th cc V, v nhng hng s c bn. B qua s thay i nh v khi lng do s mt
electron khi i qua tm chn.
(b) hp nht proton vi proton, cn vn tc chm tia ti thiu l vo khong
11% tc nh sng. Trong trng hp ny, in th cc cn thit s l bao nhiu ?

Bi 11

Bi 14

Bi 13
15. Ba in tch, mi in tch c ln Q (Q > 0) nm cn bng ba inh ca mt
tam gic cn c cnh bn l b. Bn nm mt ht khi lng m v in tch dng q ra xa,
vi vn tc ban u v. Mc ch ca bn l mun ht i qua tm ca tam gic, v tay
nm ca bn l hon ho, v bn thoi mi nm theo bt c hng no m bn thch. Hi
gi tr nh nht i vi v l bao nhiu ?
16. o dng in, bn phi lm nhiu thao tc khc nhau hn i vi mch in
so vi o hiu in th. Hi o i lng no s d thc hin hn i vi mt bn mch in
sn, trong cc dy dn tht ra l nhng rnh kim loi gn bn trong bn mch ?

Mt bn mch in sn, ging nh bn cp ti trong bi ton 16.

Chip my tnh Intel 486 trn bn mch ca n
Chng 4
MCH IN, PHN 2
Trong chng 3, chng ta t gii hn ch kho st nhng mch in tng i
n gin, v c bn khng g hn ngoi ngoi mt chic pin v mt ci bng n. Mc
tiu ca chng ny l gii thiu vi bn nhng mch in phc tp hn, gm nhiu in
tr hay ngun in th mc ni tip, song song, hoc c hai.
Ti sao chng ta cn phi bit nhng th ny ? Xt cho cng, nu bn c d nh
tr thnh mt k s in, c th bn khng cn hc vt l t cun sch ny. Tuy nhin, hy
xem xt mi khi bn cm mt ci bng n hay mt ci radio, bn thm mt thit b
in vo mng in gia nh v lm cho n phc tp thm ln. An ton in cng s khng
thc s c hiu bit tt nu nh khng hiu nhng mch in nhiu thnh phn, v b
sc in thng th gm t nht hai thnh phn: dng c tiu th in cng vi c th ca
ngi b nn. Nu bn l mt sinh vin chuyn v khoa hc s sng, bn phi nhn thc
c rng mi t bo vn d u c tnh cht in, v do trong bt c c th a bo no
cng s c nhng mch in ni tip v song song a dng.
Cho d khng k n nhng mc tiu thc t ny, vn c mt l do rt c bn
c chng ny: l hiu chng 3 tt hn. quan im ny, trong chuyn hc hnh
ca sinh vin, ti lun quan st h s dng t ng v th kiu gii thch cho thy h
cha hon ton thoi mi v lnh hi ht cc khi nim in th v dng in. H hi in
th v dng in c phi l cng loi tng hay khng ?. H ni in th i qua mt
bng n. Mt khi h bt u rn luyn k nng ca mnh v nhng mch in phc tp
hn, ti lun thy lng tin v s hiu bit ca h tng ln rt nhiu.

4.1 S mch in
Ti xem mt vn c; Kasparov u vi Ruy Lopez. i vi nhng ngi khng am
hiu, gin trng kh hiu nh nhng hnh v ngon ngoo ca ngi Maya, nhng bn
c th xem lt qua tm ngha ca chng. S mch l hnh v n gin ha v cch
iu ha ca mch in. Mc ch l nhm loi b bt cng nhiu c im khng c lin
quan cng tt, nn nhng c im c lin quan s d nm bt hn.

a/ 1. Sai: Hnh dng ca cc dy dn khng thch hp. 2. Sai: Cn phi s dng cc gc vung.
3. Sai: Mch in n gin c v trng xa l v phc tp. 4. ng.
Mt v d v c im khng c lin quan l hnh dng, chiu di v ng knh
ca dy dn. Trong hu nh ton b mch in, mt s gn ng rt tt l gi s dy dn l
vt dn hon ho, nn bt k on dy dn no ni lin tc nhng thnh phn khc u c
in th khng i trong sut on dy dn . Vic thay i chiu di dy dn, chng hn,
khng lm thay i thc t ny. (Tt nhin, nu
chng ta s dng hng dm di dy dn, nh trong
ng dy in thoi, th in tr s bt u tng
ln v chiu di ca n s tr thnh mt vn cn
gii quyt) Hnh dng ca dy dn cng khng c
lin quan, nn chng ta v chng theo hnh dng
chun ha v quy c ha l nhng ng thng
ng v nm ngang vung gc vi nhau. Cch biu
din ny lm cho nhng mch in tng t nhau
trng ging nhau hn v gip chng ta nhn ra
nhng c im quen thuc, ging nh ch in trn
trang bo s d nhn ra hn so vi ch vit tay.
Hnh a biu din mt s v d ca nhng quan
im ny.
Bc u tin quan trng nht trong vic
hc cch c mch in l hc cch nhn ra nhng
on dy dn lin nhau phi c in th khng i
trn c on . V d, trn hnh b, hai mu dy
dn c hnh dng ch E mi mu phi c in th
nh nhau. Hnh ny lm chng ta tp trung ch
ti hai bin chnh m chng ta c th d on
c: l in th ca ch E bn tri v in th
ca ch E bn phi.
4.2 Cc in tr mc song song v quy tc mi ni
Mt trong nhng v d n gin nht phn tch mch in tr song song l v d
trong hnh b. Ni chung, chng ta c th c cc in tr khng bng nhau R
1
v R
2
, nh
trong hnh c/1. V ch c hai vng in th khng i trong mch in, c/2, nn c ba thnh
phn ny u c hiu in th hai u chng ging nhau. Mt chic pin thng thng

b/ Hai vng c hnh ch E l vng c in
th nh nhau
lin tc duy tr hiu in th gia hai cc ca n m n c thit k, nn gim th AV
1

v AV
2
qua cc in tr phi bng hiu in th ca pin:
AV
1
= AV
2
= AV
ngun

Nh vy, mi in tr chu cng mt hiu in th nh th n l thnh phn duy
nht trong mch in, v nh lut Ohm cho chng ta bit rng cng dng in chy
qua mi in tr cng ging nh cng dng in chy trong mch mt in tr. y l
l do v sao mch in gia dng mc dy song song vi nhau. Chng ta mun mi thit b
lm cng vic ging nhau, cho d l nhng thit b khc c c cm vo hay khng cm
vo, ang m hay ang tt. (Tt nhin, cng ti in lc khng s dng pin, nhng s phn
tch ca chng ta cng ging nh vy i vi bt k dng c no duy tr mt hiu in th
khng i).

c/1. Hai in tr mc song song. 2. C hai vng in th khng i. 3. Dng in i ra khi pin tch ra gia
hai in tr, sau nhp tr li. 4. Hai in tr mc song song c th xem l mt in tr n gin c gi tr
nh hn.
D nhin cng ti cp in c th ni khi no chng ta bt mi bng n trong nh
mnh. Lm sao h bit c ? Cu tr li l chng ta tiu th dng in ln hn. Mi in
tr tiu th mt lng dng in nht nh, v lng in phi cung cp l tng ca hai
dng in ring r. Dng in ging nh mt con sng tch thnh hai nhnh, c/3, v sau
hp nht li. Cng dng in tng cng s l
I
tngcng
= I
1
+ I
2

y l mt v d ca mt thc t chung gi l quy tc mi ni:
quy tc mi ni
Trong bt k mch in no khng tch tr hay gii phng in tch, s bo ton
in tch a n dng in tng cng chy ra khi bt k mi ni no cng phi
bng vi dng in tng cng i vo mi ni .
Tr li vi php phn tch mch in ca chng ta, chng ta p dng nh lut Ohm
cho tng in tr, kt qu l
I
tonphn
= AV/R
1
+ AV/R
2
=
1 2
1 1
V
R R
| |
A +
|
\ .

Trong chng mc m cng ti in lc nm c, ton b ngi nh bn ch l mt
in tr vi in tr R no gi l in tr tng ng. Chng ta vit nh lut Ohm
nh sau:
I
tonphn
= AV / R
t chng ta c th xc nh in tr tng ng bng cch so snh vi phng trnh
trc
1 2
1
1 2
1 1 1
1 1
R R R
R
R R
= +
| |
= +
|
\ .

[in tr tng ng ca hai in tr mc song song]
Hai in tr mc song song, c/4, tng ng vi mt in tr vi gi tr cho bi
phng trnh trn.
V d 1. Hai bng n trong cng mch in gia nh
V Bn bt hai bng n trong cng mng in gia nh. Mi bng n c in tr 1 ohm.
Hy tnh in tr tng ng v so snh cng sut tiu hao vi trng hp ch c mt bng n.
in tr tng ng ca hai n mc song song l
( ) ( )
1
1
1 1
1 1 1
1 2
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 0 5
1 1
,

| |
| |
= + = + = O + O = O = O
| |
O O
\ .
\ .
R
R R

Hiu in th hai u ton b mch in lun lun l 110 V do cng ti in lc thit t
(dng in ca n bin thin, nhng iu khng c lin quan). in tr ca ton b mch in s
gim i phn na lc bt bng n th hai, cho nn hiu in th n nh s to ra cng dng
in gp i. Dng in gp i chy qua cng mt hiu in th c ngha l cng sut tiu hao
cng tng gp i.
Vic gim mt na in tr lm nhiu sinh vin thy ngc nhin, v chng ta thm
in tr na vo mch in bng cch t vo bng n th hai. Ti sao in tr tng
ng li nh hn in tr ca mt bng n ? y l trng hp m s gii thch thun
ty bng li c th gy hiu lm. Mt thnh phn in tr ca mch in, v d nh dy tc
bng n, va khng l vt cch in hon ho va khng phi l vt dn hon ho. Thay
v phn tch loi mch in ny di dng cc in tr, tc l nhng vt cch in mt
phn, chng ta c th ni v vt dn. Khi th d ny trng c v gii thch c, v
chng ta thm dn in, nhng iu ny s khng chnh xc i vi trng hp cc
in tr mc ni tip m chng ta s ni ti trong phn sau.
C l cch d hnh dung hn khi ngh v n l s dng trc gic c gii. Tng t,
l mi ca bn lm cn tr khng kh i qua n, nhng c hai l mi th vic th d thc
hin hn hai ln.
V d 2. Ba in tr mc song song
V Hin tng xy ra nh th no nu chng ta c ba hay nhiu in tr mc song song ?
y l mt th d quan trng, v li gii c lin quan ti mt k thut quan trng dng
tm hiu mch in: ph v chng thnh nhng phn nh hn, v ri n gin ha nhng phn .
Trong mch in hnh d/1, vi ba in tr mc song song, chng ta c th ngh hai in tr hnh
thnh nn mt in tr, d/2, vi in tr tng ng
1
12
1 2
1 1
R
R R
| |
= +
|
\ .

Sau , chng ta c th n gin ha mch in nh ch r trong hnh d/3, sao cho n ch
gm hai in tr. in tr tng ng ca ton b mch in khi c cho bi
1
123
12 3
1 1
R
R R
| |
= +
|
\ .

Thay th R
12
v n gin ha, chng ta thu c kt qu
1
123
1 2 3
1 1 1
R
R R R
| |
= + +
|
\ .

l kt qu bn c th d on c. iu l th y l quan im chia-v-nghch o,
ch khng phi kt qu ton hc.

d/ Ba in tr mc song song

e/ Hp nht bn in tr mc song song tng
ng vi mt in tr c cng chiu di nhng c
tit din ngang ln gp 4 ln. Kt qu l mt in tr
c in tr 1/4.
V d 3. Nhiu in tr ging ht nhau mc song song
V Tm in tr tng ng ca N in tr ging ht nhau mc song song ?
Khi qut ha kt qu i vi trng hp hai v ba in tr, chng ta c
1
1 2
1 1
...
N
R
R R
| |
= + +
|
\ .

trong du c ngha l ly tng ht tt c cc in tr. Nu tt c cc in tr l ging ht
nhau th
1
N
N R
R
R N
| |
= =
|
\ .

V d 4. S ph thuc ca in tr vo tit din ngang
Chng ta tng ni ti thc t l in tr ca mt vt ph thuc vo kch thc v hnh
dng ca n, nhng gi th chng ta bt u tm nhng cch pht biu mang tnh ton hc hn v
n. Nh ch r trong hnh e, vic tng tit din ngang ca mt in tr tng ng vi vic mc
thm in tr na theo kiu song song, chng s mang li s gim in tr. Bt k in tr thc t
no c cc mt thng, song song nhau, u c th b ct thnh mt s ln mnh, mi mnh c tit
din ngang, chng hn, 1 m
2
. S N mnh nh th t l vi tit din ngang tng cng ca in tr,
v bng cch p dng kt qu ca v d trc, chng ta tm c in tr ca mt vt t l nghch
vi tit din ngang ca n.

f/ ng bo c in tr nh hn ng gy.
Mt mi quan h tng t i vi cc ng nc, l l do ti sao cc ng dn dng
chy ln thng c tit din ngang ln. lm cho nhiu nc (dng in) chy qua mt ng gy,
chng ta cn s chnh lch p sut (in th) ln khng thc t.
V d 5. Sai s ca volt k
Volt k thc ra ch l mt in k c in tr trong, v chng ta mc volt k song song vi
i tng chng ta mun o hiu in th hai u ca n. iu ny c ngha l h khi no chng ta
o gim th qua mt in tr, v c bn chng ta t hai in tr song song nhau. in k bn
trong volt k c th b qua v mc ch phn tch dng in chy qua mch in nh th no, v v
c bn n ch l mt s cun dy c in tr rt thp.
By gi, nu chng ta tin hnh php o ny trn mt in tr l mt phn ca mt mch
in ln, chng ta lm thay i hnh vi ca mch in qua hot ng o ca chng ta. Ging nh
l chng ta lm bin i mch in bng cch thay th in tr R bng in tr tng ng nh
hn ca R v R
V
mc song song nhau. V l do ny m volt k phi ch to sao cho c in tr trong
ln nht c th. Ly v d s, nu chng ta s dng volt k c in tr trong 1 MO o gim
th qua mt in tr 1 O, th in tr tng ng l 0,999999 O, khng khc bit gy ra s
chnh lch. Nhng nu chng ta th dng volt k trn o gim th qua mt in tr 2 MO, chng
ta c th lm gim in tr ca phn mch in i ba ln, gy ra s thay i ng k trong hnh
vi ca ton b mch in.

g/ Volt thc ra l mt in k c in tr trong. Khi chng ta o hiu in th hai u mt
in tr, 1, tht ra chng ta xy dng mt mch in tr mc song song, 2.
y l l do ti sao bn khng th s dng volt k o hiu in th gia hai im
khc nhau gia chng khng kh, hay gia hai u ca mt mnh g. y khng phi l
mun lm mt vic ngu ngc, v th gii xung quanh chng ta khng phi l mi trng
ng th, v d d thy nht l khi mt cn bo ang hnh thnh. Nhng n s khng hot
ng vi mt volt k bnh thng v in tr ca khng kh hay g l vo bc nhiu giga
ohm. Kt qu ca vic vy cp mi o volt k trong khng kh l chng ta mang li mt
ng dn ph hp cho cc in tch dng v m tch ri nhau i qua chnh volt k, n
l mt vt dn tt so vi khng kh. Vic ny lm gim ti 0 s chnh lch in th m
chng ta mun o.
Tm li, volt c cu to vi mt mch in h (hay in tr rt ln) gia hai u
o tri ni ca n. Mt in k analog kiu c thuc loi m t y s ch s 0 khi
tri ni, kt qu tng t nh khi t n nm trn k. Cn volt k k thut s ang tri ni
thng hin thng bo li.
4.3 Cc in tr mc ni tip
Hai cch mc mch in c bn l mc song song v mc ni tip, nn cp in tr
ni tip nhau, h/1, l dng khc ca a s mch in m chng ta c th ch to. Theo s
bo ton in tch, ton b dng in chy qua mt in tr phi bng dng in chy qua
in tr kia (cng nh dng in chy qua pin):
I
1
= I
2

Cch duy nht bit thng tin v hai gi tr in tr s c ch l nu chng ta c
th p dng nh lut Ohm, nh lut lin h in tr ca tng in tr vi dng in chy
qua n v hiu in th hai u n. Hnh h/2 ch r ba vng ng th. Hiu in th c
ngha quan trng hn in th, nn chng ta biu din k hiu cho hai hiu in th ca hai
in tr trong hnh h/3.
Chng ta c ba vng ng th, cng vi k hiu s chnh lch in th gia tng
cp trong s chng. Ba hiu in th ny phi lin h vi nhau. Ging nh ti cho bn bit
rng Fred cao hn Ginger 1 foot, Ginger cao hn Sally 1 foot, v Fred th cao hn Sally 2
foot. Thng tin cho y l tha, v bn tht ra ch cn hai trong s ba mu d liu suy
ra ci th ba. Trong trng hp hiu in th ca chng ta, chng ta c
|AV
1
| + |AV
2
| = |AV
pin
|
K hiu gi tr tuyt i v cha bit r cch chng ta xc nh hiu in th. Nu
chng ta mc ngc hai u o ca volt k, chng ta s thu c kt qu tri du. Volt k
k thut s tht s s hin du tr trn mn hnh nu chng ta ni chm cm V vi im
c in th thp hn im ni vo chn cm COM. Volt k analog s quay kim v pha
cht ngoi nu bn th dng chng o hiu in th m, nn bn phi lun ni dy theo
chiu thun, sau t thm vo du tr nu cn thit.

h/4. Pin cp dng in chy qua hai in tr mc ni tip. 2. C ba min ng th. 3. Ba hiu in th c lin
quan vi nhau. 4. Nu in k mc qua mch in khng o chiu hay ni cho chn cm ca n, th in
th o c s c du cng v du tr khin cho chng cng li bng khng.
Hnh h/4 biu din mt cch chun cn thn vi s nhp nhng du. i vi tng
php o trong s ba php o hiu in th xung quanh mch kn, chng ta gi cng mt
u o (u t m hn) pha chiu kim ng h. C nh th l volt k b qua mch in
nh mt con cua, khng bao gi bt cho chn ca n. Vi quy c ny, mi quan h
gia cc gim th tr thnh
AV
1
+ AV
2
= - AV
pin

hay dng i xng hn
AV
1
+ AV
2
+ AV
pin
= 0
Tng qut hn, kt qu ny c gi l nh lut vng kn cho php phn tch mch
in:
nh lut vng kn
Gi s quy c chun cho cc du cng v tr, th tng gim th qua bt k mt
vng kn no ca mch in u phi bng khng.
Vic tm mt ngoi l cho nh lut vng kn ging nh i hi mt li i xung
dc theo mi hng quay tr li im xut pht ca n!
i vi mch in m chng ta a ra phn tch, phng trnh
AV
1
+ AV
2
+ AV
pin
= 0
by gi c th vit li bng cch p dng nh lut Ohm cho tng in tr
I
1
R
1
+ I
2
R
2
+ AV
pin
= 0
Dng in l nh nhau, nn chng ta c th nhm n lm tha s chung
I (R
1
+ R
2
) + AV
pin
= 0
V y l kt qu chng ta thu c nu chng ta phn tch mch in mt in tr c in
tr (R
1
+ R
2
). Nh vy, in tr ca tng ng ca cc in tr mc ni tip bng tng
in tr ca chng.
V d 6. Hai bng n mc ni tip
V Nu hai bng n ging ht nhau c mc ni tip vi nhau, th sng ca chng so snh nh
th no vi sng ca ch mt bng n ?
Xt ton th, hai bng n hot ng nh mt in tr kp, nn chng s cho dng in chy t
tng ln bng phn na. Mi bng n s ti hn trong trng hp ch mt bng n.

i/ V d 6
Cng sut ton phn tiu tn bi mch in l I AV. gim th qua ton mch ging nh trc
y, nhng dng in chia i, nn mch hai bng n ch bng na cng sut mch mt bng n.
Mi bng n tiu th mt phn t cng sut bnh thng.
Ni i khi, chng ta c th mong ch iu ny mang li mt phn t nh sng c to ra bi mi
bng n, nhng trong thc t cc bng n lng ph mt phn trm kh cao cng sut ca chng
di dng nhit v bc sng ca nh sng khng nhn thy (hng ngoi v t ngoi). S to ra t
nh sng hn, nhng tht kh tin on chnh xc l t hn bao nhiu, v hiu sut ca bng n thay
i khi cho chng hot ng di nhng iu kin khc nhau.
V d 7. Nhiu in tr mc ni tip
Bng cch p dng trc tip k thut chia-v-tr ni ti trong phn trc, chng ta tm thy in
tr tng ng ca N in tr R mc ni tip s l NR.
V d 8. S ph thuc ca in tr vo chiu di
Trong phn trc, chng ta chng minh rng in tr t l nghch vi tit din ngang Bng l gii
tng t v cc in tr mc ni tip, chng ta thy in tr t l thun vi chiu di. Tng t, tht
kh thi hi qua mt cng rm di hn so vi cng rm ngn.

j/ Tng gp i chiu di ca mt in tr ging nh mc hai in tr ni tip nhau.
in tr tng gp i.
t hai i s li vi nhau, chng ta tm c in tr ca mt vt c cc mt
thng, song song nhau cho bi
R = (hng s). L/ A
Hng s t l c gi l in tr sut, v n ph thuc vo cht cu to nn in
tr . Php o in tr sut c th c s dng, chng hn, nhn bit mt vt cu to
t mt cht cha bit.
V d 9. Chn hiu in th cao cho ng dy ti in
Thomas Edison b li cun vo mt cuc tranh lun k thut ni ting v hiu in th dng cho
ng dy ti in. Vo thi , cng chng cha quen thuc vi in, v d dng b n lm cho
hong s. Chng hn, tng thng M t chi thp n in trong Nh Trng khi n c thng
mi ha, v ng xem n l khng an ton, v a chung mi nguy him v la bit ca n du
hn l nguy c b n ca dng in. Ch yu l mt bin php vt qua ni s hi ca cng
chng, Edison tin rng dy ti in phi truyn bng hiu in th nh v ng cng khai quan im
ca ng bng cch a ra bng chng theo mt con ch b nh vo v tr b git cht bi hiu
in th ln gia hai bn kim loi trn mt t (Cc i th ca Edison cng ch trng dng in
bin thin thay cho dng in mt chiu, v in xoay chiu cng nguy him hn in mt chiu.
Nh chng ta s tho lun phn sau, in xoay chiu c th d dng tng ln v h xung n mc
in th mong mun bng mt dng c gi l my bin th).
Ngy nay, nu chng ta mun phn phi mt lng cng sut P
L
nht nh n ti, v d nh bng
n in, chng ta ch b thc p bi phng trnh P
L
= IAV
L
. Chng ta c th phn phi bt k
lng cng sut no m chng ta mun, c vi hiu in th thp, nu chng ta s dng dng in
ln. Tuy nhin, cc mng li phn phi in hin i s dng hiu in th cao n mc nguy
him vo bc hng chc nghn volt. Ti sao Edison tht bi trong cuc tranh lun ?
Vn l bi ton chi ph. Cng ti in phi phn phi lng cng sut P
L
m khch hng mong
mun qua ng truyn c in tr R
T
c nh do nn kinh t v a l quyt nh. Dng in chy
qua ti v dy truyn dn l nh nhau, tiu th cng sut c ch ti v cng sut v ch dy
truyn. Hiu sut ca h thng l

Hiu sut =
Cng sut do khch hng tr tin
Cng sut thc tin phi tr
1
1
L
L T
T L
P
P P
P / P
=
+
=
+

t vai tr chng ta l cng ti in, chng ta mun tng kh i bin P
T
, v n l th g chng ta
ch iu khin gin tip bi cch chng ta chn AV
T
v I. Thay P = IAV
T
, chng ta tm c
Hiu sut
1
1
T
L
I V
P
=
A
+

Chng ta gi s ng truyn (khng nht thit l ti) l tun theo nh lut Ohm, nn thay AV
T
=
IR
T
mang li
Hiu sut
2
1
1
T
L
I R
P
=
+

i lng ny r rng c th lm cho cc i bng cch lm cho I cng nh cng tt, v khi
chng ta s chia cho con s nh nht c th c mu ca biu thc. Mch in c dng in nh ch
c th phn phi lng ng k cng sut nu n s dng hiu in th cao, l l do v sao cc h
thng truyn dn in s dng in th cao nguy him.
V d 10. S dng ampe k thnh tho
Ging nh vot k, ampe k c th cho hng lot gi tr o nu n c s dng theo kiu lm thay
i hnh vi ca mch in. Ampe k c s dng mc ni tip, nn nu s dng n o dng in
chy qua mt in tr, th gi tr in tr tht s thay i thnh R + R
a
, trong R
a
l in tr ca
ampe k. Cc ampe k c ch to c in tr rt thp lm cho R + R
a
khng khc bit nhiu so
vi R.
Trn thc t, mi nguy hi tht s l s cht chc, ch khng phi s o sai! Hu
nh ch c nhng mch in c in tr nh hn nhiu so vi in tr ca ampe k l
nhng mch in c thit k mang nhng dng in khng l. Mt ampe k chn vo
mch in nh th c kh nng tan chy d dng. Khi ti lm vic trong phng th nghim
do B Nng lng (DOE) ti tr, chng ti thng xuyn nhn c nhng bn tin u
n t vn phng an ton in DOE v nhng v tai nn nguy him nhng ni khc, v
chng mang li mt sc thi min gh tm nht nh. Mt trong cc tai nn ny l mt
ngi cng nh DOE b thiu tri hon ton bi v n sinh ra khi ng chn mt ampe
k Radio Shack bnh thng vo mt mch in c dng in cao. Nhng c tnh sau ny
cho thy nhit c kh nng mnh n mc v n l mt qu cu plasma mt cht kh b
nng n mc cc nguyn t ca n b ion ha.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Chng ta pht biu quy lut vng kn dng i xng trong lot gim th ni tip nhau
cng li bng khng. lm vic ny, chng ta phi nh ngha mt cch thc chun ni volt k
vo mch in sao cho cc du cng v tr c hin th ng. Gi s chng ta mun pht biu li
theo cch khc quy lut nt theo mt kiu i xng tng t, sao cho thay th cch ni dng in i
vo bng dng in i ra, chng ta ch n gin pht biu rng tng ca cc dng in ti mt nt
nht nh l bng khng. Nh vy, chng ta phi s dng cch thc chun no chn ampe k vo
thc hin cng vic ny ?
Tm tt
S mch l hnh v mch in tiu chun ha v cch iu ha nhng c
im ca n lm cho n d hiu hn. Bt k mch in no cng c th phn tch thnh
nhng thnh phn nh hn. Chng hn, mt mch in ln c th hiu l hai mch in
nh mc ni tip, trong trng hp khc l ba mch in mc song song. Khi cc thnh
phn mch in kt hp theo kiu song song v ni tip, chng ta c hai quy lut c bn
hng dn chng ta tm hiu xem cc b phn m nhn vai tr nh th no xt nh mt
tng th:
quy lut nt mng: Trong bt k mch in no khng tch tr hay ti gii phng
in tch, s bo ton in tch ng rng dng in tng cng chy ra khi mt
nt phi bng dng in tng cng chy vo nt .
quy lut vng kn: Gi s s dng quy c chun cho cc k hiu cng v tr, tng
gim th tnh theo bt k vng khp kn no ca mt mch in cng phi bng
khng.
p dng n gin nht ca nhng quy lut ny l xt cc cp in tr ghp theo
kiu ni tip hay song song. Trong nhng trng hp nh vy, cp in tr ng vai tr
ging ht nh mt n v n l c gi tr in tr nht nh gi l in tr tng ng
ca chng. Cc in tr mc ni tip cng li to ra in tr tng ng ln hn
R
nitip
= R
1
+ R
2

v dng in phi tip tc hnh trnh ca n qua c hai in tr. Cc in tr mc song
song to ra gi tr in tr tng ng nh hn tng in tr thnh phn
R
songsong
=
1
1 2
1 1
R R
| |
+
|
\ .

v c hai li khc nhau m ra cho dng in i qua.
Mt th d quan trng ca cc in tr mc ni tip v song song l vic s dng
volt k v ampe k trong mch in c in tr. Volt k tc dng nh mt in tr ln mc
song song vi in tr m ngi ta mun o gim th qua n. Thc t in tr ca n
khng phi v hn c ngha l n lm thay i dng in dng trong kho st, to ra in
tr tng ng nh hn. Ampe k tc dng nh mt in tr nh mc ni tip vi mch
in m ta mun xc nh dng in chy qua . in tr ca n khng hn bng khng,
dn n s tng in tr ca mch in m ta kim tra.

Bi tp
1. (a) Nhiu dng c hot ng bng pin cn nhiu hn mt pin. Nu bn nhn k
vo ngn cha pin, bn s thy cc pin c mc dy ni tip nhau. Xt mt mch in
n flash. Quy lut vng kn cho bn bit iu g v tc dng ca vic t vi chic pin ni
tip nhau theo kiu ny ?
(b) Cc t bo ca h thn kinh ca c chnh in khng khc my so vi chng ta
mi t bo c th pht trin mt hiu in th hai u ca n u vo bc 1 volt. Nh
vy, bn ngh nh th no khi mt con c chnh in c kh nng to ra hiu in th hng
nghn volt gia cc phn khc nhau ca c th n ?
2. B phn nung nng ca l si in mc ni tip vi mt cng tc m v ng
nhiu ln trong mt giy. Khi bn xoay nt cho cng sut ln hn, th phn thi gian cng
tc ng tng ln. Gi s ai xut mt ci tin n gin hn cho vic iu chnh cng
sut bng cch t b phn un nng ni tip vi mt bin tr iu chnh bng nt xoay.
(Vi nt xoay ht theo chiu kim ng h thi in tr ca bin tr hu nh bng khng, v
khi n xoay ht theo ngc chiu kim ng h th in tr ca n v c bn l v hn)
(a) Hy v gin mch in.
(b) V sao thit k n gin hn ny khng c a chung ?
3. Mt l nng bnh 1,0 O v mt bng n 2,0 O mc song song vi ngun cp
in 110 V ca nh bn. (B qua thc t in th l xoay chiu ch khng phi mt chiu)
(a) V s mch in.
(b) i vi mi trong s ba thnh phn trong mch in, tm cng dng in
chy qua n v gim th qua n.
(c) Gi s ba thnh phn trn c thay th bng cch mc ni tip. Hy v s
mch in v tnh li cc yu cu tng t nh trn.
4. Dy in bn ngoi ch c ng knh nht nh gi l tiu chun. S chnh
lch ng knh gia dy chun v dy cn chun mc ni tip l khong 20%. Hy so
snh in tr ca mt chiu di cho trc ca dy dn chun vi in tr ca cng chiu
di ca dy dn chun v dy cn chun mc ni tip.
5. Hnh bn di cho thy hai cch mc dy n flash vi mt cng tc. C hai
cch u s bt v tt bng n, mc d cng tc m nhn vai tr theo kiu c v ngc
nhau. V sao phng php 1 c a chung hn ?

6. Trong hnh trn, pin l 9 V.
(a) Hiu in th gia hai u mi bng n bng bao nhiu ?
(b) Dng in chy qua mi trong s ba thnh phn ca mch in bng bao nhiu
?
(c) Nu mt dy dn mi c thm vo ni im A vi im B, th sng ca
cc bng n s thay i nh th no ? Hiu in th v dng in trong trng hp mi
ny s bng bao nhiu ?
(d) Gi s khng c dy ni t A sang B, nhng hai bng n i ch cho nhau.
Kt qu s nh th no so vi kt qu thu c t cch mc ban u nh v ?
7. Bn c mt mch in gm hai in tr cha bit mc ni tip, v mt mch
in th hai gm hai in tr cha bit mc song song.
(a) Bn c th kt lun g v cc in tr trong mch in mc ni tip khi tm thy
dng in chy qua chng l bng nhau ?
(b) Nu bn tm thy hiu in th gia hai u cc in tr trong mch in mc
ni tip l bng nhau th bn kt lun nh th no ?
(c) Bn bit g v cc in tr trong mch in mc song song t vic bit dng
in chy qua chng l bng nhau ?
(d) Nu hiu in th trong mch in song song bng nhau th sao ?
8. Mt sinh vin trong phng th nghim sinh hc c cung cp nhng li hng
dn nh sau: Ni cc ty no (C.E.) v cht kh cc thn kinh (N.D.) song song vi
ngun cp in (P.S.) (Khng bao gi bn nn cho php cc ty no nm gn trong phm
vi cch u bn 20 cm) Ni volt k o hiu in th hai u cc ty no, v ng thi
chn mt ampe k vo mch in sao cho bn c th m bo rng bn khng t hn 100
mA chy qua cht kh cc thn kinh. Cc s bn di biu din hai n lc ca nhm
nghin cu trong phng th nghim theo s ch dn trn.
(a) Hy v li s a thnh s mch in kiu chun. u l ci sai v ci ng
ca cch mc mch ca nhm nghin cu ?
(b) Thc hin yu cu trn vi s b.

9. C bao nhiu gi tr in tr khc nhau c th to ra bng cch kt hp ba in
tr khng bng nhau ? (Khng tnh n nhng kh nng trong khng s dng ht c ba
in tr)
10. Mt ngi khu vc nng thn khng c in s dng ko mt ng dy dn
cc k di n nh mt ngi bn cui con ng nn c ta c th thp sng mt bng
n in. Dy dn di n mc in tr ca n, x, khng phi l khng ng k. Hy ch ra
rng sng ca bng n l ln nht nu nh in tr ca n, y, bng vi x. Gii thch v
mt vt l v sao bng n ti i trong trng hp gi tr y qu nh hay qu ln.
11. Cc gi tr in tr c th bng bao nhiu khi kt hp mt in tr 1 kO vi
mt in tr 10 kO ?
12. Gi s c 6 in tr ging ht nhau, mi in tr c gi tr R, ni vi nhau sao
cho chng hnh thnh nn cc cnh ca mt t din (hnh chp c ba mt bn cng vi mt
mt y, tc l mt hnh thu nh ca kim t thp Ai Cp). Hi gi tr in tr thu c c
th bng bao nhiu khi ni dy vi hai im bt k trong cu hnh ny ?
R/2
13. Hnh bn di biu din mt mch in gm 5 bng n ni vi mt pin. Gi
s bn chun b ni mt u ca volt k vi mch in im nh du chm en. Hi c
bao nhiu gi tr hiu in th khc khng m bn c th o khi ni u cn li ca volt k
vi mch in ?
14. Cc bng n trong hnh di l ging ht nhau. Nu bn chn mt ampe k
vo nhng ni khc nhau trong mch in, c bao nhiu gi tr dng in bn c th o
c ? Nu php o dng in cho cng mt gi tr s nhiu hn mt ni, hy ch m
l mt gi tr dng in thi.

15. Cc bng n ging ht nhau. Hi n no khng sng ?
16. Mi bng n c in tr 1 ohm. Hi cng sut cp bi ngun pin 1 volt bng
bao nhiu ?
17. Tt c cc bng n c in tr khng bng nhau. Cho ba gi tr dng in nh
trong hnh, hy tnh dng in chy qua cc n A, B, C v D.

Chng 5
CC TRNG LC

Nn khoa hc mi nhn d dng thm nhp vo nn vn ha cng chng, i khi
qua hnh thc b bp mo. Tr tng tng Newton thng tr khp ni ch yu vi cht liu
p vng chc gi l vt cht, n c cu thnh t nhng qu cu c phn rn chc gi l
nguyn t. Vo u th k 20, cc v khch hng ca tiu thuyt git gn v nn khoa hc
i chng ha bt u nghe ni ti mt hnh nh mi ca v tr, ton y tia X, tia N v
sng Hertz. Ci m h bt u thm nhp qua da ca h l s xt li trit quan nim ca
Newton v mt v tr cu thnh t cc khi vt cht c v tng tc thng qua cc lc.
Trong bc tranh mi xut hin, v tr cu thnh t lc, hay ni mang tnh k thut hn, t
nhng gn sng trong cc trng lc ph bin. Khng ging nh a s c gi ca tc
phm Nhng cu chuyn v tr hi nm 1941, by gi bn c kin thc k thut hiu
c mt trng lc tht s l ci g.
5.1 Ti sao li l cc trng lc ?
S tr thi gian tc dng lc t xa
Ci g thuyt phc cc nh vt l rng h cn n quan nim mi ny v mt
trng lc ? Mc d chng ta quen thuc nhiu vi lc in, nhng hy bt u vi mt
v d lc t. (Tht ra l do ch yu khin ti hon cha bn ti t hc qu lu v cc php
tnh ton hc ca cc hiu ng t s d nm bt hn nhiu vi quan nim v trng lc)
Trc ht, hy ni qua mt cht v c s dn n v d ca chng ta. Mt thanh nam
chm, a, c mt trc m nhiu qu o electron nh hng dc theo . Chnh Tri t
cng l mt nam chm, mc d khng phi loi dng thanh. Tng tc gia nam chm-
Tri t v thanh nam chm, b, lm cho chng sp thng hng trc ca chng theo hng
ngc nhau (ni cch khc, cc electron ca chng quay trong nhng mt phng song
song, nhng mt qu o quay theo chiu kim ng h v qu o kia quay ngc chiu
kim ng h khi nhn dc theo trc) kch thc nh hn, bt k hai thanh nam chm no
t gn nhau cng s t sp chng u ni ui, c.

a/ Cc nguyn t ca thanh nam
chm sp thng hng vi nhau (mt
phn).
b/ Thanh nam chm
tng tc vi hnh tinh
t tnh ca chng ta.
c/ Cc nam chm sp theo
hng bc-nam.
By gi chng ta xt mt v d c lin quan. R rng l hai ngi cch nhau mt
bc tng mng c t giy c th s dng mt cp thanh nam chm truyn tn hiu cho
nhau. Mi ngi s cm thy nam chm ca mnh c gng xoay i phn ng li vi bt k
chuyn ng quay no thc hin bi nam chm ca ngi bn kia. Phm vi thc t ca s
truyn thng s rt ngn i vi cch sp t ny, nhng mt thit b nhy c th thu c
cc tn hiu t tnh t nhng khong cch xa hn nhiu. Tht ra, y khng khc g my
so vi radio thc hin: cc electron chy ln chy xung trong nten pht to ra lc tc
dng ln cc electron trong nten thu xa. (C lc in ln lc t u c mt trong cc tn
hiu radio thc t, nhng cho n lc ny chng ta khng phi lo ngi g v iu ).
By gi, mt cu hi t nhin pht sinh l c hay khng s chm tr thi gian trong
loi truyn thng qua cc lc t (v in) ny. Newton ngh rng khng, v ng quan nim
v nn vt l di dng tc dng lc tc thi xuyn khong cch. Tuy nhin, ngy nay
chng ta bit rng c mt s chm tr thi gian nh th. Nu bn thc hin mt cuc gi
in thoi ng di gi tn hiu qua v tinh vin thng, bn s d dng c th pht hin s
chm tr khong chng na giy trn hnh trnh 50.000 dm khp kn ca tn hiu. Cc
php o hin i cho thy cc lc in, lc t v lc hp dn u truyn i tc nh
sng, 3 x 10
8
m/s. (Tht ra, chng ta s sm bn n vic chnh bn thn nh sng cng
c cu thnh t in v t).
Nu nh mt cht t thi gian cho lc truyn qua khng gian, th r rng phi c
mt th g truyn qua khng gian. Tht ra th hin tng truyn ra xa cng tc nh
nhau theo mi hng gi r rng ti php n d sng nh cc gn sng trn mt h.
Nhiu bng chng cho thy cc trng lc l c tht: chng mang nng lng
Lun c anh thp cho khi nim l lng ny v cc gn sng lc xut pht t thc
t l chng mang nng lng.
u tin, hy gi s mt ngi ang cm thanh nam chm pha bn phi quyt
nh ln ngc n li, kt qu thu c l cu hnh d. C ta phi thc hin cng c hc
lm xoay n, v nu c ta bung thanh nam chm ra, nng lng s c gii phng khi n
quay ngc tr li c. R rng c ta d tr nng lng khi chuyn t c sang d. Trong
chng mc no , mi th d dng c gii thch m khng cn khi nim trng lc.
Nhng by gi hy tng tng hai ngi bt u v tr c v ng thi lt thanh
nam chm ca h cc k nhanh sang v tr e, gi chng thng hng vi nhau trong ton b
thi gian . Hy tng tng, v mc ch lp lun, rng h c th lm vic ny nhanh
n mc tng nam chm b o ngc trong khi tn hiu lc t nam chm kia vn cn trn
ng truyn i. (i vi mt v d mang tnh thc t hn, chng ta phi c hai nten
radio, nhng cc nam chm th d hnh dung hn) Trong khi lt, tng nam chm vn cm
nhn lc t cch thc m nam chm kia thng nh hng. D cho hai nam chm vn
thng hng trong khi lt, s chm tr thi gian khin cho mi ngi cm thy s cn tr
khi c ta xoay trn thanh nam chm ca mnh. Lm th no li c chuyn ny ? C hai
ngi h r rng ang thc hin cng c hc, nn h phi ang d tr nng lng t bng
cch no . Nhng theo quan nim kiu Newton truyn thng v vt cht tng tc thng
qua cc lc tc thi xuyn khong cch, nng lng tng tc pht sinh t v tr tng i
ca cc vt ang tng tc thng qua lc. Nu cc nam chm khng bao gi thay i s
nh hng tng i ca chng i vi nhau, th lm th no m nng lng t c th
c d tr ?

d/ Nam chm th hai b lt ngc e/ C hai nam chm b lt ngc
Cu tr li kh d duy nht l nng lng phi ri vo cc gn lc t bt cho
khng gian gia cc nam chm. Chng ta quen thuc vi tng rng mt nten pht sng
radio tiu th mt lng ln cng sut, v bng cch no pht n ra v tr. Mt ngi
lm vic xung quanh mt nten nh th cn phi thn trng khng tin qu gn n, v ton
b nng lng c th d dng nu chn da tht ngi (mt hin tng au n gi l s
t chy RF).
5.2 Trng hp dn
Cho rng cc trng lc l c thc, vy lm th no chng ta nh ngha, o lng
v tnh ton chng ? Mt php n d d hnh dung l ging nh gi thi m con tu bin
phi chu. Cho d l con tu tin v pha no, n s cm nhn mt lng lc nht nh t
ngn gi, v lc s vo mt hng nht nh. Tt nhin thi tit lun lun bin i,
nhng by gi hy ch tng tng n hnh nh ngn gi n nh thi. Cc nh ngha
trong vt l hc l c tnh hnh ng, tc l chng m t lm th no o c th nh
ngha. Thuyn trng ca con tu c th o trng lc ca ngn gi bng cch tin ti v
tr thy thch v xc nh c hng gi ln cng m n ang thi. Lp th tt c
nhng php o ny trn mt bn v a n mt s miu t ca trng lc gi ging nh
trong hnh minh ha. y l phng php bin vect ca vic hnh dung trng.

f/ Hnh nh gi trn mt khu vc nht nh ca i
dng c th lp biu theo phng php bin
vect nh th ny. Mi mi tn biu din cho c
cng gi v hng ca n ti mt ni nht
nh.
By gi hy xem lm th no nhng khi nim ny p dng c cho cc trng
lc c bn ca v tr. Chng ta bt u vi trng hp dn, l i tng d hiu nht.
Nh i vi hnh nh gi thi, chng ta bt u bng vic tng tng hp dn l mt
trng tnh, mc d s tn ti ca thy triu chng t c s thay i lin tc trng hp
dn trong vng khng gian ca chng ta. Vic nh ngha hng ca trng hp dn kh
d: chng ta ch n gin tin n v tr thy thch v o hng ca lc hp dn tc dng
ln vt, v d nh mt qu nng buc vo u mt si dy.
Nhng lm th no chng ta nh ngha c cng ca lc hp dn ? Lc hp
dn trn mt trng yu hn nhiu so vi trn Tri t, nhng khng th no nh r mt
cch n gin cng hp dn bng cch cho i mt s newton nht nh. S newton
ca lc hp dn khng nhng ph thuc vo cng trng hp dn a phng m cn
ph thuc vo khi lng ca vt m chng ta kim tra s hp dn, tc khi lng th
ca chng ta. Mt tng trn mt trng cm nhn lc hp dn mnh hn mt hn si trn
Tri t. Chng ta c th gii quyt vn ny bng cch nh ngha cng ca trng
hp dn l lc tc dng ln mt vt, chia cho khi lng ca vt .
nh ngha trng hp dn
Vect trng hp dn, g, bt k v tr no trong khng gian c xc nh bng
cch t mt khi lng th m
t
ti im . Vect trng khi c xc nh bi
g = F/m
t
, trong F l lc hp dn tc dng ln khi lng th.
ln ca trng hp dn gn b mt Tri t vo khong 9,8 N/kg v khng
phi l s trng hp ngu nhin m con s ny trng quen thuc, hay k hiu g l ging ht
nh k hiu cho gia tc trng trng. Lc hp dn tc dng ln khi lng th s bng m
t
g,
trong g l gia tc trng trng. Vy ti sao li nh ngha mt tn gi mi v n v mi
cho cng mt i lng c ? L do ch yu l n dn ng cho chng ta tip cn vic
nh ngha cc trng khc.
iu tinh t nht y l trng hp dn s cho chng ta bit lc g s tc dng ln
mt khi lng th bi Tri t, Mt Tri, Mt Trng v ton b phn cn li ca v tr,
nu chng ta xen mt khi lng th vo im kho st. Trng hp dn vn tn ti mi
ni m chng ta khng o n.
V d 1. Trng hp dn ca Tri t
ln ca trng hp dn ca Tri t, theo khi lng M ca n v khong cch r tnh t tm ca
n, bng bao nhiu ?
Thay |F| = GMm
t
/r
2
vo nh ngha trng hp dn, chng ta tm c |g| = GM/r
2
. Biu thc ny c
th dng cho trng hp dn ca bt k s phn b khi lng i xng cu no khc, v phng
trnh chng ta tha nhn cho lc hp dn p dng c cho nhng trng hp nh th.
Ngun v bn
Nu chng ta thc hin mt bc tranh bin-mi-tn ca trng hp dn xung quanh
Tri t, g, kt qu lm lin tng n hnh nh nc chy xung mt ci rnh. V l do
ny m bt c th g to ra mt trng xung quanh hng vo bn trong n c gi l
bn. Tri t l mt bn hp dn. Thut ng ngun c th ch ring nhng th to ra
mt trng hng xa ra bn ngoi, hoc n c th c dng lm thut ng khi qut hn
cho c trng hp hng ra v hng vo. Tuy ln xn thut ng, nhng chng ta bit
rng trng hp dn ch c tnh ht, nn chng ta s khng cn tm vng khng gian c
hnh nh trng hng ra bn ngoi.
Kin thc v trng c th hon i cho kin thc v ngun ca n (t nht l trong
trng hp trng tnh, khng bin thin). Nu nhng sinh vt l nhn thy hnh nh
trng hp dn ca Tri t, h c th lp tc suy ra s tn ti ca hnh tinh, v ngc li
nu h bit khi lng ca Tri t, h c th tin on nh hng ca n ln trng hp
dn xung quanh.

g/ Trng hp dn xung quanh mt cm khi lng
ging nh Tri t.
h/ Trng hp dn ca Tri t v Mt Trng chng
cht ln nhau. Lu lm th no cc trng trit tiu
nhau ti mt im, v lm th no khng c ranh gii
gia cc trng xuyn nhp vo nhau gia hai vt
th.
S chng cht trng
Mt c s rt quan trng v mi trng lc l khi c nhiu hn mt ngun (hay
bn), cc trng cng li vi nhau theo quy lut cng vect. Trng hp dn nht nh s
c tnh cht ny, v n c nh ngha di dng lc tc dng ln khi lng th, v lc
cng ging nh cng vect. S chng cht l mt c trng quan trng ca sng, nn tnh
chng cht ca cc trng ph hp vi tng rng s nhiu lon c th truyn ra bn
ngoi di dng sng trong mt trng.
V d 2. S gim lc hp dn tc dng ln Io do s hp dn ca Mc tinh
Trng hp dn trung bnh trn v tinh Io ca Mc tinh l 1,81 N/kg. Trng hp dn ny gim i
bao nhiu khi Mc tinh nm ngay pha trc trn u ? Qu o ca Io c bn knh 4,22 x 10
8
m, v
khi lng ca Mc tinh l 1,899 x 10
27
kg.
Theo nh lut lp v, chng ta c th xem Mc tinh nh th ton b khi lng ca n tp trung ti
tm ca n, v tng t i vi Io. Nu chng ta n thm Io v tip t ti ni m Mc tinh nm
ngay pha trn u, chng ta cng nm trn ng thng ni lin hai tm, nn ton b bi ton c
th xem l mt chiu, v php cng vect ging ht nh php cng v hng. Hy s dng s
dng cho trng hng xung (hng vo tm ca Io) v s m cho trng hng ln. Thay s
liu thch hp vo trong biu thc thu c v d 1, chng ta tm c ng gp ca Mc tinh cho
trng l 0,71 N/kg. S chng cht trng cho bit rng chng ta c th tm c trng hp dn
tht s bng cch cng gp cc trng to ra bi Io v Mc tinh: 1,81 0,71 N/kg = 1,1 N/kg. Bn
c th ngh s suy gim ny s to ra mt s hiu ng k l, v khin cho Io l mt ch n du lch
l th. Tht ra th bn s khng pht hin ra bt k s khc bit no nu bn bay t pha bn ny ca
Io sang pha bn kia. y l do c th bn v Io u chu sc hp dn ca Mc tinh, nn bn cng i
theo qu o cong trong khng gian xung quanh Mc tinh.
Sng hp dn
Mt ngun ng yn s to ra mt hnh nh trng tnh, ging nh mt qu cu
thp nm yn bnh trn tm cao su. Mt ngun chuyn ng s to ra hnh nh sng tri
rng ra trong trng, ging nh con cn trng ang p nc trn mt h. Mc d chng
ta khi u vi trng hp dn l v d n gin nht ca mt trng tnh, nhng cc
sao v hnh tinh tht s ang lt i hn l chuyn ng ti ch, nn sng hp dn khng
d g pht hin c. L thuyt hp dn ca Newton khng m t sng hp dn, nhng
chng c tin on bi thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein. J.H. Taylor v R.A. Hulse
c trao gii Nobel nm 1993 cho vic mang li bng chng gin tip rng sng hp dn
ca Einstein tht s tn ti. H pht hin ra mt cp sao k l, cc k m c gi l sao
neutron ang quay xung quanh nhau rt gn, v ch ra rng chng ang mt dn nng
lng qu o tc tin on bi l thuyt ca Einstein.

i/ Mt phn ca my d sng hp dn LIGO ti Di t ht nhn Hanford, gn Richland, Washington. Na
kia ca my d nm Louisiana.
Chng trnh hp tc Caltech-MIT xy dng mt cp my d sng hp dn gi
l LIGO nhm tm kim bng chng trc tip hn ca sng hp dn. V v c bn chng l
nhng my d dao ng nhy nht tng c ch to, nn chng nm nhng khu vc
kh thn d, v cc tn hiu s c so snh gia chng m bo rng chng khng phi
do xe c chy qua gy ra. D n bt u hot ng nhy trn vn vo nm 2005, v
hin nay c kh nng pht hin mt dao ng gy ra s thay i 10
-18
m khong cch
gia cc gng hai u ng chn khng di 4 km. Khong cch ny ln gp mt nghn
ln kch thc ca ht nhn nguyn t! Ch c va vn tin ti tr gi c my hot ng
trong vi ba nm na, nn cc nh vt l ch c th hi vng trong thi gian , ni no
trong v tr, mt bin ng d di s xy ra to ra mt sng hp dn c th pht hin
c. (Chnh xc hn l h mun sng n h Mt Tri ca chng ta trong thi gian ,
mc d n c to ra t hng triu nm trc).
5.3 in trng
nh ngha
nh ngha ca in trng hon ton tng t, v c cng ng c, nh nh
ngha trng hp dn.

nh ngha in trng
Vect in trng, E, ti mt im bt k trong khng gian c xc nh bng
cch t mt in tch th q
t
ti im . Vect in trng c cho bi E = F/q
t
,
trong F l lc in tc dng ln in tch th.
Cc in tch l ci to ra in trng. Khng ging nh lc hp dn, ch l lc ht,
lc in biu hin c s ht v y. Mt in tch dng l ngun ca in trng, v mt
in tch m l bn ca in trng.
im kh khn nht v nh ngha in trng l lc tc dng ln mt in tch m
c hng ngc li so vi trng. iu ny tun theo nh ngha, v vic chia vect cho
mt s m lm o hng ca n. N ging nh th chng ta c mt s vt ri ln thay v
ri xung.
v Tm biu thc ln ca in trng do mt in tch im Q gy ra.
(
( )
2 2
t t t
F / q kQq / r / q kQ/ r = = )
V d 3. S chng cht in trng
V Cc in tch q v q nm cch nhau mt khong b nh hnh v. Hi in trng ti im P, nm
ti nh th ba ca hnh vung, bng bao nhiu ?

j/ V d 3
in trng ti P l tng vect ca cc trng to ra c lp bi hai in tch. Chn trc x hng
sang phi v trc y hng ln trn.
Cc in tch m c trng hng vo chng, nn in tch q to ra mt in trng hng sang
phi, tc l c thnh phn x dng. S dng kt qu cu hi v trn, chng ta c
2
0
q,x
q,y
kq
E
b
E
=
=

Lu rng nu chng ta m qung b qua k hiu gi tr tuyt i v thay q vo phng trnh,
chng ta s c kt lun khng chnh xc rng t trng hng sang bn tri.
p dng nh l Pythagore, in tch dng nm cch P khong cch 2b nn ln do n ng
gp cho trng l E = kq/2b
2
.
in tch dng c trng hng ra xa chng, nn vect trng hp mt gc 135
o
ngc chiu kim
ng h tnh t trc x.
2 3 2 2
135
2 2
o
q,x /
kq kq
E cos
b b
= =
2 3 2 2
135
2 2
o
q,y /
kq kq
E sin
b b
= =
Trng tng hp l
( )
3 2
2
1 2
/
x
kq
E
b
=
3 2 2
2
y /
kq
E
b
=
Lng cc in
Tp hp n gin nht ca cc ngun c th
xy ra vi in hc nhng khng xy ra vi
lc hp dn l lng cc, gm mt in tch
dng v mt in tch m c ln bng
nhau. Tng qut hn, mt lng cc in c
th l bt k vt no c s bt cn bng ca
in tch dng pha bn ny v in tch
m pha bn kia. Phn t nc, l, l mt
lng cc v cc electron c xu hng b
lch khi nguyn t hydrogen v chy sang
nguyn t oxygen.
L vi sng trong nh bn tc dng ln cc
phn t nc bng in trng. Chng ta
hy tng tng iu g xy ra nu chng ta
bt u vi mt in trng ng u, m/1,
do mt s in tch ngoi gy ra, v sau
a vo mt lng cc, m/2, gm hai in
tch ni vi nhau bng mt thanh rn.
Lng cc lm nhiu hnh nh trng,
nhng quan trng hn trong mc ch ca
chng ta l n chu mt mmen quay. Trong
v d ny, in tch dng chu mt lc
hng ln trn, cn in tch m th b ko
xung. Kt qu l lng cc c xu hng t
sp thng hng vi trng, m/3. L vi sng
un nng thc n vi sng in (v t). S
lun phin ca mmen quay lm cho cc
phn t lc l v lm tng lng chuyn
ng ngu nhin. nh ngha hi m h ca
lng cc cho trn c th ci thin bng
cch pht biu rng lng cc l bt k vt
no chu mmen quay trong in trng.

k/ Trng lng cc. in trng i ra in tch
dng v i vo in tch m.

l/ Phn t nc l mt lng cc

m/1. in trng u do mt s in tch bn ngoi gy ra.
2. Mt lng cc t trong in trng. 3. Lng cc sp thng hng vi trng.
Ci g xc nh mmen quay tc dng ln mt lng cc t trong mt trng
ngoi to ra ? Mmen ph thuc vo lc, khong cch tnh t trc quay m lc tc dng,
v gc gia lc v ng ni t trc quay n im t ca lc. Xt mt lng cc gm
hai in tch + q v q cch nhau khong l t trong mt trng ngoi c ln |E|, hp
mt gc u so vi trng. Mmen quay ton phn tc dng ln lng cc l
2 2
l l
e E sin q E sin lq E sin t u u u = + =
(Lu mc d hai lc c hng ngc nhau, nhng mmen quay khng trit tiu v chng
u c lm xon lng cc theo cng mt hng). i lng lq c gi l mmen lng
cc, k hiu l D. (Cc lng cc phc tp hn cng c th gn cho mt mmen lng cc
chng c nh ngha l c cng mmen lng cc nh lng cc hai in tch chu
cng mt mmen quay).
V d 4. Mmen lng cc ca phn t hi NaCl
V Trong phn t hi NaCl, khong cch tm-ni-tm gia hai nguyn t l khong 0,6 nm. Gi s
Cl hon ton ly mt mt trong cc electron ca Na, hy tnh ln mmen lng cc ca phn t
ny.
in tch tng cng bng khng, nn vic chng ta chn gc ta u khng nh hng g.
cho tin, ta chn n l mt trong hai nguyn t, nn in tch nguyn t khng gp phn
cho mmen lng cc. ln ca mmen lng cc khi bng
D = (6 x 10
-10
m) (e)
= (6 x 10
-10
m) (1,6 x 10
-19
C)
= 1 x 10
-28
C.m
nh ngha khc ca in trng
Hnh vi ca lng cc in trong in trng ngoi a chng ta n mt nh
ngha khc ca in trng:
nh ngha khc ca in trng
Vect cng in trng, E, ti mt im bt k trong khng gian c nh
ngha bng cch quan st mmen quay tc dng ln mt lng cc th D
t
t ti
. Hng ca trng l hng m trng c xu hng sp thng hng lng cc
(t - sang +), v ln ca trng l |E| = t / D
t
sinu.
L do ch yu a ra nh ngha th hai ca cng khi nim trn l t trng d
c nh ngha nht bng phng php tng t.

Lin h gia hiu in th v cng in trng
Hiu in th l th nng trn n v in tch, v cng in trng l lc trn
n v in tch. Do , chng ta c th lin h hiu in th v trng nu chng ta bt
u t mi quan h gia th nng v lc,
APE = - Fd [gi s lc khng i v chuyn ng song song vi lc]
v chia cho in tch
APE = - Fd [gi s lc khng i v chuyn ng song song vi lc]
cho ta
AV = - Ed [gi s lc khng i v chuyn ng song song vi lc]
Ni cch khc, s chnh lch in th gia hai im bng vi cng in trng
nhn vi khong cch gia chng. Li gii thch l ch in trng mnh l vng khng
gian trong in th thay i nhanh. Tng t, sn i dc l ni trn bn cao
thay i nhanh.
V d 5. in trng do c chnh in pht ra
V Gi s mt con c chnh in di 1 m, v lm pht sinh hiu in th 1000 V gia u v ui ca
n. Hi cng in trng trong nc xung quanh n bng bao nhiu ?
Chng ta ch tnh ln ca trng, ch khng tnh n hng ca n, nn chng ta b qua cc
k hiu dng v m. Vi gi thit l chp nhn iu khng chnh xc l in trng khng i song
song vi c th con c chnh, ta c
|E|
V
x
A
=
A

= 1000 V/m

V d 6. Lin h gia n v ca cng in trng v hiu in th
T nh ngha ban u ca chng ta v in trng, chng ta mun n c n v newton trn
coulom, N/C. Tuy nhin, v d trn li cho n v volt trn mt, V/m. C g mu thun nhau khng
? Hy kim tra li mi php tnh u chnh xc. Trong trng hp ny, chin lc tt nht thng l
n gin nhng n v phc tp hn sao cho chng ch cha cc n v mks v coulomb. V hiu
in th c nh ngha l nng lng in trn n v in tch, nn n c n v J/C:
V J / C J
m m C.m
= =
Lin h joule vi newton, ta nh li rng cng bng lc nhn vi khong cch, nn J = N.m, vy
V N.m N
m C.m C
= =
Nh vi nhng kh khn khc kiu nh th i vi cc n v in, ngi ta nhanh chng bt u
nhn ra nhng t hp xut hin thng xuyn.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Trong nh ngha cng in trng, in tch th c cn l 1 coulomb ? N c cn l mt
in tch dng ?
B. Mt ht tch in, chng hn nh electron hoc proton, c chu lc tc dng t in trng ca
ring n ?
C. C hay khng in trng xung quanh mt hc tng khng c g cm vo n, hay mt ci pin
va mi t nm trn bn ?
D. Trong mt n flash cp ngun bng pin, in trng hng theo chiu no ? Trng s trng
nh th no bn trong cc dy dn ? Cn trong dy tc ca n si t th sao ?
E. Ph bnh pht biu sau: in trng c th biu din bng mt bin mi tn ch chiu dng in
ang chy.
F. in trng ca mt in tch im, |E| = kQ/r
2
, c c trong phn cu hi t kim tra trn.
Hy so snh hnh dng trng ca mt qu cu tch in u vi trng ca mt in tch im ?
G. Bn trong ca mt vt dn in hon ho trng thi cn bng phi c in trng bng khng,
v nu khng th in tch t do bn trong n s b tri git i vi trng, v n s khng cn
trng thi cn bng. Cn in trng ngay ti b mt vt dn hon ho th sao? Xt kh nng trng
vung gc vi b mt hay song song vi n.

n/ Cu hi tho lun H
H. So snh mmen lng cc ca cc phn t v ion phn t cho trong hnh n.
I. Nhng mu giy nh khng b lm cho nhim in bng bt k cch no c th b ht ln vi mt
vt tch in nh mt ming bng tch in. Theo thut ng mi ca chng ta, chng ta c th m t
in tch ca ming bng gy ra mt mmen lng cc trn mu giy. C th s dng mt k thut
tng t gy ra khng ch mt mmen lng cc m l mt in tch hay khng ?
J. Tri t v Mt Trng kh chnh lch v kch thc v cch xa nhau, ging nh mt qu bng
chy v mt qu bng bn cm trn hai tay giang rng ca bn. Tng tng thay th h hnh tinh
vi c tnh ca hnh tinh kp: hai hnh tinh c kch thc bng nhau, nm gn nhau. Hy phc ha
biu bin mi tn cho trng hp dn ca chng.
5.4 in th i vi trng khng u
Bn c am hiu tnh ton s khng gp kh khn g trong vic khi qut mi quan
h cng in trng-hiu in th cho trng hp trng bin thin. Th nng lin
quan n mt lc bin thin l
PE Fdx A =
}
, [mt chiu]
nn i vi in trng, chng ta em chia cho q, c
V Edx A =
}
, [mt chiu]
p dng nh l c bn ca php tnh tch phn
dV
E
dx
= [mt chiu]
V d 7. in th do mt in tch im gy ra
V Tm biu thc ca in th do mt in tch im gy ra.
Nh c t cu hi t kim tra phn trc, in trng do mt in tch im gy ra l
|E| =
2
kQ
r

Hiu in th gia hai im trn cng mt ng bn knh l
x
V dV E dx A = =
} }

Trong tho lun chung trn, x ch l mt k hiu chung cho khong cch truyn dc theo ng
sc tnh t im ny n im kia, nn trong trng hp ny x tht ra l r
2 2 2
1 1 1
2
2 1
r r r
r
r r r
kQ kQ kQ kQ
V E dr dr
r r r r
(
A = = = =
(
} }

Quy c chung l s dng r
1
= lm mt im tham chiu, nn in th ti mt im bt k cch
in tch khong r l
kQ
V
r
=
Li gii thch l nu bn mang in tch th dng n cng gn mt in tch dng, th nng
lng in ca n tng ln; nu n c phng thch, n s nhy ra xa, gii phng nng lng ny
di dng ng nng.

v Hy ch ra rng bn c th tm c biu thc cho in trng ca mt in tch im bng cch
nh gi o hm E
x
= - dV/dx.

o/ Hnh bn tri: Bn a hnh ca vng Stowe,Vermont. cao chnh lch t ng ng mc ny n
ng ng mc k tip l 200 feet. Cc ng cng cch xa nhau, nh trong ngi lng thp hn, cho thy
a hnh tng i bng phng, cn cc ng cng gn nhau, ging nh cc ng pha ty thnh ph
chnh, biu din dc nhy bc. Cc dng sui chy t trn i xung, vung gc vi ng ng mc.
Hnh bn phi: Cng bn trn nhng c v li c chiu su, vi bng cho d nhn.
5.5 Hai hoc ba chiu
Bn a hnh nu trong hnh o gi mt phng php tt hnh dung mi lin
h gia in trng v in th trong khng gian hai chiu. Mi ng vin trn bn l
mt ng ng mc; mt vi trong s ny c ghi r cao ca chng theo n v feet.
Chiu cao lin quan n th nng hp dn, nn trong s tng t hp dn, nn chng ta c
th ngh chiu cao l biu din cho in th. ni cc ng vin cch xa nhau, nh trong
thnh ph, dc l thoai thoi. Cc ng cng gn nhau cho thy dc cng ln.
Nu chng ta i dc theo mt ng thng, ni v d nh i t thnh ph thng
sang pha ng, th chiu cao (in th) l mt hm ca ta x ng-ty. S dng nh
ngha ton hc thng dng ca dc, v vit V cho chiu cao nhc nh chng ta s
tng t in, th dc dc theo mt ng nh th l AV/Ax. Nu dc khng phi l
mt hng s, chng ta cn s dng dc ca th V-x, hoc s dng php tnh v ni v
o hm dV/dx.


p/ Cc ng cong ng th xung quanh mt in tch im. gn in tch, cc ng cong nm st nhau
nn chng nhp li trong hnh v ny do kch thc c hn biu din trn hnh v. Mt s vect cng
in trng c ch r bng mi tn.
Nu nh mi th khng gii hn theo mt ng thng th sao ? Nc chy t trn
i xung. Lu cch thc cc dng sui trn bn ct vung gc qua cc ng ng
mc.
Ngi ta c th lp bn in th theo kiu tng t, nh ch r trong hnh p.
in trng mnh nht ni cc ng cong ng th gn nhau nht, v vect cng
in trng lun hng vung gc vi cc ng ng th.
Hnh r biu din mt s v d v cch thc hnh dung hnh nh trng v in th.

r/ Hnh nh in trng v in th hai
chiu. Hnh trn: Mt thanh tch in u.
Hnh di: Mt lng cc. Trong mi
trng hp, biu bn tri biu din
cc vect trng v ng cong ng th,
cn th bn phi biu din in th (h
ta trn-di) l hm ca x v y. Ch
thch cc biu trng: Mi mi tn biu
din trng ti im ni ngn ca n nh
v. cho r rng, mt s mi tn trong
vng cng in trng rt mnh khng
biu din nh trn, chng qu di nn v ra
c. Ch thch cho cc ng cong ng
th: Trong nhng vng in trng rt
mnh, cc ng cong khng c ch r
v chng nhp li thnh vng en m. Ch
thch cho cc th phi cnh: Cn nh
rng mc d chng ta hnh dung cc th
trong khng gian ba chiu, nhng y tht
ra l biu din in th hai chiu. Chiu th
ba (trn-di) biu din in th, ch
khng phi v tr.

V mt ton hc, cc php tnh ca phn 5.4 khi qut ha cho khng gian ba chiu
nh sau:
E
x
= - dV/dx
E
y
= - dV/dy
E
z
= - dV/dz
v Tng tng rng bn a hnh trong hnh q biu din in th ch khng phi cao. (a) Xt
dng chy bt u gn chnh gia ca bn . Hy xc nh du dng v m ca dV/dx v
dV/dy, v lin h chng vi hng ca lc ang y dng in chy v pha trc chng li sc cn
ca ma st. (b) Nu bn mun tm tht nhiu in tch trn bn ny, th bn s tm ch no ?

Hnh q
5.6 in trng ca s phn b in tch lin tc
in tch tht s xut hin thnh nhng phn ring bit, nhng thng thng
cho tin li v mt ton hc, ngi ta xem tp hp cc in tch nh th chng ging nh
mt dng cht lu lin tc tri ra trong mt vng khng gian. V d, mt qu cu kim loi
tch in s c in tch tri ra gn nh ng u trn ton b b mt ca n, v trong a s
mc ch ngi ta thng b qua thc t l tnh cht u n ny b ph v mc
nguyn t. in trng do mt s phn b in tch lin tc nh th gy ra l tng cc in
trng do tng phn ca n gy ra. Nu chng ta t cc phn tr nn nh t xu, th
chng ta c tng ca mt s v hn nhng s v cng nh, tc l mt tch phn. Nu n l
mt tng ri rc, th chng ta c in trng tng cng theo hng x l tng ca mi thnh
phn x ca tng trng ring l, v tng t chng ta s c tng cho cc thnh phn y v z.
Trong trng hp lin tc, chng ta c ba tch phn.
V d 8. in trng ca mt thanh tch in u
V Mt thanh chiu di L c in tch Q tri u dc theo n. Tm in trng ti im nm cch
chnh gia thanh mt khong d, dc theo trc ca thanh.
y l mt tnh hung mt chiu, nn chng ta tht ra ch cn tin hnh mt php tch phn biu
din in trng tng cng dc theo trc. Chng ta tng tng chia thanh ra thnh nhng phn
ngn c chiu di dz, mi phn c in tch dq. V in tch tri u theo thanh, nn chng ta c dq
= dz, trong = Q/L l in tch trn n v chiu di, c n v coulom trn mt. V cc phn
chia v cng ngn, nn chng ta xem chng l in tch im v s dng biu thc kdq/r
2
cho s
ng gp ca chng vo in trng, trong r = d z l khong cch tnh t in tch ti z n
im m chng ta thch.
( )
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
L / L /
z
L / L /
kdq k dz dz
E k
r r
d z

+ +

= = =
} } }

s/ V d 8
Tch phn c th tm trong bng k, hay h bc xung dng c bn bng cch t mt bin mi thay
cho (d z). Kt qu l
2
2
1 1 1
2 2
L/
z
L/
kQ
E k
d z L d L / d L /
| | | |
= =
| |
+
\ . \ .

i vi cc gi tr ln ca d, biu thc ny cho gi tr nh hn v hai nguyn do: (1) mu ca phn
thc tr nn ln, v (2) hai phn thc tr nn gn nh bng nhau, v c xu hng trit tiu nhau.
iu ny c ngha, v trng s phi yu hn khi ta i xa in tch hn. Trn thc t, trng
khong cch ln phi tin ti kQ/d
2
, v t mt khong cch tht ln, thanh trng nh mt im
Cng tht hng th lu rng in trng tr nn v hn hai u thanh, nhng khng v hn trn
phn trong ca thanh. Bn c th gii thch ti sao iu ny xy ra khng ?

Tm tt chng 5
T kha chn lc
trng tnh cht ca mt im trong khng gian m t
lc s tc dng ln mt ht nu n nm ti
bn . im ti cc vect trng hi t
ngun . im t cc vect trng phn k; thng
c dng khi qut hn ch cc im hoc
phn k hoc hi t
in trng .... lc trn n v in tch tc dng ln mt in
tch th t ti mt im cho trc trong khng
gian
trng hp dn .. lc trn n v khi lng tc dng ln mt
khi lng th t ti mt im cho trc trong
khng gian
lng cc in .. mt vt c s bt cn bng gia in tch
dng mt u v in tch m u kia;
mt vt s chu mt mmen quay trong in
trng
K hiu
g ..................................... trng hp dn
E ..................................... in trng
D ..................................... mmen lng cc in
Thut ng khc v k hiu
d, p, m ............................. nhng k hiu khc cho mmen lng cc in
Tm tt
Newton khai sinh ra mt v tr trong cc lc tc dng tc thi xuyn khng
gian, nhng ngy nay chng ta bit rng c s chm tr thi gian trc khi mt s thay i
c cu khi lng v in tch mt gc ca v tr lm cho n t cm thy mt s thay
i lc chu tc dng t xa. Chng ta tng tng s tri rng ra pha ngoi ca mt s
thay i nh th ging nh s gn sng trong mt trng lc khng nhn thy lp y v
tr.
Chng ta nh ngha trng hp dn ti mt im cho trc l lc trn n v khi
lng tc dng ln cc vt t ti im , v tng t, in trng c nh ngha l lc
trn n v in tch. Nhng trng ny l vect, do trng do nhiu ngun sinh ra cng
li theo quy tc cng vect.
Khi in trng khng i, hiu in th gia hai im nm dc theo mt ng
song song vi trng lin h vi trng bi phng trnh AV = - Ed, trong d l khong
cch gia hai im.

Bi tp
1. Trong neuron quen thuc ca chng ta, hiu in th gia mt trong v mt
ngoi ca mng t bo vo khong V
ngoi
V
trong
= - 70 mV trng thi ngh, v b dy
mng khong chng 6,0 nm (tc l ch dy khong hng trm nguyn t). Vy th in
trng bn trong mng bng bao nhiu ?
2. Khe h gia hai in cc ca h thng nh la ca ng c t l 0,060 cm.
to ra tia la in trong hn hp xng-khng kh, cn phi t ti in trng 3,0 x 10
6

V/m.
(a) Khi khi ng xe hi, cn phi t mt hiu in th ti thiu bng bao nhiu
vo mch in nh la ? Gi s in trng l u.
(b) Kch thc nh ca khe h gia hai in cc tht bt li v n c th b kha d
dng, v cn phi c nhng cng c c bit o n. Vy ti sao ngi ta khng thit k
h thng nh la c khe h rng hn ?
3. (a) Lc t = 0, mt ht tch in dng t nm, trng thi ngh, trong chn
khng, trong c mt in trng u c ln E. Hy thit lp phng trnh cho tc
ca ht, v, theo t, E, khi lng m v in tch q ca n.
(b) Nu tin hnh iu tng t vi hai vt khc nhau v chng c quan st thy
c chuyn ng ging nhau, th bn c th kt lun g v khi lng v in tch ca chng
? (Chng hn, khi phng x c pht hin, ngi ta nhn thy mt dng ca n c cng
chuyn ng ging nh electron trong loi th nghim ny).
4. Hy ch ra rng ln ca in trng to ra bi mt lng cc hai in tch
n gin, ti mt im xa dc theo trc ca lng cc, l t l gn ng vi D/r
3
, trong
r l khong cch tnh t lng cc. [Gi : S dng php gn ng (1 + c)
p
~ 1 + pc,
biu thc ng vi c nh]
5. Cho rng in trng ca mt lng cc t l vi D/r
3
(xem bi ton 4), hy ch
ra rng in th ca n bin thin theo hm D/r
2
(B qua du dng v m v cc hng s
t l).
6. Mt phn t carbon dioxide c cu trc O-C-O, vi c ba nguyn t nm trn
mt ng thng. Cc nguyn t oxygen chim d mt cht in tch m, lm cho carbon
mang in dng. Tuy nhin, s i xng ca phn t c ngha l n khng c mmen
lng cc tng cng, khng ging nh mt phn t nc hnh ch V chng hn. Trong khi
in th ca mt lng cc c ln D t l vi D/r
2
(bi ton 5), th ha ra in th ca
mt phn t carbon dioxide dc theo trc ca n bng k/r
3
, trong r l khong cch tnh
t phn t v k l mt hng s. in trng ca mt phn t carbon dioxide ti khong
cch r bng bao nhiu ?
7. Mt proton nm trong vng trong in trng c cho bi
E = a + bx
3
. Nu proton bt u trng thi ngh ti x
1
= 0, hy tm tc v ca n khi n
tin ti v tr x
2
. Biu din cu tr li ca bn theo a, b, x
2
, v e v m, in tch v khi
lng ca proton.
8. Xt in trng to ra bi mt vng tch in u c in tch tng cng q v
bn knh b.
(a) Hy ch ra rng in trng ti mt im trn trc ca vng nm cch mt
phng vng mt khong a l kqa(a
2
+ b
2
)
-3/2
.
(b) Hy ch ra rng biu thc ny ng cho trng hp a = 0 v cho a ln hn
nhiu so vi b.
9. Xt in trng to ra bi mt mt phng tch in u rng v hn. Bt u t
kt qu ca bi ton 8, hy ch ra rng in trng ti mt im bt k l 2tko, trong o
l mt in tch trn mt phng, o bng n v coulomb trn mt vung. Lu l kt
qu c lp vi khong cch tnh t mt phng [Gi : Chia mt phng thnh cc vng
ng tm v cng nh, c tm ti im trong mt phng gn nht vi im m in
trng c nh gi. Ly tch phn s phn b ca cc vng cho trng ti im ny
tnh trng tng cng].
2 E k to =
10. Xt in trng to ra bi mt hnh tr tch in u ko di ra v hn mt
pha.
(a) Bt u t kt qu ca bi 8, hy ch ra rng in trng ti tm ca mt tr l
2tko, trong o l mt in tch trn hnh tr, tnh bng n v coulomb trn mt
vung. [Gi : Bn c th s dng phng php tng t
nh trong bi ton 9].
(b) Biu thc ny c lp vi bn knh ca hnh
tr. Gii thch ti sao biu thc ny li nh th. V d,
iu g s xy ra nu nh bn tng gp i bn knh ca
hnh tr ?
11. Ba in tch sp xp trn mt hnh vung nh
hnh v. C ba u l in tch dng. Hi gi tr q
2
/q
1

bng bao nhiu s to ra in trng bng khng ti tm
ca hnh vung ?

a/ Hai ngi u tin bc c nh sng
sao l ci g: James Clerk Maxwell v
Katherine Maxwell, 1869
Chng 6
IN T HC
Trong chng ny, chng ta s tho lun mi quan h mt thit gia t hc v in
hc do James Clerk Maxwell khm ph ra. Maxwell nhn ra rng nh sng l mt sng cu
thnh in trng v t trng lin kt vi nhau. Ngi ta n rng c mt m ng i
do cng vi v ca ng v ni vi b ta rng b l ngi khc duy nht trn th gii bit
c nh sng sao tht s l ci g.
6.1 T trng
Khng c n cc t
Nu bn chi vi mt nm lng cc t v mt nm nam chm thanh, bn s thy
chng rt ging nhau. Chng hn, mt cp nam chm thanh c xu hng t sp thng hng
ni ui nhau, v mt cp lng cc in lm ging ht nh vy (Tht khng may l
khng d dng g lm cho mt lng cc in vnh cu c th cm nm nh th ny, v
in tch c xu hng r r).
Tuy nhin, rt cuc bn s ch thy s khc bit quan trng gia hai loi i
tng. Cc lng cc in c th b ph v, hnh thnh nn cc ht tch in dng v m
c lp nhau. Dng c hai u c th b chia ct thnh cc phn khng phi hai u. Nhng
nu bn ct thanh nam chm thnh hai na, b, bn s d dng thy mnh va to ra hai vt
hai cc nh hn.

b/ Ct mt thanh nam chm thnh hai na khng to
ra hai n cc t, m to ra hai lng cc nh hn.

c/ Gii thch cp nguyn t.
L gii cho hnh vi ny khng kh khn g t bc tranh vi m ca chng ta v cc
nam chm st vnh cu. Mt lng cc in c d cht dng tp trung mt u v d
cht m u kia. Mt khc, thanh nam chm c t tnh ca n khng phi t s thiu cn
bng cht t hai u m t s nh hng ca chuyn ng quay ca cc electron. Mt
cc l cc m t chng ta c th nhn xung trc v thy cc electron ang quay theo
chiu kim ng h, v cc kia l cc m t chng s xut hin chuyn ng ngc
chiu kim ng h. Khng c s chnh lch gia cht cc ny v cc kia ca nam
chm, c.
Cha ai tng thnh cng trong vic tch ring mt n cc t. Theo ngn ng k
thut, chng ta ni rng cc n cc t hnh nh khng tn ti. Cc n cc in th tht
s tn ti l cc in tch.
Lc in v lc t ging nhau nhiu phng din. C hai u tc dng t xa, c
hai u c th l lc ht hoc lc y, v c hai u lin quan mt thit n mt tnh cht
ca vt cht gi l in tch. (Nhc li t tnh l tng tc gia cc in tch ang chuyn
ng) c thm m ca cc nh vt l b xm phm sut mt thi gian di v ci c v i
xng ny b ph v bi s tn ti ca cc n cc in v s thiu vng cc n cc t. C
l mt s dng k l ca vt cht c tn ti, gm cc ht l nhng n cc t. Nu nhng
ht nh th c th tm thy trong tia v tr hay t mt trng, n s l bng chng cho
thy s thiu i xng biu kin ch l s thiu i xng trong kt cu ca v tr, ch
khng phi l mt quy lut vt l. V nhng l do phi cng nhn l ch quan ny, c vi
ba tm kim cho n cc t. Cc th nghim c tin hnh, vi kt qu m tnh, nhm
tm kim n cc t c trong vt cht thng thng. Cc nh vt l Lin X trong thp nin
1960 a ra nhng khng nh kch ng rng h to ra v pht hin c cc n
cc t trong cc my gia tc ht, nhng khng h c thnh cng no trong n lc ti to li
kt qu hay nhng my gia tc khc. Cuc tim kim mi y nht cho cc n cc
t bng cch phn tch li d liu t cuc tm kim quark top ti Fermilab, ha ra khng c
ng c vin no, cho thy hoc l n cc t khng tn ti trong t nhin hoc l chng
cc k nng v do tht kh to ra trong cc my gia tc ht.

nh ngha t trng
V cc n cc t dng nh khng tn ti, nn khng th no ngh ti vic nh
ngha t trng di dng lc tc dng ln mt n cc th. Thay v vy, chng ta tun
theo trit l ca s nh ngha khc ca in trng, v nh ngha t trng di dng
mmen quay tc dng ln lng cc t th. y chnh xc l ci m la bn t hot ng:
kim la bn l mt nam chm st nh hot ng ging nh mt lng cc t v cho chng
ta thy hng ca t trng Tri t.

d/ Mt lng cc chun cu to t mt vng dy
hnh vung lm ngn mch mt chic pin. N hot
ng rt ging vi nam chm thanh, nhng ln
ca n d nh lng hn.

e/ Lng cc c xu hng t sp thng hng vi t
trng xung quanh.
Tuy nhin, nh ngha ln ca t trng, chng ta cn mt s cch nh ngha
ln ca lng cc th, tc l chng ta cn c mt nh ngha ca mmen lng cc t.
Chng ta c th s dng mt nam chm st vnh cu c ch to theo nhng k thut nht
nh, nhng mt vt nh th tht s l mt h qu phc tp gm nhiu nguyn t st, ch
c mt s trong chng sp thng hng. Mt lng cc chun c bn hn l mt vng in
vung. y c th l mt mch in c cht t in tr gm mt hnh vung dy dn ni
ngn mch qua mt chic pin.
Chng ta s thy rng mt vng nh th, khi t trong t trng, chu mt mmen
quay c xu hng sp mt phng sao cho mt ca n hng theo mt hng nht nh. (V
vng l i xng, nn khng h hn g nu chng ta quay n ging nh bnh xe m khng
lm thay i mt phng n nm trong ) T hng quay mt u tin ny, chng ta s i
n nh ngha hng ca t trng.
Cc th nghim cho thy nu vng dy khng thng hng vi t trng, th mmen
xon tc dng ln n t l vi cng dng in, v cng t l vi din tch gii hn ca
vng dy. S t l vi dng in l c ngha, v lc t l tng tc gia cc in tch ang
chuyn ng, v dng in l s o chuyn ng ca in tch. S t l vi din tch vng
dy cng khng kh hiu, v vic tng chiu di cc cnh ca hnh vung lm tng c in
tch cha trong con sng chy trn ny v lng lc n by to ra mmen quay. Hai
nguyn nhn vt l c lp cho s t l vi chiu di mang li s t l tng qut vi bnh
phng chiu di, ng l din tch ca vng dy. V nhng l do ny, chng ta nh
ngha mmen lng cc t ca mt vng dy in vung l
D
m
= IA
[nh ngha mmen lng cc t ca mt dng in vung]
By gi chng ta nh ngha t trng theo kiu hon ton tng t vi kiu nh
ngha th hai ca in trng.

dnh ngha t trng
Vect t trng, B, ti mt im bt k trong khng gian c xc nh bng cch
quan st mmen quay tc dng ln mt lng cc t th D
mt
gm mt vng dy
in hnh vung. ln ca trng l |B| = t/D
m
sinu, trong u l gc lch ca
vng dy. Hng ca t trng vung gc vi vng dy, chng ta chn hng sao
cho nu chng ta nhn dc theo n, dng in chy trong vng l ngc chiu kim
ng h.
Chng ta tm thy t nh ngha ny t trng c n v N.m/A.m
2
= N/A.m. T
hp n v kh s dng ny c gi tt l tesla, 1 T = 1 N/A.m. Nhc li cn ghi nh v
hng ngc chiu kim ng h mt u; trong phn 6.4 chng ta s thy lm th no
hiu khi nim ny theo nhng nguyn l c bn hn.
S khng tn ti ca cc n cc t c ngha l khng ging nh in trng, f/1,
t trng, f/2, khng bao gi c ngun pht ra hay bn ht vo. Cc vect t trng hng
theo nhng ng khp kn tr li chnh n, ch khng hi t hay phn k ti mt im.

f/ in trng, 1, c im pht ra v im thu vo,
cn t trng, 2, th khng.

g/ Hnh dng t ph ca thanh nam chm. Hnh nh
ny c c bng cch ri mt st ln t giy, v
mang mt thanh nam chm t bn di n. Lu
cch thc t ph i qua thn nam chm, hnh thnh
cc vng khp kn, nh trong hnh f/2. Khng c
ngun pht ra hay bn thu vo.
6.2 Tnh t trng v lc t
Tnh t hc
Nghin cu ca chng ta v t trng c xy dng trn s hiu bit trc ca
chng ta v lc t, sau cng l da trn nh lut Coulomb cho lc in gia hai in tch
im. V t tnh sau rt l tng tc gia cc dng in, tc l gia cc in tch ang
chuyn ng, cho nn tht c l khi mun c mt s tng t t hc ca nh lut
Coulomb, mt phng trnh s cho chng ta bit lc t gia bt k hai in tch ang
chuyn ng no.
Tht khng may, mt nh lut nh th khng tn ti. nh lut Coulomb m t
trng hp c bit ca tnh in hc: nu mt tp hp in tch nm ra v khng
chuyn ng, n cho chng ta bit tng tc gia chng. nh lut Coulomb tht bi nu
nh cc in tch ang chuyn ng, v n khng hp nht bt k s tha nhn no trong s
tr thi gian s truyn ra ngoi mt thay i v tr ca cc in tch.
Mt cp in tch im ang chuyn ng nht nh s tc dng lc t ln nhau,
nhng t trng ca chng trng nh con sng vm hnh ch V li pha sau nhng con
tu. Mi in tch im chu mt t trng pht ra t in tch kia khi n mt s v tr
trc . Khng c cch no xy dng mt nh lut lc cho chng ta bit lc gia chng
ch da trn v tr hin ti ca chng trong khng gian.
Tuy nhin, c khoa hc tnh t bao qut nhiu trng hp quan trng ln. Tnh t
hc m t lc t gia cc dng in trong trng hp c bit trong dng in l u l
lin tc, dn n t trng trong khng gian khng thay i theo thi gian.
Nu chng ta khng th xy dng tnh t hc t mt nh lut lc cho cc in tch
im, th chng ta bt u t u ? Vn c th gii quyt c, nhng trnh ton hc
cn thit (php tnh vect) khng thch hp trong gio trnh ny. Tht may mn l c mt
s chn la nm gn tm vi ca chng ta hn. Cc nh vt l thuc nhng th h qu kh
s dng ton hc tru tng thu c nhng phng trnh n gin cho t trng
to ra bi cc phn b dng in tnh ti khc nhau, v d nh mt cun dy, mt vng dy
trn, hay mt si dy thng. Hu nh mi tnh hung thc t u c th xem xt hoc l
trc tip bng nhng phng trnh ny, hoc bng php cng vect, v d nh trng hp
hai vng dy trn c t trng cng gp ln nhau. Hnh h biu din cc phng trnh cho
mt s cu hnh thng gp, cng vi minh ha hnh nh trng ca chng.

h/ Mt s t trng

T trng ca mt dy dn thng, di mang dng in I:
2
o
I
B
r
t
=
y r l khong cch tnh t tm ca si dy. Cc vect trng hng theo nhng vng trn nm
trong mt phng vung gc vi dy, hng theo chiu kim ng h khi nhn dc theo hng ca
dng in.

T trng ca mt vng in trn:
Cc vect trng to ra hnh nh ging nh lng cc, i xuyn qua vng dy v quay tr li pha
bn kia. Mi hnh trnh hnh bu dc m cc vect trng ln theo trng thun chiu kim ng h
nu nhn dc theo hng dng in ang chy khi n xuyn qua. Khng c phng trnh n gin
no cho trng ti mt im bt k trong khng gian, nhng cho mt im nm dc theo trc chnh
gia vung gc vi vng dy, t trng l
( )
3 2
2 2 2
0
1
2
/
B Ib b z

= +
Trong b l bn knh ca vng dy v z l khong cch t im n mt phng vng dy.

T trng ca mt solenoid (ng dy hnh tr):
T ph tng t nh t ph ca mt vng dy, nhng i vi solenoid di, ng i ca cc vect
trng tr nn rt thng bn trong ca ng dy v ngay pha ngoi st bn ng dy. i vi mt
solenoid di, trng bn trong ng cng tr nn rt gn u, vi ln
B =
0
IN/l
trong N l s vng dy, cn l l chiu di ca solenoid. T trng gn ming hay bn ngoi
ng th khng u v kh tnh ton hn. i vi solenoid di, t trng bn ngoi nh hn nhiu so
vi t trng bn trong.
Khng cn nh cc phng trnh! K hiu
0
l vit tt cho hng s 4t x 10
-7

T.m/A. N l tng ng t hc ca hng s lc Coulomb k. Hng s Coulomb cho
chng ta bit bao nhiu in trng c to ra bi mt lng in tch cho trc, cn
0
lin h dng in vi t trng. Khng ging nh k,
0
c gi tr s hu hn do cch sp
xp ca h mt.
Lc tc dng ln in tch chuyn ng trong t trng
Gi th chng ta bit cch tnh t trng trong mt s trng hp n gin,
nhng ngi ta cng c th tnh c lc t, v d nh lc ca solenoid tc dng ln mt
ht mang in ang chuyn ng, hay lc tc dng gia hai dy dn mang dng in song
song nhau.
Chng ta s gii hn bn thn mnh vi trng hp lc tc dng ln mt ht tch
in ang chuyn ng trong t trng, kt qu cho php chng ta tnh c lc gia hai
vt khi mt vt l ht mang in ang chuyn ng v vt kia l vt c t trng m chng
ta bit cch tnh. Mt th d l vic s dng solenoid bn trong n hnh TV dn ng
cho cc chm electron khi n pht hnh.
Cc th nghim cho thy lc t tc dng ln mt ht tch in ang chuyn ng c
ln
|F| = q |v| |B| sinu
Trong v l vect vn tc ca ht, v u l gc gia cc vect v v B. Khng ging nh
lc in v lc hp dn, lc t khng nm trn cng mt ng thng vi vect trng.
Vi hai vect cho trc, ch c mt ng thng vung gc vi c hai chng, nn vect
lc hng theo mt trong hai chiu kh d ca ng thng ny. i vi mt ht tch in
dng, hng ca vect lc c th tm nh sau. Ban u, trt ui ca cc vect v v B
li vi nhau. F hng theo chiu sao cho nu bn nhn dc theo n, vect B nm theo
chiu kim ng h so vi vect v; i vi mt ht tch in m, hng ca lc ngc li.
Ch l v lc vung gc vi chuyn ng ca vt, nn t trng khng bao gi thc hin
cng trn n
V d 1. Nng bng t
Trong hnh i, mt nam chm vnh cu nh, hnh a t dnh trn mt ca mt chic pin, v mt dy
dn mc h xung quanh pin, lm ngn mch n. Dng in ln chy qua dy dn. Cc electron
chuyn ng trong dy chu lc tc dng t pha t trng do nam chm vnh cu gy ra, v lc ny
lm nng dy ln.

i/ V d 1
T trn hnh c th tm ra hng ca t trng do nam chm vnh cu gy ra. Cc electron trong
dy ng mang in m nn chng chy t cc m (phng) ca pin sang cc dng (cc c nm
nh ln, pha trc). Khi cc electron b nam chm vnh cu y qua, chng ta c th tng tng
rng chng chu mt trng hoc l hng v pha nam chm, hoc l hng ra xa n, ty thuc vo
cch t nam chm dnh ln trn pin. Tng tng nhn thng ln vect lc, iu bn c th lm
c nu bn l mt con rp nm bn di si dy. V cc electron tch in m, nn vect B phi
nm v pha ngc chiu kim ng h tnh t vect v, ngha l hng v pha nam chm.
V d 2. Qu o trn
Lc t lm cho mt chm electron chuyn ng theo vng trn. Chm tia c to ra trong ng
chn khng, trong cn li mt lng nh kh hydrogen. Mt vi electron va chm vi cc phn t
hydrogen, pht ra nh sng v lm cho chng ta nhn thy chm tia. T trng c to ra bng
cch cho dng in chy qua cc vng dy trn pha trc v pha sau ng. Trong hnh bn phi,
vi t trng m, lc vung gc vi hng chuyn ng ca electron lm cho chng chuyn ng
theo vng trn.

j/ V d 2
V d 3. o gic trong chp nh qut MRI
Trong php chp nh qut ct lp MRI ca u, h thn kinh ca bnh nhn phi ra trc t trng
mnh. Vn tc trung bnh ca cc ion mang in trong cc t bo thn kinh kh thp, nhng nu
bnh nhn t ngt c ng u, vn tc c th cao khin t trng tc dng lc ng k ln
cc ion. Hin tng ny c th mang li o gic nhn v nghe, v d nh nghe thy mi tht rn.
6.3 Cm ng in t
in t hc v chuyn ng tng i
L thuyt in trng v t trng xy dng n y c mt nghch l. Mt trong
nhng nguyn l c bn nht ca vt l hc, li ngy thng tr li vi Newton v Galileo v
vn cn nh hng mnh ngy nay, pht biu rng chuyn ng l tng i, ch khng
phi tuyt i. Nh vy, cc nh lut vt l phi khng tc dng khc nhau trong mt h
quy chiu chuyn ng, nu khng chng ta s c th ni h quy chiu no l h quy chiu
trng thi ngh tuyt i. Ly v d t c hc, tng tng mt a tr ang tng mt
qu bng ln xung gh ngi pha sau ca mt chic t ang chuyn ng. Trong h
quy chiu ca a tr, chic xe trng thi ngh v phong cnh ang chuyn ng; trong
h quy chiu ny, qu bng i ln xung theo ng thng, v tun theo cc nh lut
Newton v nh lut hp dn ca Newton. Trong h quy chiu ca mt nh quan st ang
nhn t bn l ng, chic t ang chuyn ng v lng ng th khng. Trong h quy
chiu ny, qu bng i theo mt cung parabol, nhng n vn tun theo cc nh lut
Newton.
Tuy nhin, khi xt vi in hc
v t hc, chng ta c mt vn , ln
u tin c ni r rng bi Einstein:
nu chng ta pht biu rng t tnh l
tng tc gia cc in tch ang
chuyn ng, th r rng chng ta va
sng to ra mt nh lut vt l vi phm
nguyn tc cho rng chuyn ng l
tng i, v nhng ngi quan st khc
nhau trong nhng h quy chiu khc
nhau s khng thng nht vi nhau v
mc nhanh m cc in tch ang
chuyn ng, hay thm ch rt cuc
chng c chuyn ng hay khng. Li
gii khng chnh xc m Einstein c
ch dy (v hoi nghi) khi cn l sinh
vin khong thi gian nm 1900 l bn
cht tng i ca chuyn ng ch p
dng cho c hc, ch khng p dng
c cho in hc v t hc. Ton b
cu chuyn lm sao Einstein phc hi
nguyn l chuyn ng tng i vo v
tr chnh ng ca n trong vt l hc c
lin quan ti thuyt tng i c bit
ca ng, chng ta s khng bn n l
thuyt trong tp sch ny. Tuy
nhin, mt vi th nghim tng tng
n gin v nh lng s ch ra
lm th no, da trn nguyn l chuyn
ng l tng i, phi c mt s mi
quan h mi v trc nay khng ng ti
gia in hc v t hc. Nhng quan h
ny hnh thnh nn c s ca nhiu thit
b thc t, s dng hng ngy, v d nh
my pht in v my bin th, v
chng cng a n mt cch gii thch
chnh bn thn nh sng l mt hin
tng in t hc.

k/ Micheal Faraday (1791 1867), con ca mt ngi th
rn ngho, pht minh ra hin tng cm ng in t
bng thc nghim.

l/ Mt ng in tch dng
Hy tng tng mt v d in ca chuyn ng tng i theo tinh thn ging
nh cu chuyn a tr ngi pha sau xe t. Gi s chng ta c mt ng cc in tch
dng, l. Nh quan st A trong h quy chiu nm yn so vi nhng in tch ny, v
quan st thy chng to ra mt hnh nh in trng hng ra bn ngoi, ra xa khi cc
in tch, v theo mi hng, ging nh mt b chi. Tuy nhin, gi s nh quan st B
ang chuyn ng sang bn phi i vi cc in tch. i vi B, c ta thy mnh ang
ng yn, cn cc in tch (v nh quan st A) di chuyn sang bn tri. ng kin vi
A, c ta quan st thy mt in trng, nhng v i vi c ta cc in tch l ang chuyn
ng nn c ta cng phi quan st thy mt t trng trong cng vng khng gian ,
ging ht nh t trng do mt si dy dn thng, di gy ra.
Vy th ai ng ? C hai u ng. Trong h quy chiu ca A, ch c mt mnh E,
cn trong h quy chiu ca B c c E ln B. Nguyn l chuyn ng tng i buc chng
ta kt lun rng ty theo h quy chiu ca chng ta, chng ta s thy mt s kt hp khc
nhau ca cc trng. Mc d chng ta s khng chng minh n (vic chng minh cn n
thuyt tng i c bit, khng c bn ti trong tp sch ny), nhng ng l mi h
quy chiu mang li mt s m t hon ton trc sau nh mt ca mi th. Chng hn, nu
mt electron truyn qua vng khng gian ny, c A v B u thy n chch hng, tng
tc v gim tc. A s gii thch thnh cng y l kt qu ca in trng, cn B s quy
cho hnh vi ca electron l mt kt hp ca lc in v lc t.
Nh vy, nu chng ta tin vo nguyn l chuyn ng tng i, th chng ta phi
chp nhn rng in trng v t trng l nhng hin tng lin quan mt thit vi nhau,
ging nh hai mt ca mt ng xu.
By gi hy xt hnh m. Nh quan st A ng yn so vi cc thanh nam chm, v
thy ht ang b lch theo hng z, theo quy lut cho trong phn 6.2 (nhn dc theo vect
lc, tc l t pha sau trang giy, vect B nm xui chiu kim ng h so vi vect v). Mt
khc, gi s nh quan st B ang chuyn ng sang bn phi dc theo trc x, ban u tc
bng vi tc ht. B nhn thy cc thanh nam chm ang chuyn ng sang bn tri
v ht ban u ng yn nhng sau gia tc dc theo trc z theo ng thng. T trng
khng c kh nng lm cho mt ht chuyn ng nu nh ban u n ng yn, v t tnh
l tng tc gia cc in tch ang chuyn ng vi cc in tch ang chuyn ng. Nh
vy khin B khng th trnh khi kt lun rng c mt in trng trong vng khng gian
ny, trng hng dc theo trc z. Ni cch khc, ci A nhn thy l trng B thun
ty, th B nhn thy l hn hp ca E v B.
Ni chung, cc nh quan st khng ng yn so vi nhau s nhn thy nhng hn
hp khc nhau ca in trng v t trng.
m/ Nh quan st A thy mt ht tch in dng
chuyn ng qua vng t trng hng t di ln,
chng ta gi s l trng u, gia cc cc ca
hai nam chm. Lc thu c dc theo trc z lm cho
ng i ca ht b lch v pha chng ta.

Nguyn l cm ng
Cho n y, mi th chng ta lm khng c v g thc s c ch, v dng nh s
khng c g bt ng xy ra khi chng ta da vo mt h quy chiu, v khng phi lo lng
v ci m nhng ngi trong nhng h quy chiu khc ngh ti. Tuy nhin, cha phi l
ton b cu chuyn, nh c khm ph bng thc nghim bi Faraday vo nm 1831
v kho st bng ton hc do Maxwell thc hin sau cng trong th k 19. Chng ta hy
pht biu tng ca Faraday trc, v sau nhn xem lm th no ci g ging nh
n phi chc chn tun theo nguyn l chuyn ng l tng i:
nguyn l cm ng
Bt k mt in trng bin thin theo thi gian s to ra mt t trng trong
khng gian xung quanh n.
Bt k mt t trng bin thin theo thi gian s to ra mt in trng trong
khng gian xung quanh n.

n/ Hnh dng ca trng cm ng. Trng cm ng c xu hng hnh thnh mt hnh nh xoy theo s bin
thin vect to ra n. Lu cch thc chng quay trn theo nhng hng ngc nhau.
Trng cm ng c xu hng c hnh nh xoy, nh ch ra trong hnh n, nhng
hnh nh xoy khng nn qu hiu theo ngha en; nguyn l cm ng tht ra ch yu cu
mt hnh nh trng nh th ny, nu ngi ta xen mt kim nam chm vo trong n, kim
nam chm s quay trn. Tt c hnh nh trng biu din trn hnh o u l trng c
th to ra bng s cm ng; tt c u c xoy ngc chiu kim ng h i vi chng.

o/ Ba trng xoy ngc chiu kim ng h

p/ 1. Nh quan st A ng yn so vi thanh nam
chm, v thy t trng c cng khc nhau ti
nhng khong cch khc nhau tnh t thanh nam
chm. 2. Nh quan st B, trong vng pha bn
tri thanh nam chm, nhn thy nam chm ang
chuyn ng v pha c ta, v pht hin thy t
trng trong vng mnh hn khi thi gian tri
qua. Nh trong hnh 1, c mt in trng dc
theo trc z v c ta chuyn ng so vi thanh nam
chm. Vect AB hng ln trn, v in trng c
xoy: mt bnh gung a vo trong in trng
ny s quay theo chiu kim ng h khi nhn t
trn xung, v xoy theo chiu kim ng h do
in trng mnh pha bn phi sinh ra ln hn
xoy ngc chiu kim ng h do in trng yu
pha bn tri sinh ra.
Hnh p cho thy mt v d ca nguyn nhn c bn v sao mt trng B bin thin
li sinh ra mt trng E. in trng s khng th gii thch c vi nh quan st B nu
nh c ta ch tin nh lut Coulomb, v ngh rng mi in trng u phi do cc in
tch gy ra. Tuy nhin, nu c ta bit v nguyn l cm ng, th s tn ti ca trng ny l
cn thit.
V d 4. My pht in
Mt my pht, q, gm mt nam chm vnh cu quay bn trong mt cun dy. Nam chm c iu
khin bng mt ng c hoc mt ci quay tay (khng ch ra trong hnh). Khi n quay, t trng
xung quanh s bin thin. Theo nguyn l cm ng, t trng bin thin ny sinh ra mt in trng
xoy. in trng ny to ra mt dng in chy trong cc cun dy, v chng ta c th s dng
dng in ny thp sng bng n in.
v Khi bn li xe hi th ng c xe lin tc np in li cho bnh cquy bng mt dng c gi l
my dao in, n tht ra ch l mt my pht ging nh ci m t trang trc, ngoi tr ch
cun dy quay cn nam chm vnh cu th c nh ti ch. Vy ti sao bn khng th s dng my
dao in khi ng ng c xe nu nh bnh cquay xe bn b hng ?

q/ My pht in
V d 5. My bin th
Trong phn 4.3, chng ta ni v s thun li ca cng sut truyn ti trn ng dy in bng
hiu in th cao v dng in thp. Tuy nhin, chng ta chng ai mun cc cm tng hot ng
10 000 volt! V l do ny, cng ti in s dng mt thit b gi l my bin th, (g), chuyn
thnh in th thp hn v dng in ln hn trong nh bn. Cun dy mch vo to ra mt t
trng. My bin th lm vic vi dng in bin thin, nn t trng xung quanh cun dy vo
lun lun bin thin. T trng ny cm ng ra mt in trng, to ra dng in chy trong cun
dy ra.
Nu c hai cun dy l nh nhau, th s sp xp l i xng, v cng sut ra bng vi cng sut vo,
nhng cun dy ra c s vng dy t hn cho lc in khong cch y electron nh hn. Cng c
hc trn n v in tch km hn c ngha l hiu in th thp hn. Tuy nhin, s bo ton nng
lng bo m rng lng cng sut ng ra phi bng vi lng cng sut vo lc ban u,
I
vo
V
vo
= I
ra
V
ra
, nn hiu in th gim i ny phi i cng vi dng in tng ln.

r/ V d 6
V d 6. S tng t in c
Hnh r biu din mt v d ca s cm ng (bn tri) vi s tng t c hc (bn phi). Hai thanh
nam chm ban u nh hng ngc nhau, 1, v t trng ca chng trit tiu nhau. Nu mt
thanh nam chm o lt li, 2, th trng ca chng tng cng nhau, nhng s thay i t trng
cn thi gian lan truyn trong khng gian. Cui cng, 3, t trng s tr thnh ci m bn mong
i t l thuyt tnh t hc. Trong s tng t c hc, chuyn ng t ngt ca bn tay to ra mt
nt tht hay xung sng trong dy, xung truyn dc theo dy, v cn c thi gian cho si dy n
nh tr li. Mt in trng cng c cm ng ra bi t trng bin thin, mc d khng h c
in tch tng th no u ng vai tr ngun pht sinh. (Nhng hnh nh n gin ha ny
khng phi l biu din chnh xc ca hnh nh ba chiu hon chnh ca in trng v t trng)
Cu hi tho lun
Trong hnh m v q, nh quan st B ang chuyn ng sang pha bn phi. iu g s xy ra nu c ta
di chuyn sang bn tri ?

6.4 Sng in t
H qu quan trng nht ca s cm ng l s tn ti ca sng in t. Trong khi
sng hp dn s gm khng g hn l mt s gn ln tn ca cc trng hp dn, th
nguyn l cm ng cho chng ta bit rng c th khng th c sng in thun ty hay
sng t thun ty. Thay v vy, chng ta c cc sng trong c c in trng v t
trng, ging nh sng sin biu din trn hnh bn di. Maxwell chng minh rng cc
sng nh th l h qu ca cc phng trnh ca ng, v nhn c tnh cht ca chng
bng ton hc. Vic thit lp nm ngoi khun kh ton hc ca cun sch ny, nn chng
ta s ch pht biu cc kt qu.

s/ Mt sng in t
Mt sng in t kiu sin c dng hnh hc biu din trn hnh s. Cc trng E v
B vung gc vi hng chuyn ng, v ng thi vung gc vi nhau. Nu bn nhn dc
theo hng chuyn ng ca sng, vect B lun lun lch 90 theo chiu kim ng h
so vi vect E. ln ca hai trng lin h vi nhau bi phng trnh |E| = c |B|.
Sng in t c to ra nh th no ? N c th c pht ra, chng hn, bi mt
electron ang quay xung quanh mt nguyn t hoc bi cc dng in chy ti lui trong
mt nten pht sng. Ni chung, bt k in tch ang gia tc no cng s to ra mt sng
in t, mc d ch c dng in bin thin dng sin theo thi gian mi to ra sng dng
sin. Mt khi pht sinh, sng lan ta trong khng gian m khng cn in tch hay dng
in tip tc lan ta. Khi in trng dao ng ti lui, n cm ng ra t trng, v t
trng dao ng li to ra in trng. Ton b dng sng truyn trong khng gian trng
rng tc c = 3 x 10
8
m/s, tc ny lin h vi cc hng s k v
0
bi cng thc
0
4 c k / t = .
S phn cc
Hai sng in t truyn cng chiu nhau trong khng gian c th khng ging nhau
v in trng v t trng ca chng c hng khc nhau, mt tnh cht ca sng gi l
s phn cc.
nh sng l sng in t
Mt khi Maxwell nhn ra s tn ti ca sng in t, ng tr nn chn chn rng
chng l cng hin tng nh nh sng. C hai u l sng ngang (tc l dao ng vung
gc vi hng sng chuyn ng), v vn tc l nh nhau.
Heinrich Hertz (tn ng t cho n v tn s) xc nhn tng ca Maxwell
bng thc nghim. Hertz l ngi u tin thnh cng trong vic to ra, pht hin, v
nghin cu sng in t mt cch chi tit bng nten v mch in. to ra sng, ng
phi lm cho dng in dao ng rt nhanh trong mt mch in. Tht ra, tht s khng c
cht hi vng no to ra dng in o chiu tn s 10
15
Hz m nh sng kh kin c. Dao
ng in nhanh nht ng c th to ra l 10
9
Hz, cho bc sng khong 30 cm. ng
thnh cng trong vic ch ra rng, ging ht nh nh sng, cc sng do ng to ra c th
phn cc, v c th b phn x v khc x (tc l b b cong, v d do thu knh gy ra), v
ng ch to c cc dng c v d nh gng parabol hot ng theo cng nguyn l
quang hc nh nh sng s dng. Kt qu ca Hertz l bng chng thuyt phc rng nh
sng v sng in t l mt v ging nhau.
Ph in t
Ngy nay, cc sng in t trong
vng m Hertz s dng c gi l sng
v tuyn. Cc nghi ng rng sng Hertz,
nh khi n c gi, l cng loi sng
nh sng nh sng nhanh chng b xua tan
bi cc th nghim trong ton b ngng
tn s gia, cng nh cc tn s nm
ngoi phm vi . Tng t nh ph nh
sng kh kin, chng ta ni v ton b ph
in t, trong ph kh kin ch l mt
on.
Thut ng dnh cho cc phn khc
nhau ca ph in t tht ng nh, v
d hc nht bng cch nhn ra mi quan h
lgic gia bc sng v tnh cht ca sng
m bn quen thuc. Sng v tuyn c
bc sng c th snh vi kch thc ca
cc nten v tuyn, tc l t hng mt ti
hng chc mt.

Vi sng c gi tn nh th v chng c bc sng ngn hn nhiu so vi sng v tuyn;
khi thc phm nu khng u trong l vi sng, khong cch nh gia cc im nng v
lnh bng mt na bc sng ca sng dng m l vi sng to ra. Sng hng ngoi, kh
kin, v t ngoi hin nhin c bc sng ngn hn nhiu, v nu khng th bn cht sng
ca nh sng s r rng trc con ngi nh bn cht sng ca sng i dng. nh tia
t ngoi, tia X v tia gamma u nm pha bc sng ngn ca nh sng kh kin, hy
nh li rng c ba sng ny u c th gy ra ung th. (Nh chng ta s tho lun phn
sau tp sch ny, c mt nguyn do c bn l gii v sao s hng hc gy ung th ca ADN
ch c th gy ra bi nhng song in t bc song rt ngn. Tri vi nim tin ph bin, vi
song khng th gy ra ung th, l l do v sao chng ta c l vi song, ch khng phi l
tia X!).
V d 7. Ti sao bu tri c mu xanh ?
Khi nh sng Mt Tri i vo bu kh quyn tng trn, mt phn t khng kh nht nh t b gt
sch bi mt song in t c tn s f. Cc ht tch in ca phn t (ht nhn v electron) hot
ng ging nh cc dao ng t b chi phi bi mt lc dao ng, v phn ng bng cch dao ng
cng tn s f. Nng lng b rt khi chm nh sang Mt Tri ti v chuyn ha thnh ng nng
ca cc ht dao ng. Tuy nhin, nhng ht ny ang gia tc, nn chng hot ng ging nh cc
nten v tuyn nh v a nng lng ra khi tr li di dng sng nh sang cu tri ra theo mi
hng. Mt vt ang dao ng tn s f c gia tc t l vi f
2
, v mt ht tch in ang gia tc to
ra mt sng in t c cc trng vung gc vi gia tc ca n, nn trng ca sng cu ti pht x
t l vi f
2
. Nng lng ca mt trng t l vi bnh phng cng trng, nn nng lng ca
sng ti pht x t l vi f
4
. V nh sng xanh c tn s gp khong 2 ln nh sng , nn qu trnh
ny din ra vi nh sng xanh mnh gp 2
4
= 16 ln so vi nh sng , v l l do v sao bu tri
c mu xanh.

6.5 Nng lng ca trng
Chng ta thy rng nng lng d tr trong mt sng (tht ra l mt nng
lng) thng t l vi bnh phng bin ca sng. Cc trng lc c th gy ra cc
kiu sng m chng ta c th trng i iu tng t l ng. iu ny ha ra khng ch
ng i vi cc kiu trng dng sng m cn ng cho mi trng:
Nng lng d tr trong trng hp dn trn mi m
3
=
1
8 G t
|g|
2

Nng lng d tr trong in trng trn mi m
3
=
1
8 k t
|E|
2

Nng lng d tr trong t trng trn mi m
3
=
0
1
2
|B|
2

Mc d tha s 8t ng ng v cc du cng v tr c l ban u p vo mt bn,
nhng chng khng phi l im ch cht. tng quan trng l ch mt nng lng
t l vi bnh phng cng trng trong c ba trng hp ny. Trc tin, chng ta
cho mt th d n gin bng s v tm hiu mt cht v cc khi nim, ri sau s
chuyn s ch ca chng ta sang tha s nm pha trc.
V d 8. Nng lng tr trong solenoid
Solenoid l nhng dng c in rt thng dng, nhng chng c th gy nguy him cho nhng ai
lm vic vi chng. Hy tng tng mt solenoid ban u c dng DC chy qua n. Dng in to
ra t trng bn trong v xung quanh n, t trng cha nng lng. By gi gi s chng ta
ph v mch in. V khng cn l mt mch in hon chnh na, nn dng in s nhanh chng
ngng chy, v t trng s co li rt nhanh. T trng c nng lng d tr trong n, v ch cn
mt lng nh nng lng cng c th to ra mt t sng ngun nguy him nu n c gii
phng trong mt khong thi gian ngn. Hy thn trng khng nn a nghch vi solenoid c
dng in chy qua n, v vic ph v mch in c th gy nguy hi cho sc khe ca bn.
Ly c tnh in hnh bng s, hy gi s mt solenoid 40 cm x 40 cm x 40 cm c t trng bn
trong l 1,0 T (t trng kh mnh). Nhm mc tiu c tnh s b, chng ta b qua t trng bn
ngoi, chng tht yu, v cho rng solenoid c hnh khi. Nng lng d tr trong t trng l
(nng lng trn n v th tch) (th tch) =
0
1
2
|B|
2
V
= 3 x 10
4
J
l nng lng ln!
Trong chng 5, khi chng ta ni v nguyn nhn ban u dn n khi nim
trng lc, ng c hng u l nu khng th khng c cch no gii thch cho s truyn
nng lng c lin quan khi lc b tr bi khong cch gia. Chng ta thng xem nng
lng ca v tr bao gm
ng nng
+ th nng hp dn da trn khong cch gia cc vt tng tc hp dn
+ th nng in da trn khong cch gia cc vt tng tc in
+ th nng t da trn khong cch gia cc vt tng tc t
Nhng trong nhng trng hp khng tnh, chng ta phi s dng mt phng php khc:
ng nng
+ th nng hp dn d tr trong trng hp dn
+ th nng in d tr trong in trng
+ th nng t d tr trong t trng
Tht ngc nhin, phng php mi li cho cng p n nh cho cc trng hp
trng tnh.
V d 9. Nng lng d tr trong t in
Hai bn kim loi song song nhau, nhn t mt bn trong hnh u, c th dng d tr nng lng
in bng cch tch in dng bn ny v tch in m bn kia. Mt dng c nh th c gi
l t in (Chng ta gp mt s sp xp nh th trc y, nhng mc tiu ca n l lm lch
chm electron, ch khng phi d tr nng lng).
Theo phng php c m t th nng, 1, chng ta ngh di dng cng c hc phi thc hin nhm
tch cc in tch m v in tch dng trn hai bn, cng chng li lc ht in ca chng. Cch
m t mi, 2, gn s d tr nng lng cho in trng mi sinh ra chim gi th tch gia hai bn.
V y l trng tnh, nn c hai phng php cho p n nh nhau v chnh xc.
V d 10. Th nng ca cp in tch tri du
Tng tng c hai in tch tri du, v, ban
u cch xa nhau v cho php chng tin li
gn nhau di tc dng ca lc ht in ca
chng.
Theo phng php c, th nng b mt i v
lc in thc hin cng dng khi n mang
cc in tch li gn nhau. (iu ny d hiu,
v khi chng tin li gn nhau v gia tc, th
nng ca chng b mt i v chuyn ha
thnh ng nng).
Theo phng php mi, chng ta cn phi
bit nng lng c d tr nh th no
trong in trng thay i. Trong vng
nh du phng chng bng cch t sm trn
hnh, cc trng chng cht ca hai in tch
chu s trit tiu mt phn v chng ngc
chiu nhau. Nng lng trong vng t sm
gim i do hiu ng ny. Trong vng khng
t sm, cc trng tng cng nhau, v nng
lng tng ln.
Tht kh tin hnh tnh ton bng s thc s
nng lng thu c v mt i trong hai
vng (y l trng hp phng php c tm
nng lng cho s thoi mi c tnh hn),
nhng tht d dng thuyt phc mt ai
rng nng lng nh hn khi cc in tch
gn nhau hn. y l v mang cc in tch
li gn nhau lm co bt vng nng lng cao
khng t sm v m rng vng nng lng
thp t sm.

V d 11. Nng lng trong sng in t
Phng php c s cho nng lng bng
khng trong vng khng gian cha sng in
t m khng c in tch. iu sai !
Chng ta ch c th s dng phng php c
trong cc trng hp trng tnh.

u/ V d 9

v/ V d 10
By gi, hy cho t nht l mt s chng minh cho nhng c im khc ca ba
biu thc mt nng lng,
1
8 G t
|g|
2
,
1
8 k t
|E
2
|, v
0
1
2
|B|
2
, ngoi vic t l vi bnh
phng ca cng trng.
Trc tin, ti sao li c cc du cng v tr khc nhau ? tng c bn l cc du
phi ngc nhau trong trng hp hp dn v in v c lc ht gia hai khi lng dng
( l loi duy nht tn ti), nhng hai in tch dng s y nhau. V chng ta thy v
d trong du dng nng lng in lm cho c ngha, nn phng trnh nng
lng hp dn phi l phng trnh c du tr.
Cng trng tht l cc hng s G, k, v
0
mu thc. Chng cho chng ta bit
mc mnh ca ba lc khc nhau, nhng sao chng khng nm trn t ? Khng th. Hy
xt, chng hn, mt v tr khc trong lc hp dn mnh gp i trong v tr ca chng
ta. Gi tr s ca G tng gp i. V G tng gp i nn mi cng trng hp dn cng
s tng gp i, lm gp bn ln t s. Trong biu thc
1
8 G t
|g|
2
, chng ta c t tng gp
bn v mu tng gp i, nn nng lng ln gp i. iu mang li ngha hon ho.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Hnh bn cho thy mt in tch dng nm
trong khe gia hai bn t in. Trc tin, hy v
kiu dng trng hnh thnh bi chnh t in,
khng tnh n in tch nm gia. Sau , hy
ch xem kiu trng thay i nh th no khi bn
thm vo mt ht ti hai v tr ny. So snh nng
lng ca in trng trong hai trng hp. Gi tr
ny c ph hp vi ci m bn trng i trn c s
kin thc ca bn v lc in hay khng ?
B. Bnh lun cu pht biu sau: Mt solenoid to
ra mt in tch trong khng gian xung quanh n,
in tch tiu tan mt khi bn gii phng nng
lng.
C. Trong v d trang trc, ti bin lun rng
trng xung quanh mt in tch dng v m cha
t nng lng hn khi cc in tch gn nhau hn.
C l phng php n gin hn l xt hai kh
nng thi cc: trng hp cc in tch cch xa
nhau v hn, v trng hp chng cch nhau
khong cch bng khng, tc l in tch ny chng
ln in tch kia. Hy thc hin cch l gii ny cho
trng hp (1) mt in tch dng v mt in tch
m c ln bng nhau, (2) hai in tch dng c
ln bng nhau, (3) nng lng hp dn ca hai
khi lng bng nhau.

w/ Cu hi tho lun A
6.6 S i xng v khuynh hng thun mt bn
Nh vt l Richard Feynman gip gn cht ti vo vt l hc vi mt mu chuyn
gio dc cha nghi vn sau. Tng tng bn thit lp c mt tip xc v tuyn vi mt
ngi thng minh trn mt hnh tinh khc. C bn ln ngi u khng bit hnh tinh
ca ngi kia l g v bn khng th no thit lp mt mc gii no c hai cng nhn ra.
Bn xoay x hc c cht t ngn ng ca ngi kia, nhng bn bi ri khi bn c thit
lp nh ngha bn phi v bn tri (hay, tng ng, thun v ngc chiu kim ng h).
Liu c cch no thc hin iu khng ?
Nu c cch no thc hin iu m khng tham chiu n mt mc gii bn
ngoi, th n s ng rng chnh cc nh lut vt l l khng i xng, mt iu tht l l.
Ti sao chng phi phn bit bn tri vi bn phi ? Dng trng hp dn xung quanh mt
ngi sao hay hnh tinh trng ging ht khi nhn trong mt ci gng, v i vi cc in
trng cng tng t nh vy. Tuy nhin, kiu trng biu din trong hnh 6.2 dng nh
vi phm nguyn l ny, nhng c tht s nh vy khng ? Bn c th s dng nhng kiu
trng ny gii thch th no l bn tri v bn phi vi con ngi thng minh kia
khng ? Nu bn xem li nh ngha in trng trong phn 6.1, n cng cha mt s
dnh lu ti tnh thun mt bn: hng ngc chiu kim ng h ca dng in vng khi
nhn dc theo t trng. Nhng ngi thng minh kia c th o ngc nh ngha ca h
v t trng, trong trng hp hnh v kiu dng trng ca h trng ging nh nh
qua gng ca kiu dng trng ca chng ta.
Mi cho n gia th k 20, cc nh vt l vn gi nh rng bt k tp hp hp l
no ca cc nh lut vt l u phi c loi i xng ny gia bn tri v bn phi. Mt s
khng i xng s l k cc. Bt k cm gic thm m ca h nh th no, h phi thay i
quan im ca mnh v thc ti khi cc th nghim cho thy lc ht nhn yu (phn 6.5) vi
phm i xng tri-phi! Tht vn l mt b n ti sao s i xng tri-phi c quan st
thy ni chung qu t m, nhng li b vi phm bi mt loi qu trnh vt l c bit.

Tm tt
T kha chn lc
t trng ..

mt trng lc, c nh ngha di dng
mmen quay tc dng ln mt lng cc th
lng cc t mt vt, v d nh mt vng dy in, mt
nguyn t, hay mt thanh nam chm, chu mmen
quay do lc t gy ra; ln ca lng cc t
c o bng cch so snh vi mt lng cc
chun gm mt vng dy dn vung c kch
thc cho trc v mang mt dng in cho
trc
s cm ng .. s sn sinh in trng do t trng bin thin,
hoc ngc li

K hiu
B .................................... t trng
D
m
.................................. mmen lng cc t

Tm tt
T tnh l tng tc ca cc in tch ang chuyn ng vi nhng in tch ang
chuyn ng khc. T trng c nh ngha theo mmen quay tc dng ln mt lng
cc t th. N khng c ngun pht ta ra hay thu vo; hnh dng t trng khng bao gi
hi t vo hay phn k t mt im.
T trng v in trng c lin h mt thit vi nhau. Nguyn l cm ng pht biu
rng bt k in trng bin thin no u to ra mt t trng trong khng gian xung
quanh, v ngc li. Nhng trng cm ng ny c xu hng hnh thnh nn hnh nh
xoy.
H qu quan trng nht ca nguyn l cm ng l khng c sng t thun ty hay
sng in thun ty. S nhiu lon trong in trng v t trng truyn ra xa bn ngoi
di dng sng in v t kt hp, vi mi quan h r rng gia bin v hng ca
chng. Nhng sng in t ny l ci cu thnh nn nh sng, nhng nhng dng sng
in t khc tn ti ngoi vng nh sng kh kin, bao gm sng v tuyn, tia X v tia
gamma.
Cc trng lc mang nng lng. Mt nng lng t l vi bnh phng ln
ca trng. Trong trng hp trng tnh, chng ta c th tnh th nng hoc bng nh
ngha trc y theo cng c hc, hoc bng cch tnh nng lng d tr trong trng.
Nu trng l khng tnh, th phng php c cho kt qu khng chnh xc v phi s
dng phng php mi.

Bi tp
1. Trong cn bo in, m my v mt t tc dng ging nh mt t in bn
song song, thng tch in thm do ma st in trong s va chm ca cc ht bng trong
bu kh quyn lnh tng trn. St xut hin khi ln ca in trng t ti gi tr ti
hn, E
C
, gi tr khng kh b ion ha.
(a) Xem m my nh mt hnh vung phng c chiu di cc cnh l L. Nu ti
chiu cao h so vi mt t, hy tm nng lng gii phng trong c st.
(b) Da trn cu tr li t phn a, hi trng hp no nguy him hn, c st t mt
m my cao hay c st t mt m my thp ?
(c) Hy c tnh bc ln ca nng lng gii
phng bi mt c st tiu biu, ly gi thit nhng gi tr hp
l cho kch thc ca n v cao. E
c
vo khong 10
6
V/m.
Xem thm bi tp 21 bit nghin cu hin nay nh
hng nh th no n gi tr c tnh ny.
2. Neuron trong hnh bn v hi ngn, nhng mt s
neuron trong dy sng ca bn c cc ui (axon) di ti mt
mt. Mt bn trong v bn ngoi ca mng t bo ng vai
tr nh cc bn ca mt t in. (Thc t th n cun li
thnh thnh mt hnh tr c tc ng rt t) thc hin chc
nng, neuron phi to ra hiu in th V gia mt bn trong
v mt bn ngoi ca mng. t chiu dy, bn knh v chiu
di ca mng l t, r, v L.
(a) Hy tnh nng lng phi d tr trong in trng cho neuron thc hin nhim
v ca n (Trong s sng thc, mng cu thnh t mt cht gi l in mi c tnh cht
in lm tng lng nng lng phi d tr. Nhm mc tiu phn tch ny, hy b qua
thc t ny) [Gi : Th tch ca mng v c bn l nh nhau cho d n cun li hay tri
cng ra]
(b) S thch nghi tin ha ca sinh vt s tt hn nu nh n cn t nng lng hn
iu hnh h thn kinh ca mnh. Da trn cu tr li ca bn cho phn a, bn s mong
i s tin ha thc hin iu g i vi cc kch thc t v r ? Nhng s rng buc no
khc s gi cho s tin ha ny khng i qu xa ?
3. Xt hai solenoid, mt ci nh hn sao cho n c th t bn trong ci kia. Gi s
chng di sao cho mi ci ch gp phn ng k cho trng bn trong ca chnh n, v
trng bn trong gn nh l u. Xt cu hnh trong solenoid nh nm trong solenoid
ln c dng in chy cng chiu nhau, v cu hnh th hai trong hai dng in chy
ngc chiu nhau. So snh nng lng ca hai cu hnh ny vi nng lng khi hai
solenoid cch xa nhau. Da trn s l gii ny, th cu hnh no l bn, v cu hnh no th
solenoid nh c xu hng xon quanh hay xuyn ra ngoi ? [Gi : Mt h bn th c nng
lng thp; nng lng s phi cp thm lm thay i cu hnh ca n]
4. Hnh bn cho thy mt cp vng dy trn hnh t chim c s dng to ra t
trng. (S bn xon cc si dy ch l mt th thut nhm lm gim t trng m chng
gp vo, nn trng rt gn vi ci chng ta ch i cho mt vng in trn l tng) H
ta chn sn bn di nhm d ni v cc hng trong khng gian hn. Mt vng dy
nm trong mt phng y z, cn vng kia nm trong mt phng x y. Mi vng dy c bn
knh 1,0 cm v mang dng in 1,0 A chy theo chiu mi tn.
(a) S dng phng trnh trong phn t chn 6.2, hy tnh t trng do mi vng
dy nh th gy ra ti tm ca n.
(b) M t hng ca t trng c to ra, ti tm ca n, ch bi vng dy nm
trong mt phng x y.
(c) Tnh tng t cho vng dy kia.
(d) Tnh ln ca t trng to ra bi c hai vng dy ti tm chung ca chng.
M t hng ca n.
5. (a) Hy ch ra rng i lng
0
4 k / t c n
v ca vn tc.
(b) Hy tnh bng s v ch ra rng n bng vi vn
tc nh sng.
(c) Chng minh rng trong mt sng in t, phn
na nng lng nm in trng v phn na nng
lng nm t trng.
6. Mt m hnh ca nguyn t hydrogen c
electron quay trn xung quanh proton tc 2,2 x 10
6

m/s, trong mt qu o c bn knh 0,05 nm. (Mc d
electron v proton tht ra quay xung quanh khi tm chung
ca chng, nhng khi tm rt gn vi proton, v n
nng hn n 2000 ln. Trong bi ton ny, gi s proton
ng yn) Trong bi tp phn trc, bn tnh dng
in c to ra.
(a) By gi hy c tnh t trng do electron gy ra ti tm ca nguyn t. Chng
ta xem electron ang quay trn l vng in, mc d n ch l mt ht thi.
(b) Hi proton c chu mt lc khc khng do t trng ca electron hay khng ?
Hy gii thch.
(c) Electron c chu mt t trng t pha proton hay khng ? Hy gii thch.
(d) Electron c chu mt t trng do dng in ca chnh n gy ra hay khng ?
Gii thch.
(e) C lc in tc dng gia electron v proton hay khng ? Nu c, hy tnh n.
(f) C lc hp dn tc dng gia electron v proton hay khng ? Nu c, hy tnh
n.
(g) Mt lc hng vo trong l cn thit gi electron trn qu o ca n nu
khng n s tun theo nh lut I Newton v i thng, ri khi nguyn t. Da trn cu tr
li ca bn cho nhng phn trc, lc hay nhng lc no (in, t, v hp dn) gp phn
ng k cho lc hng vo trong ny ?
7. [Bn cn c phn t chn 6.2 lm bi tp ny] Gi s mt ht tch in ang
chuyn ng qua mt vng khng gian trong c mt in trng vung gc vi vect
vn tc ca n, v ng thi c mt t trng vung gc vi c vect vn tc ca ht v
in trng. Hy ch ra rng s c mt vn tc nht nh m ht c th chuyn ng do
tng hp lc tc dng ln n bng khng. Lin h vn tc ny vi ln ca in trng
v t trng. (Mt s sp xp nh th, gi l b lc vn tc, l mt cch xc nh vn tc
ca mt ht cha bit)
8. Nu bn tng dng in chy qua mt solenoid ln bn ln th nng lng d tr
trong t trng ca n tng ln bao nhiu ln ?
9. Gi s chng ta c mt nam chm vnh cu c hnh dng phc tp, khng i
xng. Hy m t mt lot php o vi mt la bn t c th s dng s dng cng
v hng ca t trng ca n ti mt im no . Gi s bn ch c th nhn thy hng
m kim la bn nm n nh; bn khng th o mmen quay tc dng ln n.
10. Xt hai solenoid, mt ci nh hn sao cho n c th t bn trong ci kia. Gi
s chng di sao cho mi ci ch gp phn ng k cho trng bn trong ca chnh n,
v trng bn trong gn nh l u. Xt cu hnh trong solenoid mt phn nm bn
trong v mt phn nm bn ngoi solenoid ln, vi dng in ca chng chy cng chiu
nhau. Trc ca chng trng vi nhau.
(a) Tm th nng t l hm ca chiu di x ca phn solenoid nh nm bn trong ci
ln (Phng trnh ca bn s cha cc bin c lin quan khc m t hai selonoid).
(b) Da trn cu tr li ca bn cho phn (a), tm lc tc dng gia hai solenoid.
11. Bn dy dn c sp xp, nh hnh v, sao cho tit din ngang ca chng hnh
thnh nn mt hnh vung, vi mi ni cc u sao cho dng in chy qua c bn dy
trc khi i ra.

Ch rng dng in chy sang bn phi trong hai dy pha sau, nhng chy sang
bn tri trong hai dy pha trc. Nu kch thc ca hnh vung tit din (chiu cao v
chiu trc-sau) l b, hy xc nh t trng ( ln v hng) theo trc di chnh gia.
12. lm bi ton ny, bn cn phi bit tnh tch phn khi trong h ta tr v
h ta cu. (a) Hy ch ra rng nu nh bn c ly tch phn nng lng d tr trong t
trng ca mt dy dn thng, di, th nng lng thu c trn n v chiu di s phn
k c khi r 0 v r . Nhn gi tr ny, ng mt qu trnh thc nht nh, s khi
u ca dng in trong dy, s khng th, v n i hi thay i t trng thi nng lng
t bng khng n trng thi nng lng t v hn. (b) Gii thch ti sao cc v hn ti r
0 v r khng tht s xy ra trong mt tnh hung thc. (c) Hy ch ra rng nng
lng in ca mt in tch im phn k ti r 0, nhng khng xy ra ti r .
Nhn xt v cu c: T nhin tht s dng nh cung cp cho chng ta cc ht tch
in v ging nh cht im, v d nh electron, nhng ngi ta c th ci nhau rng nng
lng v hn khng tht s l mt vn g, v electron chuyn ng trn v khng thc
hin iu g lm nhn thm hay mt bt nng lng v hn; ch c s thay i v hn th
nng mi l phin toi thc s. Tuy nhin, c nhng qu trnh thc to ra v phn hy cc
ht tch in ging nh cht im, v d nh s phn hy ca mt electron vi mt phn
electron pht ra hai tia gamma. Tht ra, cc nh vt l vt ln vi cc v hn nh th ny
k t khong nm 1950, v vn cn lu mi c gii quyt. Mt s nh l thuyt
xut rng cc ht hnh nh ging nh cht im thc s khng ging nh cht im: nhn
gn th mt electron c th ging nh mt vng dy trn nh.
13. Mc tiu ca bi tp ny l tm lc chu bi mt dy dn thng, mang dng in
chy vung gc vi mt t trng u. (a) Gi A l tit din ca dy, n l s ht mang in
t do trn n v th tch, q l in tch trn mi ht, v v l vn tc trung bnh ca cc ht.
Hy ch ra rng dng in I = Avnq. (b) Chng minh rng lc t tc dng ln mi n v
chiu di l AvnqB. (c) Kt hp nhng kt qu ny, chng minh rng lc tc dng ln dy
trn mi n v chiu di bng IB.
14. Gi s hai dy dn di, song song mang dng in I
1
v I
2
. Hai dng in c th
cng hng hoc ngc hng nhau. (a) S dng thng tin t phn 6.2, hy xc nh di
nhng iu kin no th lc l lc ht, v di nhng iu kin no n l lc y. Lu do
nhng kh khn kho st trong bi tp 12, c th bn s t lm kh mnh nu bn s
dng phng php nng lng ca phn 6.5. (b) Bt u t kt qu ca bi tp 13, hy tnh
lc trn n v chiu di.
0 1 2
2 F / L I I / r t =
15. Hnh bn di biu din hnh nhn ngang ca hai t in hnh lp phng, v
hnh nhn ngang ca cng hai t in t li vi nhau sao cho phn bn trong ca chng
trng nhau. T in c cc bn nm gn nhau c mt in trng gn nh u gia cc
bn, v trng hu nh bng khng pha ngoi; hai t ny khng c cc bn ca chng
nm qu gn nhau so vi kch thc ca cc bn, nhng vi mc tiu ca bi ton ny, gi
s chng vn c loi trng l tng ha nh biu din trong hnh. Mi t in c th tch
bn trong 1,00 m
3
v tch in ln n im m trng bn trong ca n l 1,00 V/m. (a)
Hy tnh nng lng d tr trong mi t in khi hai t c lp vi nhau. (b) Tnh ln
ca in trng bn trong khi hai t c t chung vi nhau theo kiu nh trong hnh. B
qua cc nh hng pht sinh do s phn b li in tch ca mi t di tc dng ca t
kia. (c) Tnh nng lng ca cu hnh hai t t chung. Vic lp ghp chng nh th ny
lm gii phng nng lng, tiu th nng lng, hay l chng nh hng g ?

16. Phn 6.2 pht biu quy lut nh sau:
i vi mt ht tch in dng, vect F c hng sao cho nu bn nhn theo n
vect B nm v pha chiu quay kim ng h ca vect v.
Hy lp m hnh ba chiu ca ba vect bng bt ch hay cc mu giy cun biu
din cc vect ghp ui ca chng li vi nhau. By gi hy ghi li tng phng php
kh d trong quy lut c th c vit li bng cch xo trn ba k hiu F, B, v v. Hy
xt m hnh ca bn, m hnh no chnh xc v m hnh no khng chnh xc ?
17. Chng minh rng bt k hai vng dy dn phng no c cng gi tr IA s chu
cng mt mmen quay trong mt t trng, bt chp hnh dng ca chng. Ni cch khc,
mmen lng cc ca mt vng dy in c th nh ngha l IA, cho d hnh dng ca n
khng phi l hnh vung.
18. Cun Helmholtz c nh ngha l mt cp
cun dy trn ging ht nhau cch nhau mt khong cch h
bng vi bn knh ca chng, b. (Mi cun dy c th c
nhiu hn mt dy) Dng in chy theo vng trn theo
cng hng trong mi cun, nn cc trng c xu hng
cng c ln nhau trong vng bn trong. Cu hnh c thun
li l kh m, nn thit b khc c th d dng t bn trong
v lm bin i trng trong khi vn nhn thy t bn ngoi.
Vic chn la h = b mang li trng kh d u nht gn
chnh gia. (a) Tm phn trm gim trng ti tm ca
mt cun dy, so vi cng ton vn ti tm ca ton b
thit b. (b) Gi tr no ca h (khng bng vi b) s lm cho
chnh lch phn trm ny bng khng ?
19. (a) Trong hnh thit b ng chn khng phn 6.2, hy suy ra hng ca t
trng t chuyn ng ca chm electron. (b) Da trn cu tr li ca bn cho phn a, hy
tm chiu ca dng in trong cun dy. (c) Cc electron bn trong cun dy i theo chiu
no ? (d) Dng in trong cun dy ang y hay ht dng in to bi chm tia bn trong
ng ? So snh vi cu a ca bi 14.
20. Trong hnh thit b ng chn khng phn 6.2, mt t trng gn u gy ra
chuyn ng trn. Hi cn c kh nng no khc ngoi mt qu o trn khng ? Ni
chung, hin tng g c kh nng xy ra ?
21. Trong bi 1, bn c tnh nng lng gii phng trong mt c st, da trn
nng lng d tr trong in trng ngay trc khi tia st xy ra. Gi thit l in trng
c thit t n mt gi tr nht nh, gi tr cn thit lm ion ha khng kh. Tuy
nhin, cc php o thc t dng nh lun lun cho thy cng in trng i khi
nh hn chc ln so vi in trng cn thit trong m hnh . Trong mt thi gian di,
khng c g r rng l cc php o trng sai, hay m hnh sai. Nghin cu thc hin hi
nm 2003 dng nh cho thy m hnh l sai. By gi ngi ta tin rng khi s cui cng
ca c st do cc tia v tr i vo bu kh quyn v lm ion ha mt s khng kh. Nu
nh in trng nh hn 10 ln so vi gi tr gi nh trong bi 1, th iu ny c nh
hng nh th no ln kt qu cui cng trong bi 1 ?
22. Trong phn 6.2, ti cung cp mt phng trnh cho t trng bn trong
mt solenoid, nhng phng trnh khng cho cu tr li ng gn ming hay bn
ngoi solenoid. Mc d ni chung cc tnh ton trn my tnh ca trng trong nhng vng
khc ny tht phc tp, nhng ngi ta c th tm mt kt qu n gin, chnh xc cho
trng ti tm ca mt trong hai ming ng, ch s dng php i xng v php cng
vect. Gii php l g ?

Chng A
IN DUNG V T CM

Chng ny l phn t chn.
Con ng di dn t bng n in n my vi tnh bt u vi mt bc tin rt
quan trng: vic a khi nim hi tip vo cc mch in t hc. Mc d nguyn l hi
tip c hiu v ng dng cho cc h c trong nhiu th k, v cho cc h in k t
u th k 20, nhng i vi a s chng ta th t ny vn gi ln hnh nh mt Jimi
Hendrix (hay mt s tay ghita gn y hn) c tnh sng to ra nhng ting rt chi tai, hay
hnh nh nhn vt trng hc tnh c thc hin iu tng t trong thnh phng. Trong v
d n ghita, nh son nhc ng trc dng ampe v bt n ln cao n mc sng m
pht ra t loa di tr li dy ghita v lm cho n rung mnh hn. y l mt v d v s
hi tip dng: dy dao ng cng mnh th sng m cng mnh, v sng m cng mnh
th dy dao ng cng mnh. Hn ch duy nht l kh nng lm ch cng sut khuch i.
S hi tip m cng quan trng khng km. B n nhit ca bn, chng hn, mang
li s hi tip m bng cch tt bp l khi ngi nh tr nn m p, v bng cch bt n
ln tr li khi ngi nh tr nn qu lnh. C ch ny lm cho nhit ca ngi nh dao
ng ti lui trong mt ngng nht nh. Ging nh s tin trin theo hm m ngoi tm
kim sot l mt hnh vi ca cc h hi tip dng, s dao ng l tiu biu trong cc
trng hp hi tip m. Bn nghin cu k lng s hi tip m trong cun Dao ng
v Sng (cun tp 3 ca b sch ny) trong trng hp mt h c, mc d chng ta
khng gi n nh th.
A.1 in dung v t cm
Trong mt dao ng c hc, nng lng bin i tun hon gia dng ng nng
v th nng, v c l cn chuyn sang dng nhit tiu hao do ma st. Trong mt mch in,
cc in tr l thnh phn tiu th nhit. u l i tng tng t in hc ca vic d
tr v gii phng th nng v ng nng ca mt vt ang dao ng ? Khi bn ngh v
nng lng d tr trong mt mch in, bn c th tng tng ti mt ci pin, nhng
ngay c cc pin np li c cng ch c th np 10 n 100 ln trc khi chng cn kit.
Ngoi ra, cc pin khng c kh nng bin i nng lng trong khong thi gian ngn
cho a s cc ng dng. Mch in trong cc nhc c in c th dao ng hng ngn ln
trong mt giy, v l vi sng ca bn hot ng tn s gigahertz. Thay cho pin, chng ta
thng s dng t in v cun cm d tr nng lng trong cc mch dao ng. Cc
t in, i tng chng ta bt gp, d tr nng lng trong in trng. Cun cm lm
iu tng t trong t trng.
T in
Nng lng ca t in tn ti trong in trng xung quanh ca n. N t l vi
bnh phng cng trng, cng trng th t l vi in tch trn cc bn t. Nu
chng ta gi s cc bn mang in tch c ln nh nhau, +q v q th nng lng d tr
trong t in phi t l vi q
2
. V l do lch s, chng ta vit hng s t l l 1/2C
2
1
2
C
E q
C
=
Hng s C l mt thuc tnh hnh hc ca t in, gi l in dung ca n.

a/ K hiu t in

c/ Hai dng hnh hc ph bin i vi cun cm.
Kiu hnh tr bn tri gi l solenoid.

b/ Mt s t in

d/ K hiu cun cm

e/ Mt s cun cm
Da trn nh ngha ny, n v ca in dung phi l C
2
/J, v s kt hp ny
thng c vit gn li l farad, 1 F = 1 C
2
/J. Ci tch in l mt tn gi km chnh
thc hn i vi t in. Ch nhn in trn cc t in thng s dng MF ch F, mc
d MF tht ra l k hiu cho megafarad, ch khng phi microfarad. S ln xn khng do
s k hiu khng theo chun ny, v cc gi tr picofarad v nanofarad l thng dng nht,
v mi cho n thp nin 1990 th cc gi tr milifarad v farad mi tr nn c sn kch
thc vt l tht t. Hnh a cho bit k hiu dng trong s biu din t in.
Cun cm
Bt k dng in no cng s to ra mt t trng, nn tht ra mi dy dn mang
in trong mch in u ng vai tr mt cun cm! Tuy nhin, loi t cm tn lc
ny thng b b qua, ging nh chng ta thng c th b qua in tr tn lc ca cc
dy dn v ch xt ti cc in tr tht s. d tr bt k lng ng k no ca nng
lng t, ngi ta thng s dng mt cun dy c thit k c bit thnh mt cun
cm. Tt c ng gp ca cc vng cho t trng cng li vi nhau cho t trng mnh
hn. Khng ging nh t in v in tr, cc cun cm thc t d dng ch to bng tay.
Chng hn, ngi ta c th cun mt s dy xung quanh mt cht g ngn, t cun dy
bn trong chai nha aspirin vi dy ch a ra ngoi, v y epoxy vo chai lm cho
ton b ln nhn. Mt cun cm ging nh th ny, dng cun dy hnh tr, c gi l
solenoid, c, v mt solenoid cch iu ha, d, l k hiu s dng biu din mt cun
cm trong mch in, bt k dng hnh hc tht s ca n.
Mt cun cm d tr c bao nhiu nng lng ? Mt nng lng t l vi
bnh phng cng t trng, cng trng t l vi dng in chy qua cun dy,
nn nng lng d tr trong cun cm phi t l vi I
2
. Chng ta vit L/2 cho hng s t l
2
2
L
L
E I =
Nh trong nh ngha in dung, chng ta c h s 1/2, thun ty l vn nh
ngha. i lng L c gi l t cm ca cun cm, v chng ta thy rng n v ca
n phi l J/A
2
. T hp n v kh coi ny thng c vit gn li l henry, 1 H = 1 J/A
2
.
Thay v ghi nh nh ngha ny, iu c ngha hn l tm thy n khi cn thit t nh
ngha ca t cm. Nhiu ngi bit n cun cm n gin l cun dy v s khng
hiu bn nu bn nhc ti phn cm in, nhng h vn nh ti L l t cm.
V d 1. Cc cun cm ging nhau mc ni tip
Nu hai cun cm mc ni tip, th dng in i qua cun cm ghp i phi i qua c hai phn ca
n. Nh vy, theo nh ngha t cm, t cm cng tng gp i. Ni chung, cc t cm
mc ni tip cng gp li, ging nh in tr. L gii tng t cho thy t cm ca mt solenoid
xp x t l vi chiu di ca n, gi s s vng dy trn n v chiu di gi khng i.

f/ Cc t cm mc ni tip cng li

g/ Cc in dung mc song song cng li
V d 2. Cc t in ging nhau mc song song
Khi hai t in ging nhau mc song song, bt k in tch no tch hai u ca t ghp cng s t
chia u gia hai phn. in trng xung quanh mi t s chia i cng , v do d tr mt
phn t nng lng. Hai t in, mi t d tr mt phn t nng lng, mang li phn na nng
lng d tr ton phn. V in dung t l nghch vi nng lng d tr, nn iu ny hm rng
hai in dung ging nhau mc song song cho in dung gp i. Ni chung, cc in dung mc song
song cng gp li. iu ny khng ging vi hnh vi ca cun cm v in tr, vi chng cu hnh
mc ni tip th cng li.
iu ny ph hp vi thc t l in dung ca t phng t l vi din tch cc bn t. Nu chng ta
c t hai bn song song, v chng ta ghp chng theo kiu song song v mang chng li rt gn
nhau bn lin bn, chng ta to ra mt t vi cc bn c din tch gp i, v n c in dung gn
nh gp i.
Cc t cm mc song song v in dung mc ni tip c kho st trong bi tp 4 v 6.
V d 3. T xoay
Hnh h/1 cho thy cu trc ca mt t xoay gm hai bn kim loi hnh bn nguyt song song nhau.
Mt bn c nh, cn bn kia c th quay xung quanh trc chung ca chng vi mt nm xoay. Cc
in tch tri du trn hai bn ht nhau li, v do c xu hng lm tng din tch chng ln nhau.
Din tch chng ln ny l din tch duy nht gp phn hiu qu cho in dung, v vic chnh nt
xoay lm thay i in dung. Thit k n gin ch c th mang li gi tr in dung rt nh, nn
trong thc t ngi ta thng s dng mt dy t, mc dy song song, vi tt c cc phn chuyn
ng c cng trc xoay.

h/ T xoay
Cu hi tho lun
A. Gi s hai t bn song song mc dy song song nhau, v t rt gn nhau, bn lin bn, sao cho
in trng ca chng chng ln nhau. in dung thu c s l qu nh, hay qu ln ? Bn c th
no xoay mch in sang hnh dng khc v lm cho hiu ng xy ra tng t, hoc l hiu ng b
loi tr ? Cn trng hp hai cun cm mc ni tip th sao ?
B. a s t in thc t khng c khe khng kh hay khe chn khng gia cc bn; thay v vy
chng c mt cht cch in gi l in mi. Chng ta ngh ti cc phn t trong cht ny di dng
cc lng cc t do quay (t nht l cng phn no ), nhng chng khng t do chuyn ng ra
xung quanh, v n l cht rn. Hnh bn di cho thy mt cch cch iu ha cao v khng
tht hnh dung iu ny. Chng ta tng tng tt c cc lng cc ban u xoay sang mt bn
(1), v khi t tch in, chng u phn ng bng cch xoay i mt gc nht nh (2) (Trong thc t,
tnh cnh c th ln xn hn nhiu, v hiu ng sp thng hng yu hn nhiu).

i/ Cu hi tho lun B
Cho n gin, hy tng tng a ch mt lng cc in vo khe chn khng. i vi mt lng
in tch cho trc trn cc bn, th iu ny nh hng nh th no n lng nng lng d tr
trong in trng ? iu ny nh hng th nghim n in dung ?
By gi, hy lp li php phn tch di dng cng c hc cn thit tch in cho cc bn.
A.2 Mch dao ng
Hnh j biu din mch dao ng kh d n gin nht. i vi bt k ng dng thc
t no, tht ra ngi ta cn nhiu thnh phn hn. V d, nu l mt phm chuyn knh
radio, n cn phi ni vi mt nten v mt b khuch i. Tuy nhin, ton b c s vt l
cn thit l .

j/ Mch RLC ni tip

k/ Tng ng c hc i vi mch RLC
Chng ta c th phn tch m khng cn m hi si nc mt g c, n gin
bng cch xy dng mt tng ng vi h c hc. Trong mt dao ng t c hc, chng
ta c hai dng nng lng d tr
E
lxo
=
2
1
2
kx (1)
K =
2
1
2
mv (2)
Trong trng hp ca dao ng t c hc, chng ta thng gi s lc ma st thuc
dng cho kt qu ton hc p nht, F = - bv. Trong mch in, s tiu hao nng lng
thnh nhit xy ra qua in tr, khng c lc c hc no c lin quan, cho nn to ra s
tng t, chng ta phi trnh by li vai tr ca lc ma st di dng nng lng. Cng
sut tiu hao do ma st bng vi cng c hc m n thc hin trong khong thi gian t A ,
chia cho t A , P W/ t F x / t Fv bv = A = A A = = , nn
Tc tiu th nhit = - bv
2
(3)
v Phng trnh (1) c x bnh phng, cn phng trnh (2) v (3) c v bnh phng. V chng bnh
phng ln, nn kt qu khng ph thuc vo nhng bin ny l dng hay m. iu ny c ngha
vt l g khng ?
Trong mch in, dng d tr ca nng lng l
2
1
2
C
E q
C
= (1)
2
1
2
L
E LI = (2)
v tc tiu th nhit in tr l
tc tiu th nhit = - RI
2
(3)
So snh hai h phng trnh, trc ht chng ta thit lp s tng t gia cc i
lng biu din trng thi ca h ti mt s thi im trong thi gian
x q
v I
v v lin h nh th no vi x v mt ton hc ? I lin h vi q nh th no ? Hai mi lin h c
tng t vi nhau khng ?
Tip theo, chng ta lin h cc i lng m t cc c im c nh ca h:
k 1/C
m L
b R
V h c vn dao ng vi chu k 2 T m/ k t = , nn chng ta c th gii ngay
phng trnh in bng cch ly tng t, cho ta
2 T LC t =
Thay cho chu k, T, v tn s, f, s tin li hn nu chng ta lm vic vi i lng
2 f e t = , i lng c th hiu l s radian trn giy. Khi
1
LC
e =
V in tr R tng ng vi b trong trng hp c, nn chng ta tm c Q (h
s t l, ch khng in tch) ca mch cng hng t l nghch vi R, v bin cng
hng t l trc tip vi R.
V d 4. iu chnh my thu radio
My thu radio s dng loi mch in ny chn i pht. V my thu cng hng mt tn s
nht nh, cc i c tn s lch qu xa s khng kch thch bt k phn ng no mch in. Gi tr
ca R phi nh sao cho ch mt i ti mt thi im c bt sng, nhng phi ln sao cho
i khng qu nhiu. Tn s cng hng c th chnh bng cch iu chnh L hoc C, nhng t xoay
th d ch to hn l cun cm bin thin.
V d 5. p dng bng s
Cng ti in thoi gi nhiu hn mt cuc thoi ti mt thi im trn cng mt si dy, iu
c thc hin bng cch chuyn tng tn hiu ging ni thnh nhng vng tn s khc nhau trong
qu trnh truyn. S tn hiu trn dy c th tng ln ti a bng cch lm cho tng vng tn s (gi
l di thng) cng nh cng tt. Thnh ra ch mt vng tng i hp ca tn s l cn thit lm
cho ging ni con ngi nhn thc c, nn cng ti in thoi lc ht mi tn s qu cao v qu
thp. (y l l do v sao ging ni qua in thoi ca bn khc vi ging ni bnh thng ca bn).
Nu nh b lc gm mt mch RLC vi tn s cng hng chng 1 kHz v t in l 1 F, th gi
tr t cm phi s dng bng bao nhiu ?
Gii phng trnh cho L, chng ta c
( )( )
2 2
6 3 1
1 1
10 2 10
L
C
F . s
e
t

= = = 2,5 x 10
-3
F
-1
s
2

Kim tra xem kt qu ny c tht s cng n v nh henri l mt vic hi bun t, nhng ng nh
vy.
F
-1
s
2
= (C
2
/J)
-1
s
2
= J.C
-2
s
2
= J/A
2
= H
Kt qu l 25 mH.
y tht s l mt gi tr t cm ln, v s cn mt cun dy to, nng, v t tin. Tht ra, c
mt th thut ch to loi mch in ny nh v r tin. C mt loi chip silicon gi l op-amp,
trong s nhiu cht khc, chng c th dng m phng hnh vi ca mt cun cm. Hn ch ch
yu ca op-amp l n hn ch vi cc ng dng cng sut thp.
A.3 in th v dng in
Hin tng vt l g ang xy ra mt trong cc mch dao ng ny ? Trc tin,
hy nhn vo trng hp c, v sau s vch ra s tng t cho mch in. cho n
gin, hy b qua s tn ti ca s tt dn, cho nn khng c ma st trong dao ng t c
hc, v khng c in tr trong mch dao ng in.
Gi s chng ta ly mt dao ng t c hc v ko vt nng ra khi trng thi cn
bng, sau bung n ra. V ma st c xu hng chng li lc ca l xo, nn chng ta cht
phc mong i rng vic khng c ma st s cho php vt nng nhy tc thi v v tr cn
bng. Tuy nhin, iu ny khng th xy ra, v vt nng s phi c vn tc v hn thc
hin mt s nhy tc thi nh th. Vn tc v hn s yu cu ng nng v hn, nhng
loi nng lng duy nht c sn cho vic bin i thnh ng nng l nng lng d tr
trong l xo, v nng lng l hu hn, ch khng phi v hn. Ti mi bc trn hnh
trnh ca n tr li trng thi cn bng, vn tc ca vt nng c iu khin chnh xc
bng lng nng lng ca l xo trc chuyn ha thnh ng nng. Sau khi vt nng
t ti trng thi cn bng, n s i qua v tr do qun tnh ring ca n. N thc hin
cc dao ng ging ht nhau c hai pha ca trng thi cn bng, v n khng bao gi
mt cao v ma st khng c mt chuyn ha nng lng c thnh nhit.
By gi hy xt dao ng t in, i tng tng t ca v tr l in tch. Vic
ko vt nng ra khi trng thi cn bng ging nh vic tch in +q v q hai bn ca t
in. V in tr c xu hng chng li dng in tch, nn chng ta c th tng tng
khng c mt ma st, th in tch s chy tc thi qua cun cm (tht ra n ch l mt mu
dy dn), v t in s phng in tc thi. Tuy nhin, mt s phng in tc thi nh th
l khng th, v n yu cu mt dng in v hn cho s phng in tc thi. Dng in
v hn s to ra t trng v hn xung quanh cun cm, v trng ny s c nng lng
v hn. Thay v vy, tc chy ca dng in c iu khin mi thi im bi mi
quan h gia lng nng lng d tr trong t trng v lng dng in phi tn ti
c t trng mnh . Sau khi t in t ti q = 0, n vt qu khi gi tr . Mch in
c loi qun tnh in ring ca n, v nu in tch ngng chy, th phi c dng in
bng khng qua cun cm. Nhng dng in trong cun cm phi lin h vi lng nng
lng d tr trong t trng ring ca n. Khi t in trng thi q = 0, ton b nng
lng in l trong cun cm, cho nn n phi c t trng mnh xung quanh n v c
mt cht dng in chy qua n.
iu duy nht c th trng hoang mang y l chng ta thng ni dng in
trong cun cm gy ra t trng, nhng by gi nghe c v nh t trng gy ra dng
in. Tht ra y l triu chng ca bn cht kh hiu ca nhn v qu trong vt l hc.
Tht khng km phn hp l khi ngh ti mi quan h nhn qu theo kiu nh th ny. Tuy
nhin, iu ny trng c v khng tha , v chng hn khng tht s tr li c cu hi
u l nguyn nhn gy ra s chnh lch in th gia hai u in tr (trong trng hp
in tr l hu hn); phi c s chnh lch in th nh th, v nu khng c, nh lut
Ohm s tin on dng in bng khng chy qua in tr.
Nh vy, in th l ci tht s cn thiu trong cu chuyn ca chng ta t trc
n gi.
Hy bt u nghin cu hiu in th hai u mt t in. in th l th nng in
trn n v in tch, cho nn hiu in th gia hai bn t lin h vi lng nng lng
ca n s tng ln nu chng ta tng gi tr tuyt i ca in tch trn cc bn t t q ln q
+ Aq:
V
C

( )
q q q
E E / q
+A
= A
2
1
2
C
E
q
q
q C
q
C
A
=
A
A | |
=
|
A
\ .
=

Nhiu sch s dng phng trnh ny lm nh ngha ca in dung. Nhn th,
phng trnh ny c kh nng gii thch nguyn nhn lch s v sao C c nh ngha sao
cho nng lng t l nghch vi C i vi mt gi tr cho trc ca C: ngi a ra nh
ngha ngh ti t in l mt dng c tch in ch khng phi tch nng lng, v lng
in tch d tr i vi mt hiu in th n nh (sc cha in tch) th t l vi C.

l/ Cun cm gii phng nng lng v a n vo hp en
Trong trng hp cun cm, chng ta bit nu c mt dng in khng i, n
nh chy qua n, th t trng l khng i,v n l lng nng lng d tr; khng c
trao i nng lng gia cun cm v bt k thnh phn no khc ca mch in. Nhng
nu dng in bin thin th sao ? T trng t l vi dng in, nn s thay i i
tng ny cng l s thay i i tng kia. c th, hy tng tng l t trng v
dng in u ang gim. Nng lng d tr trong t trng do s gim, v theo s bo
ton nng lng, nng lng ny khng th no bin mt mt s thnh phn khc ca
mch in phi nhn nng lng t cun cm. V d n gin nht, biu din trong hnh l,
l lot mch in cha mt cun cm v mt thnh phn mch in khc. Khng quan
trng thnh phn mch in kia l ci g, nn chng ta ch gi n l mt hp en, nhng
nu thch bn c th ngh n l mt in tr, trong trng hp nng lng mt i cun
cm ang b in tr chuyn ha thnh nhit. Quy lut mi ni cho chng ta bit rng c
hai thnh phn mch in trn c cng dng in chy qua chng, nn I c th l k hiu
cho mt trong hai dng in, v tng t nh vy, nh lut vng kn cho chng ta bit
V
cun cm
+ V
hp en
= 0, nn hai gim th phi c cng mt gi tr tuyt i, chng ta c
th k hiu n l V. Cho d hp en l ci g i na th tc m n nhn nng lng t
cun cm c cho bi |P| = |IV|,v th
2
1
2
L
E I
IV LI LI
t t t
A A A | |
= = =
|
A A A
\ .

Hay
I
V L
t
A
=
A

trong nhiu

sch gio khoa, y l nh ngha ca t cm. Chiu ca gim th (du
cng hay tr) sao cho cun cm chng li s thay i dng in.
C mt th rt th v vi kt qu ny. Gi s, c th, hp en trong hnh l l mt
in tr, v nng lng ca cun cm ang gim, v ang chuyn ha thnh nhit trong
in tr. gim th qua in tr cho bit c mt in trng bn trong n, in trng
chi phi dng in. Nhng in trng ny t u m c ? Khng c in tch no
u y c th to ra n! Ci chng ta va pht hin l mt trng hp c bit ca mt
nguyn l tng qut hn, l nguyn l cm ng: mt t trng bin thin to ra mt in
trng, ngoi in trng do cc in tch to ra. (iu ngc li cng ng: bt k in
trng no bin thin theo thi gian cng to ra mt t trng) S cm ng hnh thnh nn
c s cho cc cng ngh nh my pht in v my bin th, v cui cng n dn ti s
tn ti ca nh sng, l mt dng sng trong in trng v t trng. y l cc ch
ca chng 6, nhng iu tht s ng lu l chng ta c th i ti kt lun ny m
khng cn bit chi tit v t hc.
Tranh hot hnh trong hnh m so snh in trng do in tch gy ra, 1, vi in
trng do t trng bin thin gy ra, 2-3. Trong hnh m/1, hai nh vt l trong cn
phng c trn tch in dng v sn tch in m. Nh vt l pha di nm mt qu
bng bowling tch in dng vo ng dn un cong. Nh vt l pha trn s dng mt
sng radar o tc ca qu bng khi n i ra khi ng. H nhn thy qu bng b
chm li vo lc n i ln ti trn cng. Bng cch o s bin i ng nng ca qu bng,
hai nh vt l ng vai tr ging ht nh mt volt k. H kt lun rng pha trn ca ng
in th cao hn pha di ca ng. S chnh lch in th xc nhn mt in trng, v
trng ny r rng gy ra bi cc in tch sn v trn nh.
Trong hnh m/2, khng c in tch no trong phng, ngoi tr qu bng bowling
tch in. Cc in tch chuyn ng gy ra t trng, nn c mt t trng xung quanh
ng xon c trong khi qu bng chuyn ng trong n. Mt t trng c to ra ni trc
khng c g, v trng c nng lng. Nng lng do u m c ? N ch c th
n t chnh qu bng, cho nn qu bng phi mt ng nng ca n. Hai nh vt l lm
vic vi nhau mt ln na ng vai tr nh mt volt k, v mt ln na h kt lun rng c
mt s chnh lch in th gia phn trn v phn di ca ng. Hiu in th ny xc
nhn mt in trng, nhng in trng khng th do mt in tch no to ra, v khng
c in tch no c mt trong phng c. in trng ny c to ra bi s thay i t
trng.

m/ in trng do in tch gy ra, 1, v do t trng bin thin gy ra, 2 v 3

Nh vt l pha di tip tc nm cc qu bng vo trong ng, cho n khi ng
cha y cc qu bng, m/3, v cui cng mt dng in n nh c thit lp. Trong khi
ng cha y cc qu bng, nng lng trong t trng tng ln u n, v nng lng
ly t ng nng ca cc qu bng. Nhng mt khi dng in n nh c thit lp, th
nng lng trong t trng khng cn bin thin na. Cc qu bng khng cn phi cung
cp nng lng tch ly trng, v nh vt l pha trn nhn thy cc qu bng ang i
ra khi ng tc trn vn tr li. Khng cn c s chnh lch in th na. Mc d c
mt dng in, I / t A A bng khng.
Cu hi tho lun
A. iu g xy ra khi nh vt l pha di trong hnh m/3 bt u mt mi, v lm gim dng in?
A. 4 S tt dn
Cho ti lc ny, ti ch mi khu nh thc t l bng cch thay i cc c trng
ca mt dao ng t, ngi ta c th to ra hnh vi khng dao ng. V d, tng tng
ly mt h vt nng trn l xo v lm cho l xo cng lc cng yu i. Trong gii hn k nh,
c nh th l khng c l xo g c, v hnh vi ca h l nu bn kch vt nng th n bt
u chuyn ng chm dn. Trong trng hp ma st t l vi v, nh chng ta gi nh, kt
qu l vn tc tin ti khng, nhng khng bao gi tht s t ti khng. iu ny khng
chn tht i vi mt dao ng t c hc, n s khng c ma st bin mt nhng vn tc
nh, nhng n kh thc t trong trng hp mch in, trong s gim th qua in tr
tht s t ti khng khi dng in t ti khng.
Cc mch in c th biu hin mi hnh vi tng t. cho n gin, chng ta s
ch phn tch trng hp mch LRC c L = 0 hoc C = 0.
Mch RC
Trc tin, chng ta phn tch mch RC, n. Trong thc t, ngi ta s phi kch
mch in, v d bng cch chn vo mt ci pin trong thi gian ngn, c c hnh vi
hp dn. Chng ta bt u vi nh lut Ohm v phng trnh cho hiu in th hai u
mt t in
V
R
= IR
V
C
= q/C
nh lut vng kn cho ta
V
R
+ V
C
= 0
v kt hp ba phng trnh trn cho ta mi quan h gia q v I:
1
I q
RC
=
Du tr cho chng ta bit rng dng in c xu hng lm gim in tch trn t
in, tc l lm cho n phng in. Cn nh rng cng dng in t l vi q: nu q
ln, th lc ht gia cc in tch +q v q trn hai bn t ln, v in tch s chy nhanh
hn qua in tr hp nht. Nu c in tch bng khng trn cc bn t, th khng c
nguyn do g cho dng in chy. V ampe, n v ca dng in, tng ng vi
coulomb trn giy, nn hnh nh i lng RC phi c n v l giy, v bn c th t
kim tra iu ny l ng. RC v th l hng s thi gian ca mch in.
I v q thay i chnh xc theo thi gian nh th no ? Vit li I di dng q / t A A ,
chng ta c
1 q
q
t RC
A
=
A

Phng trnh ny m t mt hm q(t) lun lun gim theo thi gian, v tc gim
ca n lc u l ln, khi q ln, nhng cng lc cng nh khi q tin ti khng. L mt th
d ca loi hnh vi ton hc ny, chng ta c th tng tng mt ngi n ng c 1024
cy cn sa trong sn sau nh ng ta, v quyt tm nh phn na trong s chng mi ngy.
Vo ngy th nht, ng ta nh phn na, v cn li 512 cy. Ngy tip theo, ng ta nh
phn na s cy cn li, li 256 cy. S cy cn li tip tc gim theo hm m: 128, 64,
32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1. Tr li v d in ca chng ta, hm q(t) hnh nh cn mt ly tha, ly
tha chng ta c th vit di dng ae
bt
, trong e = 2,718 l c s logarith t nhin.
Chng ta c th vit n vi c s 2, nh trong cu chuyn cy cn sa, thay cho c s e,
nhng c s ton hc phn sau ha ra n gin hn nu chng ta s dng e. Khng th
a mt s c n v vo hm lm s m, nn bt khng c n v, v b do phi c n
v l nghch o ca giy. S b xc nh mc nhanh ca s tt dn theo hm m. Cc
thng s vt l duy nht ca mch in m b c kh nng ph thuc vo l R v C, v
cch duy nht l t cc n v ohm v farad vi nhau cho n v nghch o ca giy
bng cch tnh 1/RC. Nh vy, tht ra chng ta c th s dng 7/RC, hay 3t/RC, hay bt
c con s khng c n v no chia cho RC, nhng y l ni vic s dng c s e thnh ra
c li: i vi c s e, th hng s khng c n v ha ra ng bng 1. Nh vy, p s
ca chng ta l
0
t
q q exp
RC
| |
=
|
\ .

Con s RC, vi n v l giy, c gi l hng s thi gian RC ca mch in, v
n cho chng ta bit chng ta phi ch bao lu nu chng ta mun thy in tch gim i
1/e.

o/ Trong khong thi gian RC, in tch trn t in gim i e ln.
Mch RL
Mch RL, p, c th kho st vi phng php tng t, v ngi ta c th d dng
ch ra rng n cho ta
0
R
I I exp t
L
| |
=
|
\ .

Hng s thi gian RL bng L/R.

p/ Mch RL
V d 6. Mi nguy him ca solenoid; cm xt in
Khi chng ta t ngt ph v mt mch RL, iu g s xy ra ? C th hnh nh l chng ta i mt
vi mt nghch l, v chng ta ch c hai dng nng lng, nng lng t v nhit, v nu dng in
gim t ngt, th t trng phi co li t ngt. Nhng nng lng t trng b mt s i u ? N
khng th chuyn ha thnh nhit cn tr ca in tr, v mch in by gi b h, v dng in
khng th chy!
Cch thot ra khi cu ny l nhn ra rng khe h trong mch in c mt in tr ln, nhng
khng v hn. in tr ln ny lm cho hng s thi gian RL L/R rt nh. Nh vy, dng in tip
tc chy trong mt thi gian rt ngn v chy thng qua khe khng kh ni mch in b h. Ni
cch khc, c mt tia la in!
Chng ta c th xc nh da trn vi cch l gii khc nhau rng gim th t u ny ca tia la
in n u kia phi rt ln. Trc ht, in tr ca khng kh ln, cho nn
V = IR cn mt in th ln. Chng ta cng c th gii thch rng tt c nng lng trong t trng
b tiu hao trong mt thi gian ngn, nn cng sut tiu hao tia la in, P = IV l ln, v iu ny
cn gi tr ln ca V. (I khng ln n ang gim t gi tr ban u ca n) Nhng cch th ba i
ti cng mt kt qu l xt phng trnh V
L
= AI/At: v hng s thi gian ngn, cho nn o hm
thi gian AI/At ln.
y ng l cch thc b nh la xe hi hot ng. Mt ng dng khc l an ton in: c th tht
nguy him khi ph v mt mch cm khng t ngt, v qu nhiu nng lng c gii phng
trong mt thi gian ngn. Cng chng ai hoan nghnh tia la in phng qua khe khng kh; n th
i qua ngi ca bn, v c th bn c in tr thp hn.
Cu hi tho lun
A. Mt con chut cn mn mt mt trong cc dy dn ca h thng thp sng DC sn trc nh
bn, v bng n b tt. Ngay lc khi mch in tr nn b h, chng ta c th xem hai u trn ca
dy dn ging nh hai bn ca mt t in, vi mt khe khng kh (hay khe chut) gia chng.
y chng ta ang ni ti loi gi tr in dung no ? Gi tr c cho bn bit g v hng s thi
gian RC hay khng ?
A. 5 Tr khng
T trc n y, chng ta ngh v cc dao ng t do ca mt mch in. y
ging nh mt dao ng t c hc c kch thch nhng sau cho n t dao ng
theo cch ring ca n m khng c bt k ngoi lc no gi cho dao ng khng b tt
dn. Gi s mt mch LRC c iu khin bi mt in th bin thin dng sin, v d
nh iu xy ra khi mt b chnh radio xoay vi mt nten thu. Chng ta bit rng dng
in s chy trong mch in, v chng ta bit rng s c mt hnh vi cng hng, nhng
khng nht thit n gin l lin h dng in vi in th nh trong trng hp tng qut
nht. Hy bt u vi nhng trng hp c bit ca mch LRC gm ch mt in tr, ch
mt in dung v ch mt t cm. Chng ta ch quan tm ti s hng ng trng thi
bn.
Trng hp in tr thun tht d. nh lut Ohm cho ta
V
I
R
=
Trong trng hp thun in dung, mi quan h V = q/C cho ta tnh c
q V
I C
t t
A A
= =
A A

q/ Trong mt t in, dng in sm pha 90
o
so vi in th
Nu hiu in th bin thin, chng hn ( ) ( )
~
V t V sin t e = , th dng in s l
( ) ( )
~
I t CV cos t e e = , nn dng in cc i l
~ ~
I CV e = . Bng cch ly tng t vi nh
lut Ohm, chng ta c th vit
~
~
C
V
I
Z
=
Trong i lng
1
C
Z
Ce
= [tr khng ca t in]
c n v ohm, c gi l tr khng ca t in tn s ny. Lu l ch c cc i dng
in,
~
I , t l vi cc i hiu in th,
~
V , nn t in khng hnh x ging nh mt in
tr. Cc i ca V v I xy ra ti cc thi im khc nhau, nh biu din trn hnh q. Cn
ch rng tr khng tr nn v hn tn s bng khng. Tn s bng khng c ngha l
cn mt thi gian v hn trc khi hiu in th bin thin mt lng bt k no . Ni
cch khc, y ging nh tnh hung trong t in c ni qua hai cc ca mt ci pin
v c php n nh mt trng thi trong c in tch khng i c hai cc. V
in trng gia hai bn l khng i, nn khng c nng lng no c thm vo hay
ly ra khi trng. Mt t in khng th trao i nng lng vi bt k thnh phn mch
in no khc khng g hn l mt mch in h.
v Ti sao t in khng c tr khng ca n in trn nhn cng vi in dung ca n ?
Tnh ton tng t cho ta
Z
L
= eL [ tr khng ca cun cm]
i vi mt cun cm. Cn lu rng cun cm c tr khng thp hn tn s thp hn,
v tn s bng khng, khng c s bin thin no t trng theo thi gian. Khng c
nng lng thm vo hay gii phng t t trng, cho nn khng c hiu ng cm ng, v
cun cm ng vai tr nh mt mu dy dn c in tr khng ng k Thut ng khng
dng cho cun cm m ch kh nng ca n khng li cc tn s cao.

r/ Dng in chy qua cun cm chm pha 90
o
so vi hiu in th
Mi quan h pha biu din trn hnh q v r c th ghi nh bng cch nh ring ca
ti, eVIL, ngha l hiu in th (V) i trc dng in (I) trong mch t cm, cn iu
ngc li ng trong mch in dung. Cch nh thng dng hn l ELI l ICE, trong
s dng k hiu E cho sut in ng, mt khi nim quan h gn gi vi hiu in th.
Nhng ni dung chnh cn thn trng vi tr khng l (1) khi nim ch p dng
cho mch in iu khin di dng sin, (2) tr khng ca cun cm hay t in ph thuc
vo tn s v, (3) cc tr khng mc song song hay ni tip khng kt hp theo cc quy
lut nh ghp in tr. Tuy nhin, ngi ta c th khc phc hn ch ny.

Bi tp
1. Nu mt b d radio FM gm mt mch LRC cha mt cun cm 1 H, th
ngng in dung m t xoay c th cung cp s l bao nhiu ?
2. (a) Chng minh rng phng trnh
L
V L I / t = A A c n v ph hp.
(b) Xc nhn RC c n v thi gian.
(c) Xc nhn L/R c n v thi gian.
3. Tm nng lng d tr trong mt t in theo in dung ca n v hiu in th
hai u ca n.
4. Tm t cm ca hai cun cm ging ht nhau mc song song.
5. Bn thn dy dn trong mt mch in c th c in tr, t cm v in
dung. t cm v in dung tn lc s quan trng nht i vi cc mch in tn s
cao hay tn s thp ? cho n gin, gi s dy dn tc dng ging nh chng mc ni
tip vi mt cun cm hoc mt t in.
6. (a) Tm in dung ca hai t in ging ht nhau mc ni tip.
(b) Da trn kt qu a, bn s mong i in dung ca mt t bn song song ph
thuc nh th no vo khong cch gia hai bn ?
7. Tm in dung ca b mt tri t, gi s c mt bn cu bn ngoi v cng
(Trong thc t, bn bn ngoi ny ch miu t mt b phn xa trong chng mc no ca
v tr m chng ta mang mt s in tch khi tch in cho tri t)
8. Bt u t quan h V L I / t = A A cho hiu in th hai u mt cun cm, hy
ch ra rng cun cm c tr khng bng Le.

An Minh, Xun Mu T 2008
02/02/2008, 17:15:04

BAIGIANGDIENHOC

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BAIGIANGDIENHOC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BENJAMIN CROWELL

v c ngha l phn neutrino.

v . Proton mi sinh c gi bn trong ht nhn bng lc ht

, tng khi lng sau cng nh hn khi lng neutron, nn khi

................................ phn neutrino

You might also like