Tamar Sovran

Language and Meaning

The Birth and Growth of Cognitive Semantics

This book was awarded the BAHAT PRIZE, 2005.

The BAHAT PRIZE is awarded annually
In memory of Professor Yaacov Bahat

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,77 ,66 ,59 ,57 ,56 ,46 ,40 ,38 ,36
,113 ,105 ,102 ,92 ,86 ,84 ,80 ,79
,142 ,141 ,135 ,130 ,120 ,118 ,115
160Y159 ,153 ,144
58 (Tarski Alfred) ,
79 ,
' ,

Tourangeau Roger and Robert)

120 (Sternberg
120 (Taylor John) ' ,
121

,168 ,163 (tenor, vehicle)
175
(Traugott Elizabeth) ,
145Y143 ,87
105 ,

205
,46 ,43 (Lakoff George) '' ,
92 ,64
Lakoff) ' '' ,
,87 (George and Mark Johnson
,142 ,129 ,127 ,118Y115 ,113Y111
173 ,172 ,160
'' ,' :
Lakoff) ' '' ,
113 (George and Jerome Feldman
47Y46 (Leech Jeoffrey) ' ,'
117
64Y63 ,61Y60 ,t
,85 ,83 ,71 ,70 ,68 ,66 ,46 ,41
142 ,122 ,100 ,86
80
,63 ,33 ,14 ,
,162 ,161Y160 ,120 ,118 ,112 ,110
179 ,167 ,166
,101 ,85 ,77 ,44 ,40 ,14
157 ,156 ,142 ,126 ,106
124Y122 ,45
45
120 ,114Y113 ,30
35
(usage-based model) -
139
145 ,142Y140 e
(Montague Richard) ' ,
62 ,60Y57
,117 ,171 ,162 ,90 ,81 ,29
184
48 ,
Muraoka) ,
34 (Takamitsu
32 (Morris Charles) ' ,
115 ,15
:

138Y137 ,114 ,28 ,

140 ,138 ,103 ,100 ,44 ,38Y37
,64 (Langacker Ronald) ,
,139 ,129Y127 ,121Y120 ,105 ,100
140
145 ,134 ,11 ,
134 ,
,90 ,83 (Lehrer Adrienne) ,
139
,59 ,57 (Lewis David) ,
138 ,62
,31 ,30 ,28 ,26 ,15 ,14 ,13
,88 ,78 ,62 ,61 ,59 ,54 ,51 ,47
,118 ,116 ,115 ,107 ,104Y103
,149 ,144 ,138Y137 ,124Y123
184 ,162 ,159 ,157Y155
,91 ,89 ,62 ,56 ,54 ,53 ,25
170 ,159Y155 ,153 ,131 ,103
,54Y53 ,29Y28 ,14
64Y62
,118 ,105 ,51 ,17
146 ,137
46
162
,60 ,58Y57 ,54 ,26
78 ,74Y73
,91 ,54Y53 , ,
179 ,174 ,158Y157 ,155
,155 ,103 ,93 ,75 ,53
181 ,168 ,164 ,159Y157
Levy-Strauss) ,-
80 (Claud
90 ,83 ,48Y47 (Lyons John) ' ,
133Y132 ,'
Leibniz) ,
,114 ,107 ,25 (Gottfried Wilhelm
172 ,127 ,117


,163Y162 ,136Y129
184 ,177 ,176 ,174Y171
108
,180 ,135 ,119 ,78Y76 ,17
183
,31 ,29 ,28 ,26 ,15 ,14 ,13
,115 ,107 ,88 ,73 ,68 ,56 ,54Y53
158 ,155 ,130 ,120 ,117 ,116
,73 ,62 ,60Y59 ,57 ,26Y25
133 ,129 ,123
116
,120 ,86 ,81Y80 ,68 ,47 ,18
162 ,158Y157 ,148 ,124
97 ,48 ,
69Y68
145 ,143
87 43Y41
:
,89 ,64 (Sweetser Eve) ,
141Y140 ,135 ,117 ,114
de Saussur) ,
,47 ,40 ,35 ,23 ,17 (Ferdinand
91 ,89 ,86 ,82Y79
139 ,116 ,31 ,14 ,13
30 -
26 ,23 ,21
138
44 (Strawson Peter) ,
,81Y79 ,47 ,40 ,35 ,17
90
90 ,47
,115 ,107 ,105Y103 ,43 ,41 ,24
144
127 ,122 ,102 ,38

,47 ,44 ,30Y29 (Searle John) ' ,

138

206

108Y107 -
173 ,147 ,145 ,134 ,131
,81 ,80 ,33 ,25 ,18 ,15 ,13 ,11
,118Y110 ,106 ,101 ,98 ,92 ,87 ,85
,155 ,153 ,145Y140 ,135 ,130 ,125
178Y160
116
,165Y162 ,112 ,92
174
170Y163
,167 ,161 ,18 ""
179Y170
57 ,24Y23
,92 ,88 ,85 ,66 ,53 ,46 ,32Y31
143
93
(Miller George Armitage) '' ,
45
39
,160 ,142 ,121 ,113Y111 ,101
183 ,175 ,173Y170 ,168
161
175 ,15
106
181 ,125 ,93Y87
172 ,101Y100 ()
93
:
,102Y101 ,87Y71
159 ,127 ,107
34 ,28
122
31 ,15
,43 (McCawley James) ' ,
46
118 (Macnamara John) ' ,
160 ,110 ,
' , :

207
73 ,57 ,29
72Y71 (Pullum Jeoffrey) ' ,
130
143 ,126 ,32
91 ,29 e
179 ,177 ,104 ,62 ,60 ,25
43 (Postel Paul)
Fauconnier) ' ,
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174Y171 ,163Y162 ,134 ,133 ,131
61
120 ,114
141 ,117 ,111 ,83 ,81 ,68
35
,32 ,31Y26 ,22 ,15Y14 ,13
,63Y61 ,59 ,57Y56 ,54 ,46 ,44 ,41
,111Y110 ,107 ,106 ,105 ,79 ,73
160 ,138 ,131 ,129 ,120 ,116Y115
112 ,57 ,28
57
,26 ,14 ,13
138 ,105 ,56 ,54 ,46 ,31Y28
31 ,14
30 (mind)
,43 (Fillmore Charles) ' ,
,126 ,125 ,93Y90 ,88Y87 ,84 ,36
131
' , :
30 -
,85 ,68 ,46Y44 ,40 ,14 ,13
,139 ,120 ,118 ,110 ,106 ,91 ,88
181 ,180
106 ,85 ,17
136 ,132 ,131 (imagination)
,132 ,118 ,85 ,77 ,37 ,17 ,13
183Y181 ,135Y134
85

140 ,128 ,113Y112 ,106Y104 ,43

image) -
113 (schemas
138 ,108 ,47 ,32
,170 ,168 ,164Y163 ,99Y98 ,82
175 ,173
87Y80
:

31 ,15
47
47Y46 ,43

,-
,105 ,88 ,64Y58 ,47
118
88 ,48 ,13
,90 ,85 ,84 ,11
130 ,107Y99
48
48
,18 ,15 ,14Y13
184 ,180 ,153 ,118 ,113 ,63 ,31
145 ,144 n
Sternberg) ,
172 ,171 ,166Y165 (Robert
Sperber Dan) ,
148Y147 (and Deirdre Wilson
175 ,169 ,164 ,
138 ,62 ,59
,136Y129 ,121 (blends)
173 ,172 ,167 ,166 ,163Y162
74
124Y122 ,42
118
,63 ,43Y41 (Fodor Jerry) ' ,
107 ,106 ,87


,91Y90 (Kittay Eva) ,
168 ,160 ,111Y110
127Y125 ,89 ,68Y66 ,
Z , :
, Z ,
, Z '
'
Kay Paul and) ' ,
68 (Chad McDaniel
Kay Paul and) ' ,
126 (Charles Fillmore
171 ,167Y166
100 ,66 ,
87 ,84 ,33
48Y47 (Cruse Alan) ,
38Y37
t
138 ,62 ,59 (Kripke Saul) ,
embodied)

- ,
117 ,113 ,87 (realism
,44 (Russell Bertrand) ,
79 ,73 ,62 ,60 ,58 ,56Y54
48 ,
105 ,43 ,
63 (Ravin Yael) ,
30 (mind)
31 ,28 (Rorty Richard) ' ,
Roch) ,
118 (Eleanor and Carolyn Mervis
167 ( )
(Reider Mary-Ellen) ,
140
167 (Ricouer Paul) ,
72Y71 ,66
:
,88 ,82 ,74 ,47 ,45 ,43 ,41Y40
,121 ,109Y106 ,105 ,98 ,93 ,91

208

,138 ,107 ,47 ,33 ,30 ,29

145 ,144
,29 ,26 (Frege Gottlob) ,
,73 ,61 ,60 ,59 ,58 ,56 ,54Y53 ,44
105 ,79
,78 ,73 ,62 ,60 ,57 ,55 ,25

104
128Y127 (profiling) ,
,64 ,61 (Partee Barbara) ,t
180 ,146 ,114 ,69
65 ,37 (parameters) t
,107 ,87 ,83 ,80 ,72Y65 ,47 ,33
108
82
140 ,130 ,127
56 ,
72 ,68 ,49 ,48 - ,
,21 (Kant Immanuel) ,
131 ,27Y25
25
160 (Karnap Rudolf) ,
155
90 ,
,130 ,121 ,119 ,100 ,45 ,14
138
Collman Linda) ,
89 (and Paul Kay
,130 (Coulson Seana) ,
133
61
116 (Kuhn Thomas) ,e
116 ,105
93 ,92
,88 ,76 ,74 ,63Y62 ,45 ,26Y25
,140Y139 ,128 ,119Y118 ,114Y113
167Y165 ,157 ,148

209
108
108
65
,69 ,67
114 ,108
108
25 (Spinoza Baruch) ,
184 ,143 ,139 ,91
,118 ,106 ,100
,142 ,135Y130 ,129 ,121Y120
173Y172
,65 ,61 ,58 ,46Y36 ,34 ,32 ,27
,99 ,98Y97 ,93 ,88 ,82 ,80 ,79Y78
,107 ,105 ,104 ,103 ,102 ,101 ,100
,149 ,140 ,138 ,129Y121 ,117 ,108
,176 ,175 ,170 ,169 ,168 ,165 ,162
184 ,183 ,182 ,179
,70 ,68 ,26 ,17 ,
,153 ,128 ,118 ,116 ,92 ,86 ,82Y81
184 ,176 ,172 ,159 ,157Y156
54 ,44
87
Z Z :

,113 ,87 (embodiment)
162 ,118Y116
141 ,64 (Talmy Leonard) ,z
47 z
88Y87 (script)
106 ,43
153 ,33 ,21 ,17
89 -
162 ,85 -

,160 ,159Y155 ,140 ,134 ,128

176 ,173 ,171 ,168
Z :
Z
156 ,126 ,101 ,77 ,44
147 ,115 ,37 ,30
36
,106 ,92 ,90 ,86Y81 ,80 ,18
,162Y153 ,144 ,140 ,119 ,111 ,110
171
159Y155 ,81 ,65 ,32 ,18 e

144 ,115 ,15 "

33Y32 ,15 "
86 "
,84 ,78Y76 ,74 ,54 ,33 ,24 ,17
,114 ,113 ,107 ,106 ,91Y90 ,89
,159 ,154Y153 ,143 ,141 ,138 ,119
184 ,165
160 ,157 ,84 e
101Y100

,140 ,84 ,37 ,38
163 ,161
,40
189Y177
139 ,70 ,69 ,54 ,44
,166 ,114 ,15 ,14 ,

178 ,172Y171
government and)
45 (binding

114 a
108

language in context, hence advancing the study of pragmatics. Saussures

structuralism was another source of influence for several developments in
the search for meaning relations, semantic fields and semantic frames. The
question of the universality of language, given the variety and versatility of
human languages, was one of the central concerns in these studies.
The main part of the book is dedicated to the description of the emergence
of cognitive semantics. Although inspired by Chomskys generative agenda,
the field developed independent research aims. The book describes the
flourishing of ideas and research programs as well as debates and
disagreements in the rapidly growing field of the study of the conceptual
system. It reviews the varied approaches and methodologies of Jackendoff,
Fillmore, Lakoff, Sweetser, Talmy, Langacker, and others on language and on
the human conceptual system. It identifies the new tools they have developed
for a better understanding of the meaning relations and the structure of
the lexicon. The work done on metaphor by Lakoff and Johnson and their
followers has brought cognitive semantics to a new stage as a legitimate
branch of linguistics, with competing theories and methodologies necessarily
resulting in debates and mutual enrichment. Another chapter of the book
describes the fine line between lexical meaning and meaning in context i.e.
between semantics and pragmatics. In the last two chapters, I revisit two
subjects that I have dealt with in the past: abstract concept formation, and
reconciliation in decoding metaphors. I show how recent developments in
semantic theory, along with current methodologies, shed new light on these
issues.

Tamar Sovran
LANGUAGE AND MEANING
THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF COGNITIVE SEMANTICS

This book tells the story of the birth and growth of cognitive semantics.
During the twentieth century, language became the focus of intensive inquiry.
Philosophers, logicians, and mathematicians including Frege, Russell, and
Wittgenstein, gradually shifted from the investigation of formal languages
towards probing the nature of natural languages. This prompted the
development of a new branch of philosophy, the philosophy of language.
This shift is sometimes referred to as the linguistic turn, and it coincided
with the rapid expansion of research in computer science and in artificial
intelligence.
Chomskys revolutionary ideas about the universality of grammar and of
language as reflecting the minds structure and operations created a second
turn called the generative turn. Syntax was the core subject of this line
of research as it was considered as a reflection of the minds algorithm for
acquiring and understanding language. Several decades would pass before
questions about the place of meaning in these processes could be asked.
The third turn the cognitive turn, took place during the last quarter of
the twentieth century. Meaning became a legitimate independent subject of
research, and two related branches of linguistics flourished: semantics as the
study of meaning, and pragmatics as the study of meaning in context. These
are the subjects of the present study.
The book begins by introducing the early philosophical roots of concept
analysis in Plato, Aristotle, and Kant, and then investigates the roots of
semantics in Freges philosophy of mathematics, in Russells analysis of
the structure of sentences, names, and descriptions, and in formal logic.
Wittgensteins thoughts about language inspired the development of two
almost opposite lines of research. While the early Wittgenstein encouraged
probing the referential and logical aspects of language, the late Wittgenstein
played an important role in the development of theories of language use and

4. Semantics and pragmatics

relations and boundaries

145

IV. Applications

151

J.

In search of a conceptual infrastructure

1. Polysemy and semantic features
2. Meaning relations and further order

153
153
155

K.

Decoding metaphors
1. Semantic fields and discourse metaphors
2. The logic of metaphor
3. Metaphor and syntax
4. Deviance vs. compatibility
5. Abstraction and mechanisms of reconciliation
6. Abstraction and the structure of language

160
160
162
163
167
170
175

Toward a unified theory of meaning

180

References

185

Index

201

4. Color terms relativism vs. universalism

5. Relativism and scientific responsibility
the story of snow terms

69

E.

Language as a game
1. Wittgensteins innovation
2. Definitions, categories and family resemblance
3. Meaning, use, and language games
4. Meaning, use, and language acquisition

73
73
74
76
77

F.

In
1.
2.
3.

79
79
83
87

search of structure
Structural roots of semantics
Semantic fields
Semantic frames

71

III. Semantics and cognition

95

G.

Approaches to the architecture of language

1. Morphosyntax
2. Morphosyntax and generativity
3. Meaning components

97
97
99
107

H.

From experience to concepts

1. Metaphor in discourse, thought, and science
2. Percepts and concepts
3. Semantics in cognitive linguistics
4. Meaning, syntax, and cognition
5. Mental spaces and blends
6. Cognitive blends

110
110
116
118
121
130
133

I.

Semantics and pragmatics

1. Meaning in context
2. Toward pragmatic meaning
3. Conceptual vs. procedural elements

137
137
139
142

Table of contents
Infroduction

13

I. Is a theory of meaning possible?

19

A.

Exploring meaning
1. Words and concepts: Plato, Aristotle, Kant
2. The linguistic turn
3. Problems in the study of meaning

21
21
27
31

B.

A
1.
2.
3.
4.

34
34
36
40
44

closer look at the linguistic turn

Rules and generalizations
The generative turn and the focus on syntax
First steps in semantic research
First books in semantics

II. Anchors

51

C.

The logical anchor

1. From mathematics and logic to natural language
2. Language and the world
3. Meaning and truth
4. Meaning and formalization

53
53
56
58
60

D.

Universals and the variety of languages

the story of color terms
1. How many color terms are there?
2. Berlin and Kays new order
3. Physics, biology and neurology of colors

65
65
66
68

TAMAR SOVRAN

LANGUAGE AND MEANING

The Birth and Growth of Cognitive Semantics

University of Haifa Press