Ljekovite Gljive (Christopher Hobbs) - Izdvojeni Tekstovi

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Napomena

Tekstovi koji se nalaze na sljedeim stranicama su izdvojeni iz knjige:

MEDICINAL
MUSHROOMS
AN EXPLORATION OF
TRADITION, HEALING & CULTURE
by Christopher Hobbs

Copyright October 1986
by Christopher Hobbs

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Sadraj
Napomena ................................................................................................................................................... 1
CORDYCEPS SINENSIS .................................................................................................................................. 4
FOMES FOMENTARIUS (L.:FR.) KICKX. ......................................................................................................... 9
FOMITOPSIS OFFICINALIS (VILL.: FR.) ..........................................................................................................11
FOMITOPSIS PINICOLA (SWARTZ:FR.) KARST. .............................................................................................13
GANODERMA APPLANATUM (PERS.) PAT. ..................................................................................................15
GANODERMA LUCIDUM (W. CURT.: FR.) KARST. ........................................................................................16
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF G. LUCIDUM. ................................................................................................19
PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WHOLE REISHI EXTRACTS IN VIVO AND IN VITRO .................................20
RELATED GANODERMA SPECIES ..............................................................................................................25
Ganoderma capense ...........................................................................................................................25
Ganoderma japonicum (Fr.) Sawada....................................................................................................25
Ganoderma oregonense Murr. ............................................................................................................26
Ganoderma sinense ............................................................................................................................26
Ganoderma Tsugae .............................................................................................................................26
GRIFOLA FRONDOSA (DICKS.:FR) S.F. GRAY. ................................................................................................27
INONOTUS OBLIQUUS (PERS.: FR.) ..............................................................................................................32
LENTINULA EDODES (BERK.) PEGLER ...........................................................................................................34
IMMUNE EFFECTS OF LENTINAN IN VITRO AND IN VIVO IN ANIMALS AND HUMANS ...............................39
TRAMETES VERSICOLOR (L.:FR.) PIL. .........................................................................................................46
KOMBUCHA ................................................................................................................................................50
OVERVIEW OF ALL MEDICINAL MUSHROOM SPECIES ..................................................................................54
Summary of Uses and Doses of Medicinal Fungi ..........................................................................................64
ARRANGED BY SPECIES............................................................................................................................64
ARRANGED BY SYMPTOM OR CONDITION ...............................................................................................65

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CORDYCEPS SINENSIS
C. OPHIOGLOSSOIDES (EHR.:FR.)

Other Common Names
C. sinensis is commonly called caterpillar fungus or summer-plant, winter-worm, while C.
ophioglossoides is known as club-head fungus (Liu and Bau, 1980; Pereira, 1843).

Description and Habitat
C. ophioglossoides is a small (2-6 cm), club-shaped parasite on the fruiting bodies of the truffle
genus Elaphomyces. It is found in the soil of bamboo, oak, and pine woods (Arora, 1986; Ying et al,
1987).
C. sinensis is slightly larger (4-11 cm) and is club- or finger-shaped. It is found on mountain tops
above 3,000m high in cold and snowy grass marshlands of China (Ying et al, 1987; Liu and Bau,
1980).
Cordyceps spp. grow by infecting insect larvae, mature insects, or truffles with spores that
germinate, sometimes before the cocoons are formed, thus preventing further growth of the larvae.
The fruiting body of the Cordyceps eventually emerge from the anterior end of the dead host. C.
sinensis grows on the larvae of Lepidoptera, especially the Hepialus armoricanus (Bat moth) (Ma et
al, 1986; Liu and Bau, 1980). The Chinese consider this fungus to be a vegetable during the summer
and an animal during the winter, giving it the name summer-plant, winter-worm (Pereira, 1843).
Various methods of cultivating Cordyceps spp. have been studied in China, including submerged
fermentation culture (Zhang et al, 1986; Liu and Bau, 1980).

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Cordyceps taylori from The Natural History of Plants by Kerner and Oliver, 1897.

Range
C. sinensis grows throughout Asia. C. ophioglossoides occurs fairly commonly in the eastern
United States but is rare on the west coast; it also occurs in Asia and Europe. The related species C.
militaris (L.:Fr.) Link and C. capitata grow on submerged caterpillars and are fairly common in
parts of North America and Asia (Arora, 1986).
History
In ancient China, Cordyceps sinensis was used exclusively in the Emperors palace, because it was
very scarce. It was prepared by stuffing five drams of the fungus into the stomach of a duck and
slowly roasting it over a fire until it was well cooked. Then the Cordyceps was removed, and the
duck was eaten twice a day for 8-10 days (Pereira, 1843; Rolfe & Rolfe, 1925). Pereira (1843)
reported in the New York Journal of Medicine that C. sinensis has properties similar to those of
ginseng, being used to strengthen and rebuild the body after exhaustion or long-term illness. It was
also used traditionally for impotence, neurasthenia, backache (Huang, 1993), and as an antidote for
opium poisoning and to cure the habit of opium eating (Uphof, 1968).
Chemistry
C. sinensis contains 10.84% water; 8.4% fat; 25.32% coarse protein; 18.53% coarse fiber; 28.9%
carbohydrates; and 4.1% ash. Its fat content consists of 13% saturated and 82.2% unsaturated fatty
acids (31.69% oleic, 68.31% linoleic) (Ying et al, 1987). Uracil, uridine, adenine, and adenosine
have been extracted from C. sinensis (Zhang & Li, 1987). From the water-soluble fraction of both
species, cordycepic acid has been isolated and from C. ophioglossoides, the antibiotic compound,
ophio-cordin (Furuya et al, 1983). Also from this species three anti-tumor protein bound
polysaccharides, CO-N, SN-C, and CO-1, have been identified (Ohmori, 1988a, b).

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Pharmacology
C. sinensis caused a significant increase in erythroid progenitor cells and erythroid colony-forming
units in the bone marrow of mice and given before (150 mg/kg X3) administration of an anticancer
drug (harringtonine) that causes dramatic depletion of these erythroid cells, it prevented the
decrease. While macrophage stimulation is a proposed cause of the increase in red blood cells, C.
sinensis also caused erythroid cells to increase in vitro (Yu et al, 1993). A number of studies have
demonstrated that C. sinensis has a range of immunostimulating and immunoregulating activities
(Liu & Xu, 1985; Zhu, 1987). Notably, its polysaccharides have been found to stimulate
phagocytotic functions and macrophage activity (Gong et al, 1990), particularly that of peritoneal
macrophages (Zhu, 1987). Likewise, Cordyceps preparations and extracts have been shown to
increase phagocytic activity (Tang et al, 1986), especially in the peritoneal macrophages (Zhang et
al, 1985). A water-soluble extract of C. sinensis fruit-body administered to mice (50 mg/kg) by the
oral route provided a significant prolongation of lifespan against lymphoma. This effect was also
found against lymphoma in mice that had received an immuno-suppressing chemotherapy agent
(cyclophosphamide, i.p.) in addition to the extract (orally). B-lymphocytes were strongly
stimulated, and IgM and IgG responses in cyclophosphamide-treated lymphoma-bearing mice could
be restored to normal with C. sinensis extract (oral), as well as levels of macrophage activity
(Yamaguchi et al, 1990). However, although immunostimulatory effects have been observed in
immunosuppressed animals, one study found no such effect on humoral immunity in normal mice
(Tang et al,1986). Another study found that normal rat T-cells were not enhanced by C. sinensis,
while defective T-cells were (Chen & Zhang, 1987). Thus, C. sinensis may boost depressed immune
function but not enhance normal function to the same degree. Significantly, wild and cultivated C.
sinensis have demonstrated equal levels of immune activity, neither being superior to the other
(Chen et al, 1987b; Zhang et al, 1985). True to the actions of other immunostimulants, a high
dosage of C. sinensis (4 g/kg) produced an immuno-suppressive effect in mice comparable to that of
cyclosporin A (5 mg/kg) by prolonging skin allograph survival. C. sinensis proved highly active in
mice against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma, causing an 80% survival 60 days following tumor cell
implantation. C. sinensis warm water extract was without antitumor activity in vitro, indicating that
the major action of the fungus against Ehrlich tumor cells is mediated through the host immune
system (Yoshida et al, 1989). In addition, C. sinensis has been reported to have antitumor activity
against lung cancer in both mice (Zhang et al, 1987) and humans (Xu & Peng, 1988).
In vitro, C. sinensis extracts and culture broths have shown positive inotropic and negative
chronotropic effects as well as causing a relaxation of aorta and bronchus (Furuya et al, 1983;
Naoki et al. 1994). In animals, C. sinensis also shows bronchodilatory, sedative, and hypnotic
actions (Chang & But, 1986); a sedative action due to the amino acids glutamic acid, tyrosine, and
L-tryptophan (Zhang et al, 1991); inhibition of monoamine oxidase obtained from brain tissue (Xu
et al, 1988); increased platelet formation, with normal platelet ultrastructure (Chen et al, 1987b);
and prevention of spleen and liver atrophy, as well as of thymus hypertrophy in mice given
cyclophosphamide (Chen et al, 1985). A fraction of a mycelial extract inhibited the formation of
thrombi and platelet aggregation (Zhao, 1991). Finally, C. sinensis has demonstrated antibacterial
actions in vitro against Streptococcus, Bacerium mallei, Bacillus anthracis, Pasteurella suiseptica,
and Staphylococcus, as well as Microsporum gypseum and Microsporum lanosum (Chang & But,
1986; Ying et al, 1987).
Two protein-bound polysaccharides extracted from C. ophioglossoides, CO-N and SN-C, have
been reported to have antitumor activity in animal studies. SN-C also appears to stimulate the
immune system. Both CO-N and SN-C are galactosaminoglycans (Ohmori, 1988a,b; 1989a,b). CO-
N has mainly a direct cytocidal action on tumors (MM46 carcinoma, Ehrlich carcinoma, and
P388 leukemia) (Ohmori, 1989a). CO-N is a water-insoluble amino acid bound sugar (glycan)
derived from the liquid cultured mycelium (1 g/liter) (Yamada, 1984a). Against tumors in mice,

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CO-N is highly active in small doses. Against sarcoma 180, a single dose of 0.5 mg/kg (i.p.)
inhibited tumor growth by 98.7% (Ohmori, 1989). SN-C is active against a larger range of tumor
systems than PSK or lentinan (Ohmori, 1988). The antitumor action of SN-C is from both a direct
cytocidal activity and immunostimulation. SN-C, derived from liquid cultured mycelia (2-4 g/liter),
is reported to be the first immunomodulating protein-bound polysaccharide found that displays both
kinds of antitumor activity (Ohmori et al, 1986). The primary polysaccharide component of SN-C
that holds the immunostimulating action is CO-1, a glucan with a structure similar to lentinan and
some other polysaccharides (Kawaguchi and Yamada, 1987). Although insoluble in water, SN-C is
soluble in lactic, acetic, or citric acid (Ohmori, 1988). C. ophioglossoides has also shown strong
anti-fungal (due partly to the compound ophiocordin), immunostimulant, and anticancer activity in
animal trials (Kneifel et al, 1977; Liu & Xu, 1985). Like C. sinensis, it appears to activate the
peritoneal macrophages (Zhang et al, 1985). Another active polysaccharide, called CO-1, shows
strong inhibition against sarcoma 180 tumor (Yamada et al, 1984a), but not from oral administration
(Ohmori et al, 1988b).
Human Clinical Studies
Clinical studies have been performed with C. sinensis, and based on these, it is reported to have
therapeutic value in the treatment of chronic obstructive hepatic diseases, hypercholesterolemia, and
other aging disorders, including loss of sexual drive (Chang & But, 1986; Chen & Zhang, 1987).
For instance, in 155 cases of sexual hypofunction, 64.15% of the patients showed improvement
when treated with cultured C. sinensis, and 23.68% showed improvement with wild C. sinensis
grown on bath-moth larva, versus improvement in 31.57% of patients treated with a placebo. One
capsule was given 3 times daily (330 mg/capsule) for 40 days, with 46 of the patients able to
continue a normal sex life. An increase in 17-hydroxycorticosteroid and 17-ketosteroid levels was
demonstrated in these patients (Yang et al, 1985).
These trials with human volunteers are supported by animal studies in which Cordyceps lowered
total cholesterol, plasma triglycerides, LDL-C, and VLDL-C, and increased plasma HDL-C and
HDL-C/TC in both normal and hyperlipemic rats (Xu & Zhang, 1987), as well as increased
spermatogenesis in mice and rabbits (Huang et al, 1987).
The effects of cultivated cordyceps, a product of strain Cs 4 isolated from Cordyceps sinensis,
were studied in a double blind, randomized placebo controlled study, which lasted for 2 months.
Out of 273 patients with hyperlipidemia, the total cholesterol blood level decreased by 17.5% and
the triglyceride level by 9.9%. No serious side effects were observed (Geng et al, 1985).
In addition, significant improvement (77.2%) was obtained in 87 cases of arrhythmia using 0.25
g of encapsulated C. sinensis mycelia 3X/day for 3 weeks (Yu, 1985). Three cases of lung
carcinoma were treated with C. sinensis over a 3-month period with excellent results (Chang & But,
1986), while 18 cases of chronic nephritis showed significant improvement after treatment with
cultivated Cordyceps (Shen & Chen, 1985). Wild Cordyceps and cultured mycelia of C. sinensis
both significantly benefitted patients with chronic kidney failure. The cultured mycelia dosage was
2 g, 3 times daily for 30 days (Chen et al, 1986).
In a human study involving 51 patients with chronic renal failure, the administration of 3-5g per
day of Cordyceps sinensis to 28 of the patients improved renal and immune function (Guan et al,
1992).
In a study with 33 chronic hepatitis B patients, cultured Cordyceps sinensis mycelia was reported
to improve liver function, raise plasma albumin, and adjust protein metabolism (Zhou et al, 1990).
In 45 patients treated for post-hepatic cirrhosis with C. sinensis and extract of semen Persicae, the
improvements found compared to an untreated group of patients, were in NK cell function, T-cell
ratio and numbers, immunoglobulin levels, serum complement levels, and liver function (Zhu and
Lin, 1992).

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Finally, in twenty-three cases of tinnitus treated with an infusion of Cordyceps, eight were
reported as cured and nine significantly improved, while six found no improvement. The
researchers concluded that Cordyceps was effective for tinnitus caused by fluid accumulation in the
middle ear, while it was ineffective in cases with a long history of auditory nerve disorder (Zhuang
& Chen, 1985).
Toxicity
Animal studies show the extract of C. sinensis is low in toxicity (Chang & But, 1986), and the
LD50 was 27.26 4.38 g/kg I.P. in mice. When a preparation was given p.o. daily for 3 months to
rabbits, no abnormalities were seen in the blood tests, or in liver or kidney functions (Huang et al,
1987).
Uses in Traditional Medicine
In TCM, C. sinensis is said to be sweet and acrid in taste and warm in nature. Therapeutically, its
action is related to the lung and kidney channels (Chang & But, 1986; Liu and Bau, 1980). C.
ophioglossoides is mild and slightly acrid (Liu and Bau, 1980). In China the herb is used as a tonic
to the lungs and kidneys, to increase sperm production, increase blood production (counteracting
some types of anemia), and reinforce Qi. It is often prescribed as a tonic to be cooked with duck
meat (Huang, 1993). In China C. sinensis cooked with duck is particularly recommended as a
nutritional supplement for the elderly; indeed, a meal of this type is thought to be as potent as 50 g
of ginseng (Ying et al, 1987).
Medical Uses
Cordyceps sinensis is known as an antiasthmatic and anticancer agent which causes smooth muscle
relaxation and can potentiate the effects of epinephrine. It has been used to stimulate the endocrine
system, as an antibacterial agent, and for patients suffering from chronic renal failure.
In China, C. sinensis is used to regulate and support the gonads and as a lung and kidney tonic. It
is used specifically for excessive tiredness, persistent cough, impotence, debility, and anemia. It is
also used as a tranquilizer, to build the bone marrow, and reduce excess phlegm (Liu and Bau,
1980; Ying et al, 1987). C. sinensis is official in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Tu, 1988) and is used
as a hemostatic for treating phthisis, as a mycolytic, antiasthmatic, and expectorant for treating
chronic cough and asthma and for impotence and seminal emissions with aching of loins and
knees; it is also listed as a tonic.
C. ophioglossoides stimulates blood circulation and regulates menstruation. In some parts of
China, the above-ground parts of the fungus are used for treating metrorrhagia and abnormal
menstruation (Ying et al, 1987; Liu and Bau, 1980).
Preparation and Dosage
For weakness and debility and for use as a tonic, use 3-9 g C. sinensis twice daily (Liu and Bau,
1980), or 1 gram of an extract. For menorrhagia and irregular menstruation, simmer 3-6 g C.
ophioglossoides in chicken soup and take twice daily, or take a water decoction of 6 g each C.
ophioglossoides and garden burnet, twice daily (Ying et al, 1987). For treating anemia and
impotence, another Chinese source text recommends taking 25 to 50 grams stewed with pork or
chicken (Hanssen & Schdler, 1982).
Notes
Cordyceps spp. show higher anticomplementary activity than krestin, an immunostimulant extracted
from Japanese Trametes versicolor (Jeong et al, 1990).
Related Species
C. shanxiensis, a newly discovered species, is regarded in Shanxi, China as having greater
medicinal value than any other type of Cordyceps. It is called Jinbangbang Chongcao in China
(Liu et al, 1985).

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C. cicadae contains two galactomannans, CI-P and CI-A, which show potent hypoglycemic
activity in normal mice (Kiho et al, 1990), and its polysaccharides have shown significant antitumor
activity (Ukai et al, 1983). A number of species grow in the United States, among them C. capitata,
which is common in northern California and the Pacific Northwest; also several undescribed
neotropical species exist (Arora, 1986). Like C. sinensis, C. barnesii (Xiangbang Chongcao)
contains D-mannitol, alkaloids, steroids, and inorganic elements. It has the same amino acids,
though twice the amount (Guo et al, 1985). C. militaris contains cordycepin, b-sitosterol, ergosterol,
adenine, adenosine, and D-mannitol (Liu et al, 1989). Cordycepin is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor
(Penman et al, 1970) and antitumor compound not found in C. sinensis. Cordycepin was dropped as
a clinical agent for cancer due to toxic side effects (Shiao et al, 1989). C. hawkesii Gray has
alkaloids, sterols, amino acids, vitamins, and trace elements similar to those found in C. sinensis
(Guo et al, 1990).
C. capitata (Fr.) Link growing on Elaphomyces is reported by the ethnomycologist Singer
(1958) to be collected as a remedy for various diseases. Traces of an indole alkaloid were also
found in this species according to Tyler (Tyler, 1994; Wasson, 1961).
Procurement
Though expensive, cordyceps can be purchased in bulk through Chinese herb dealers. It is also a
component of a number of tableted formulas, of both Asian and western origin. Species of
cordyceps grow throughout the world; they are uncommon and of scattered occurrence, at least in
temperate climates.

FOMES FOMENTARIUS (L.:FR.) KICKX.
TRUE TINDER POLYPORE, AMADOU

Synonyms
Pyropolyporus fomentarius (L.:Fr.) Teng, Polyporus fomentarius Fr. (Gilbertson and Ryvarden,
1986), Boletus igniarius, Fungus chirurgorum.
Other Common Names
Surgeons fungus, zunderpilz.
F. fomentarius is hoof-shaped, grey to grey-brown or grey-black in color, and has a hard, thick
crust. It grows on both living and dead hardwoods, especially birch, maple, and poplar (Arora,
1986; Phillips, 1991).
Range
Very common in most parts of the world.
History

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Various Fomes species were traditionally used in Europe and America as tinder to start fires
and as absorbent pads to stop bleeding and dress wounds. See the beginning of this book,
page 10, for more details. Amadou is called Tsuriganetake in Japan.
Chemistry
F. fomentarius was able to synthesize small quantities of prostaglandins from linolenic acid
and arachidonic acid (Kapich et al, 1992). The lipid fraction contains ergosterol, fungisterol,
and isoergosterone (Singh & Rangaswami, 1965; Yokoyama et al, 1975), and ergosta-7,22-
dien-3-one (Arthur et al, 1958).
Pharmacology
A lignin from F. fomentarius completely inhibited the growth of herpes simplex virus in
cultures (Sakagami & Kawazoe, 1991), while the liquid extract of sporophore reached an 80%
effective rate against sarcoma 180 in mice (Ying et al, 1987). Isolated polysaccharides from a
mycelium culture proved to be tumor-inhibiting in mice (Ito et al, 1976).
In TCM, F. fomentarius is considered slightly bitter and mild. It is recommended for reducing
stasis of digestive vitality (Liu and Bau, 1980; Ying et al, 1987).
F. fomentarius was used by the Okanagan-Colville Indians of British Columbia and
Washington State and by the Shuswap to cure rheumatism. A piece of the fungus (after
pounding and softening) was put on the skin over the affected area with spittle and ignited.
This is also the possible species of fungus used by the Okanagan-Colville for arthritis, though
Turner describes the fruiting body as small and flat and grows on birches. This species is not
flat, but often taller than wide and more hoof-shaped. It is more likely the fungus in question
is Piptoporus betulinus, the birch polypore. This species fits the description, and it grows on
birches, as stated in Turner (1980). The fungus, called ktikwmn, was pounded until mushy
and put in a cloth to make a fungal poultice for arthritic areas. In European folk medicine, F.
fomentarius was used internally for bladder complaints (List & Hrhammer, 1977).

Medical Uses
In China, it is used for indigestion and to reduce stasis of digestive vitality, as well as for
esophageal cancer and gastric and uterine carcinomas (Liu & Bau, 1980; Ying et al, 1987).
In Europe, it has been used as an external application to stop bleeding in small wounds (List &
Hrhammer, 1977).
As a decoction, 13-20 g, 2x/day.
Related Species
Fomes hornodermus Mont, is used in China as a folk-remedy as a sedative hemostatic and to
clear endogenous wind for stopping itch (Ying et al, 1987.)
Procurement
Amadou is not available commercially in bulk or tablet form. It grows commonly throughout
parts of North America, Asia, Europe and elsewhere.

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FOMITOPSIS OFFICINALIS (VILL.: FR.)
QUININE CONK

Synonyms
Boletus officinalis Vill., Polyporus officinalis Vill.:Fr., Fomes laricis Jacq.:Murr. (Gilbertson and
Ryvarden, 1986).
Other Common Names
White agaric, agarick, purging agaric, and larch agaric. When used as tinder, it has been called
touchwood, spunk, and tinder (Rolfe and Rolfe, 1925). These last names have been shared by
other polypores, especially F. fomentarius.
White and knob-shaped when young, it becomes convex, then cylindrical, hard, and tough; it is
more friable than most other polypores and not as fibrous. The surface becomes cracked as it ages,
and the color changes from white or yellow to gray. Grows on larch, pine, spruce, fir, hemlock, and
Douglas fir.
Fomitopsis officinalis

Range
Common year-round throughout much of the Western U.S., from the Sierra Nevada north and east;
the great lakes region. Also found in Europe and Eurasia.
History
Quinine conk, or Agaric as it was called by the ancients, has had a long history of use in the West
(see sidebar on page 8 for history of the word agaric). The Greeks and Romans used it in a
formula which was alleged to be an antidote to any and all poisons (Rolfe and Rolfe, 1925). As the
legend goes, the king Mithridate (after whom the formula was named) took this potion for a period
of time to safeguard himself from being poisoned by his enemies. Then later in life he became

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depressed and tried to kill himself by drinking a virulent poisonbut the poison didnt work,
presumably because of the formula he had taken many years earlier.
Dioscorides, the noted Greek physician (c. 200 A.D.), thought of it as a panacea, saying that On
the whole it is serviceable in all internal complaints when taken according to the age and strength
of the patient; some should take it with water, others with wine, and others with vinegar and honey,
or with water and honey (Gunther, 1934).
Gerard (1633), the English herbalist, used it in much the same way, suggesting a dose of 1-2
drams in powder form or 2-5 drams in decoction. Interestingly, Gerard felt that the best agaric
would be white-colored, loose and spongy in texture, easily broken, and have a sweet taste; he
considered heavy, blackish, and fibrous agaric to be poisonous. He also noted that since it is
purgative and may cause nausea, the best way to take agaric is with syrup of vinegar and ginger, to
prevent any negative reactions.
After Gerards time, the medicinal use of agaric declined, replaced with more effective specific
laxative and anti-malarial medicines. In the New English Dispensatory (1733), it is mentioned as a
purging herb to be taken with aromatics (such as ginger), but the author reports it is rarely used and
recommends that it be allowed to fall into disuse. Linnaeus, in his Materia Medica (1749), says that
it is warming, mildly laxative, carminative, and anthelmintic. In the second edition of the U.S.
Dispensatory (1834), the authors state that agaric is scarcely employed, though we have met with it
in the shops. The use of this fungus refused to fade completely, however, and in the later 1800s, it
was incorporated into the famous Warburgs or Antiperiodica tincture (see page 14 for recipe
and uses), and the British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1934 includes it.
It is said to have been successful in malarial fevers in India; the recommended dose was 1/2
ounce of the tincture, and after 3 hours, another 1/2 ounce. Soon after the second dose, a violent,
aromatic perspiration comes on, and the fever is usually broken. As far as I know, there are no
modern clinical reports or studies to substantiate this use. The tincture was also recommended for
general collapse, because of its stimulant properties, in cases where there was no apparent organic
disease present. Warburgs Tincture was official in the U.S. National Formulary from 1888 to 1926
(Osol et al, 1955). The agaric is not much known or used by modern herbalists and the risk of side
effects, such as bowel irritation, may outweigh its benefits (Dharmananda, 1994).
Chemistry
According to the Merck Index (1983) and Hagers Handbook (List & Hrhammer, 1977), agaric
contains agaricic acid, agaricinic acid, which is 2-hexadecylcitric acid sesquihydrate (14-16%),
cetyl alcohol, ricinolic acid, eburicolic acid, dehydroe-buricolic acid, dehydroeburiconic acid,
agaricol, phytosterin, ricinoleic acid, cetyl alcohol, glucose, oxalic, malonic, succinic acid, maleic
acid, 7 polyacetylene, dehydromatricaria ester, octadien-(1,7)-diin-(3,5)-dicarbonic acid-(1,8),
octene-(1)- diine-3,5)-dicarbonic acid-(1,8) and decen-(7)-diin-(3,5)-diol-(1,2)-carbonic acid- (1),
ergosta-4,6,8(14),22-tetraenon-(3), gum, wax, and carbohydrates; also ergosterol (Valentin &
Kntter, 1957). Agaric acid was still official recently as an astringent and purgative in the Austrian
and Portuguese Pharmacopoeias (Reynolds, 1982). Graf and Winckelmann (1960) report on early
chemical analyses of F. officinalis and the possibility of extracting sterols from this species and
others for use in human steroid synthesis.
Pharmacology
Shows an inhibition against sarcoma 180 of 80% (Ying et al, 1987). An observed laxative effect
from the fruiting body was said to be due to agaricin, water-soluble salts, and mannitol (Jaretzky &
Breitwieser, 1944).
Toxicity
On the basis of experience in TCM, F. officinalis should not be used in doses of more than 1 g per
day (Liu and Bau, 1980). In England (1965) agaric acid was recommended to be prohibited as a

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flavoring agent in foods because animal studies showed that in sufficient quantities, it could
produce skeletal muscle weakness and CNS depression (Reynolds, 1982).

According to traditional European practice the energy of agaric is slightly sweet, bitter, and slightly
acrid (Linnaeus, 1749); neutral to slightly cool. See page 10 for farther traditional uses.
Medical Uses
Prescribed prior to the mid-20th century as a purgative, bitter tonic, for bronchial asthma, night
sweats from tuberculosis (List & Hrhammer, 1977); also a powder of the fruiting body, and later,
agaricic acid, is used as an anhidrotic (agent that reduces sweating) (Windholz et al, 1976). The
mushroom itself was still official in the Swiss Pharmacopeia in 1967 (Todd, 1967), and agaric acid
in the Austrian and Portuguese pharmacopeias in 1982 (Reynolds, 1982).
200 mg-2 grams decocted as a tea (List & Hrhammer, 1977), or taken as a powder in 00
capsules, usually with other herbs. One dropperful of the tincture (1:5, 50% menstruum), 3 x daily.
Related Species
Currently in the same genus with F. pinicola, the red-belted polypore and F. cajanderi (Karst.)
Kotl. et Pouz., the rosy conk, but these taste nothing like quinine conk, as they are not friable and do
not have the same medicinal effects.
Notes
Still in trade, especially in Europe, but may be adulterated with Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.:Fr.)
Murr. (=Polyporus sulfureus Bull.:Fr.), which is not as bitter or friable (List & Hrhammer, 1977).
Procurement
The bulk fruiting bodies are still in European herb trade. I have seen large fruiting bodies on
Douglas fir in the Pacific Northwest, south to the San Francisco bay area in California, though it
probably grows farther south. It is common in other parts of North America, Europe, and Asia.

FOMITOPSIS PINICOLA (SWARTZ:FR.) KARST.
RED-BELTED POLYPORE

Synonyms
Boletus pinocola Swartz, Polyporus pinicola Swartz:Fr., Fomes ungulatus Schaeff.:Sacc., Fomes
pinicola, Ungulina marginata, Polyporus ponderosus von Schrenk (Gilbertson and Ryvarden, 1986;
Arora, 1986; Overholts, 1977).

Other Common Names
Red-belted conk (Arora, 1986); tsugasaruno-koshikake (Yokoyama, 1975).
F. pinicola is a beautiful, varnished, orange to red to brown shelf fungus. It has white pores, which
are scarcely visible underneath its cap, that do not bruise and a lighter belt around the margin of the
top cap. It has a very tough, cork-like or woody flesh and is usually found on dead conifers, less
often on hardwoods (on the West Coast, I have seen it mostly on Douglas fir). F. pinicola is known

~ 14 ~

to feed on the heartwood and sapwood of its host, and it is a major decomposer of dead timber
(Arora, 1986).

Range
Throughout Canada and in the states of North Carolina, Arizona, California, and Ohio (Lincoff,
1981). Also found in Eurasia.
History
The red-belted polypore was also known as Mech quah (red touchwood) by the Cree in Eastern
Canada. They dried and powdered the fruiting body, making a paste with water and applying it to
excessively bleeding wounds as a styptic. A half teaspoon of the powder was also steeped in water
and taken internally as an emetic for purification (Beardsley, 1944).
In Kings American Dispensatory (1895), F. pinicola was recommended for persistent,
intermittent fevers; chronic diarrhea and dysentery; periodic neuralgia and nervous headache;
excessive urination; jaundice; and chills and fevers in consumptive patients.
Chemistry
The triterpenes ergosterol, 3 compounds closely related to trametenolic acid, polyporenic acid C,
ergosterol, ergosta-7, 22-dien-3-ol, fungisterol, eburicoic acid, lanosterol, inotodiol (Schmid &
Czerny, 1953; Yokoyama et al, 1975), 21-hydroxylanosta-7,9(11)-24-trien-3-on, 21-
hydroxylanosta-7,9(11)-24-trien-3,21-diol, 3- oxylanosta-8,24-dien-21-oleic acid, and pinicolic
acid, which may be a mixture of triterpenes (List & Hrhammer, 1977).
Pharmacology
F. pinicola has shown moderate tumor-inhibition against sarcoma 180 (Ito et al, 1972-73; Ikekawa
et al, 1968; Shibata et al, 1968). Mice given crude polysaccharides extracted from F. pinicola orally
showed significant retention of Bromsulphalein and elevation of serum glutamic pyruvic
transaminase induced by carbon tetrachloride (Zhang, 1987), which suggests an effect on liver
enzymes.
Taste & Energy
Sweet, tonic.

Use daily as a tonic to reduce inflammation of the digestive tract and increase general resistance, or
as a cancer-preventative, though this use is not supported by scientific studies with humans. The tea
is sweet and mild-tasting with a little bitterness. It is one of the most common polypores in many
parts of the world. I have enjoyed it as a tonic beverage with the addition of ginger or licorice for a
number of years.
Medical Uses
Used in homeopathic medicine for fevers with headache, yellow tongue coating, nausea, epigastric
weakness, and constipation (Boericke, 1927).
20-30 g 2X/day in soups or as a tea. Note that this fungus must be simmered for at least an hour to
extract its active constituents. Before cooking, saw up the dry carpophore into 1/2 slices and break
up into pieces. When fresh and small, they can simply be cut up with a serrated knife to increase
surface area for extraction.
Related Species
F. cytisina shows weak tumor inhibition (Ikekawa et al, 1968).

~ 15 ~

Notes
Fiberboard made from wood chips pretreated with the extract of F. pinicola shows excellent
flexibility, high tensile strength, and little swelling tendency (Wagenfuehr et al, 1989).
Procurement
The red-belted polypore is not available in commercial trade but is one of the most common
polypores throughout north temperate regions of the world.

GANODERMA APPLANATUM (PERS.) PAT.
ARTISTS CONK

Synonyms
Boletus applanatus Pers., Polyporus applanatus Pers.:Wallr., Polyporus megaloma Lv., Effvingia
megaloma (Lv.), (Overholts, 1977; Gilbertson and Ryvarden, 1986), Fomes applanatus
Pers.;Wallr.) Gill, Elfringia applanata (Blum, et Nees:Fr.) Kuntze, G. tornicatum (Fr.) Pat.
(Yokoyama et al, 1975).
Other Common Names
G. applanatum is also known as red mother fungus (Liu and Bau, 1980) or the ancient ling zhi
(Willard, 1990). In North America it is known as artists conk.
G. applanatum often grows on the trunks of broadleaf trees, as well as on bamboo and conifers
(Ying et al, 1987). It tends to cause decay in its host and may release over 5 trillion spores annually
(Arora, 1986). In California, the fungus often grows on bay laurel (Umbellularia californica)
(Hook. & Arn.) Nutt., and I have found these to be more bitter and acrid than ones growing on other
trees. Another similar Ganoderma known only from California, G. brownii (Murr.) Gilbn., also
grows on bay laurel and is distinguished from G. applanatum by having a distinctly yellow pore
surface, rather than white (Gilbertson & Ryvarden, 1986).
Range
Common throughout the United States.
History
The name applanatum means flattened in Latin and refers to its flat bracket- shape. The
Athabaskans of Alaska burn the fungus to provide a mosquito repellent smoke, and they scratch
pictures on the white underside of the fresh fungus. The Alaskan Indian name kvajeghetla
indicates use of this fungus for playing catch. The Susitna Denaina Indians of Alaska hold that in
the area of Alexander Creek, a giant kadatsa (G. applanatum) once grew to around a quarter mile
in width (Kari, 1977).
Chemistry
Like G. lucidum, this species contains various steroidal compounds (Pettit and Knight, 1962;
Ripperger and Budzikiewicz, 1975), such as ergosterol, ergosta 7,22-dien-3p-ol, fungisterol

~ 16 ~

(Yokoyama et al, 1975), alnusenone, friedelin, and other triterpenes ( Protiva, 1980). Ganoderenic
acid, furanoganoderic acid, and ganoderic acid derivatives have been isolated from G. applanatum
(Nishitoba et al, 1989). Because triterpenes such as ganoderic acid have been correlated with
bitterness, flavor may be a good measure of quality for G. applanatum, G. oregonense, and other
wild species (Shiao et al, 1994). This particularly holds true if one is interested in the
pharmacological effects that are especially associated with these compounds, namely
hepatoprotection, antihistamine, ACE inhibition, and hypolipidemic activity.
Pharmacology
G. applanatum has demonstrated immunostimulating properties in animal studies. RNA from G.
applanatum caused the production of a substance with interferon-like properties in mice spleen,
while i.v. doses of nucleic acids isolated from G. applanatum conferred protection against tick-
borne encephalitis virus in mice (Kandefer-Szerszen et al, 1979). G. applanatum polysaccharides
have been found to increase spleen cell proliferation in vitro and stimulate antitumor activity against
sarcoma 180 in mice, as well as increase spleen cell primary antibody responses to sheep red blood
cells (Gao & Yang, 1991). Single doses of polysaccharides (from 10-50 mg/kg) from the mycelium
have produced 100% tumor inhibition ratios (Mizuno, 1982).
No data.
Toxicity
No data.
In my experience, the energetic property of G. applanatum is warming and slightly bitter and sweet,
depending on the host tree from which it is harvested. In TCM, G. applanatum is used to reduce
phlegm, eliminate indigestion, stop pain, and remove heat.
Medical Uses
In China, it is considered useful for rheumatic tuberculosis and esophageal cancer (Ying et al,
1987). It also has antibiotic properties and shows activity against other types of cancer as well (Kim
et al, 1990).
30 g a day in tea or water-based extract.
Related Species
Also see the entry on G. lucidum (pages 96-107).
Procurement
Artists conk is available in commercial products and in bulk through Chinese herb dealers. I have
seen it as the major ingredient in Ling Zhi extracts made in Taiwan. It is also an extremely
common fungus, growing on a variety of hosts throughout the world.

GANODERMA LUCIDUM (W. CURT.: FR.) KARST.
LING-ZHI, REISHI

Synonyms

~ 17 ~

Boletus lucidus Fr., Polyporus lucidus, Ganoderma sessile, Polyporus polychromus, Ganoderma
polychromum (Gilbertson and Ryvarden, 1986).
Other Common Names
G. lucidum is commonly known as ling zhi (ling chih or ling qi are variant spellings) in China
and reishi in Japan. The name ling zhi means spirit plant (Huang, 1993) and first appears in the
11th century Ling yuan fang (Bretschneider, 1895). Other common Chinese names include plant of
immortality, shi rh (mushroom which grows on stone), ten-thousand year mushroom, and
herb of spiritual potency (Liu and Bau, 1980; Bretschneider, 1895). Because of the difficulty in
obtaining it, reishi was often referred to as the phantom mushroom in Japan (Matsumoto, 1979).
It is also called varnished conk (Arora, 1986).

Reishi

The Latin lucidum, meaning shiny or brilliant, refers to the appearance of the fungus fruiting
body, which has a modeled, varnished look. G. lucidum frequently infects trees, especially oak
trees, causing their wood to rot. This has an unfortunate impact on the wood industry (Kac et al,
1984).
The fruiting bodies of G. lucidum are reddish-orange to black, usually delicate, slender, and have
a definite stalk which usually attaches to the cap from the side, though stalkless (sessile) specimens
have been found. The annual fruiting bodies of G. oregonense and G. tsugae (species which may
have similar medicinal uses), on the other hand, are larger and fatter, with less of a well-defined
stalk (or none at all). G. oregonense occurs from British Columbia south to northern California and
apparently intergrades there into G. tsugae, which has a similar stature. Both commonly grow on fir
(Tsugae spp.) and hemlock (Abies spp.), while G. lucidum grows exclusively on hardwoods,
especially oaks (Quercus spp.) (Gilbertson & Ryvarden, 1986).
In Japan, 99% of reishi growing in the wild are found on old Japanese plum trees. Nonetheless,
they are so rare that only a few reishi are generally found per 100,000 plum trees (Matsumoto,
1979).
Range

~ 18 ~

Ganoderma spp. grow throughout the United States, Europe, South America, and Asia. In North
America, G. lucidum occurs most commonly on the East Coast, especially the Gulf Coast and the
Southwest.
History
G. lucidum has been used in the folk medicine of China and Japan for 4,000 years (Zhao & Zhang,
1994), especially in the treatment of hepatopathy, chronic hepatitis, nephritis, hypertension,
arthritis, neurasthenia, insomnia, bronchitis, asthma, and gastric ulcer (Kabir et al, 1988). In the Ben
Cao Gang Mu (A.D. 1578), Chinas most famous natural history book, it is explained that
continued use of Ling Zhi will lighten weight and increase longevity (Huang, 1993). It was once
thought that the pharmacological effect of G. lucidum was due to its color; in actuality, ling zhi
possesses many different properties depending on the stage and environment of its growth (Jong
and Birmingham, 1992). During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) it was called Qi zhi, or red
fungus. It was said to benefit the heart (Yeung, 1985). In TCM, ling zhi is considered to be in the
highest class of tonics, promoting longevity. There are many Chinese and Japanese stories of people
with cancer and other degenerative diseases traveling great distances to find it.
In the past, reishi grew only in small quantities in the wild, so it was very expensive. In the last
20 years, however, successful cultivation of G. lucidum has made it more accessible and affordable
(Willard, 1990). The cultivation of the reishi was pioneered by Shigeaki Mori, a Japanese man who
spent 15 years developing an elaborate method of culturing wild-grown reishi spores in specially
treated old plum tree sawdust. Moris process takes about two years from start to finish, and it is
designed to cultivate akashiba (red reishi). The antlered reishi, which is traditionally the rarest
and most highly valued of the reishis (Matsumoto, 1979), is produced by growing reishi in a
controlled environment high in carbon dioxide.
In addition to its medical indications, Reishi has been used in the Orient as a talisman to protect
a person or home against evil (Matsumoto, 1979).
Chemistry
The sporophore, or spore-bearing structure, of G. lucidum contains carbohydrates (both reducing
sugars and polysaccharides), amino acids, a small amount of protein and inorganic ions, steroids,
triterpenes, lipids, alkaloids, a glucoside, a coumarin glycoside, volatile oil, riboflavin, and ascorbic
acid (Ying et al, 1987). Regarding the inorganic ions, specifically, the horn-shaped carpophore
(stalk) contains Mg, Ca, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, and Ge, while the pileus (cap) contains the same except no
Cu (Shin et al, 1986). The spores themselves contain choline, betaine, tetracosanoic acid, stearic
acid, palmitic acid, ergosta-7, 22-dien-3-ol, nonadecanoic acid, behenic acid, tetracosane,
hentriacontane, ergosterol, and -sitosterol (Hou et al, 1988). One of the lipids isolated from G.
lucidum is pyrophosphatidic acid (Sugai et al, 1986).
The fruiting body of G. lucidum contains, in addition, ergosterol, fungal lysozyme, and acid
protease (Chang & But, 1986). A hot-water extract of the fruiting body was found to consist of 51%
polysaccharide and 5% protein (Shin et al, 1986), while water extracts of the sclerotium produced
soluble proteins, amino acids, polypeptides, and saccharides (Chang & But, 1986).
The mycelium of G. lucidum contains sterols, lactones, alkaloids, and polysaccharides (Chang &
But, 1986), as well as triterpenes. Indeed, some 100 different triterpenes can be found in the fruiting
body and/or mycelium of G. lucidum (Shiao et al, 1994). These include highly oxidized lanostane-
type triterpenoids such as ganoderic acids C, D, E, F, G, H, I (Hirotani et al, 1985; Kikuchi et al,
1985a, b; Komoda et al, 1985), L (Nishitoba et al, 1986), R, S, T (Hirotani & Furuya, 1986), U, V,
W, X, Y, and Z (Toth et al, 1983a); ganoderenic acids A, B, C, and E (Komoda et al, 1985);
ganolucidic acids A, B (Kikuchi et al, 1985b) and D (Nishitoba et al, 1986); lucidenic acids D, E, F
(Kikuchi et al, 1985a), and G (Nishitoba et al, 1986); and lucidone C (Nishitoba et al, 1986).

~ 19 ~

Pharmacology
Animal studies have shown the active constituents of G. lucidum to have a variety of
pharmacological activities and effects (summarized in Table 6). A number of its polysaccharides
have demonstrated antitumor and immunostimulating activities. For instance, Beta-D-glucan, also
called G-I, shows potent action against sarcoma 180 (Willard, 1990), as does GL-1, an
arabinoxyloglucan (Miyazaki & Nishijima, 1981). A polysaccharide-enriched fraction of G.
lucidum has demonstrated the ability to stimulate macrophages to produce more tumor-necrosis
factor (TNF-a) and a number of interleukins (Wang et al, 1994). The polysaccharide portion of
these protein-bound polysaccharides has been found to consist of glucose, galactose, mannose, and
traces of xylose and fucose, while the protein portion contains some 17 amino acids (Kim et al,
1990). In addition to having antitumor effects, G. lucidum's polysaccharides have been shown to
increase DNA synthesis of spleen cells in mixed lymphocyte culture (Lei & Lin, 1991) and increase
both RNA and DNA synthesis in the bone marrow of mice.
The sterols in G. lucidum are reported to act as hormone precursors, while adenosine (a
derivative of RNA) has been found to inhibit platelet aggregation (Shimizu et al, 1985). Ganoderans
A & B, glycans of the fruit body of G. lucidum, significantly reduced plasma sugar levels in
hyperglycemic mice (Hikino et al, 1985).
Another major class of compounds in G. lucidum, the triterpenes, are reported to have
adaptogenic and antihypertensive, as well as anti-allergic effects. (It is interesting to note that
Ganoderma is a rich source of these bitter triterpenes, as a bitter taste has long been associated with
some of its therapeutic properties) (Jong and Birmingham, 1992). Ganoderic acid C appears to be
the most active anti-allergic constituent, followed by ganoderic acids A and D. Ganoderic acid B is
the least active; however, ganoderic acids B and D are reported to be anti-hypertensives. The
precise mechanisms of the ganoderic acids anti-allergic actions are still unknown (Jones, 1992b).
Also, ganoderic acids T through Z show antitumor activity against hepatoma (liver-tumor) cells
(Toth et al, 1983b), and A through D inhibit histamine release (Khoda et al, 1985).
Oleic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid, and cyclooctasulphur are known to inhibit the release of
histamine, thus preventing allergic reactions and inflammations (Tasaka et al, 1988), though oleic
acid is a common element of a balanced diet. The polypeptide Ling Zhi-8 (or LZ-8), too, has shown
activity against several type I allergic hypersensitivity reactions. Ironically, however, G. lucidum
may be a source of an allergen itself: some people have demonstrated allergic reactions to the
fruiting body, others to the spores, and some to both. In areas where Ganoderma grows in
abundance, the extremely high number of spores released into the air (G. applanatum produces
about 11 billion spores per week from a single fruiting body) frequently cause reactions in
susceptible individuals (Tarlo et al, 1979).

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF G. LUCIDUM.

Compound Type Action

~ 20 ~

Cyclooctasulphur Inhibits histamine release
Unknown Alkaloid Cardiotonic
Unknown Glycoprotein Tumor inhibitor
Adenosine Nucleotide Inhibits platelet aggregation; muscle relaxant; analgesic
Ganoderans A,B,C Polysaccharide Hypoglycemic
Unknown Polysaccharide Cardiotonic
Unknown Polysaccharide Antitumor; immunostimulating
Beta-D-glucan Polysaccharide Antitumor; immunostimulating
GL-1 Polysaccharide Antitumor; immunostimulating
FA,FI,FI-1a Polysaccharide Antitumor; immunostimulating
Beta-D-glucans D-6 Polysaccharide Enhances protein synthesis and nucleic acid metabolism
LingZhi-8 Protein Broad spectrum antiallergic; immunomodulator
Ganodosterone Steroid Anti-hepatotoxic
Ganoderic acids
A,B,C,D Triterpene Inhibit histamine release
R,S Triterpene Anti-hepatotoxic
B,D,F,H,K,S,Y Triterpene Anti-hypertensive, ACE-inhibiting
Ganoderic acid B Triterpene Inhibits cholesterol synthesis
Ganoderic acid Mf Triterpene Inhibits cholesterol synthesis
Ganodermadiol Triterpene Anti-hypertensive, ACE-inhibiting
Ganodermic acid Triterpene Inhibits cholesterol synthesis
Oleic acid Unsaturated fatty acid Inhibits histamine release

Without focusing on specific active constituents, researchers have also reported the following
activities and effects (in vivo and/or in vitro) in studies using G. lucidum, generally in the form of
watery or ethanolic extracts. Keep in mind that most of these results are uncontrolled clinical or
laboratory studies or reports, mostly from China.

PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WHOLE REISHI EXTRACTS
IN VIVO AND IN VITRO

~ 21 ~

Analgesic (Chang & But, 1986)
Anti-allergic activity
Bronchitis-preventative effect, inducing regeneration of bronchial epithelium (Chang &
But, 1986)
Anti-inflammatory (Lin et al, 1993; Stavinoha et al, 1990)
Antibacterial, against Staphylococci, Streptococci, and Bacillus pneumoniae, (perhaps due
to increased immune system activity) (Hsu, 1990)
Antioxidant, by eliminating hydroxyl free radicals (Wang et al, 1985; Chen & Zhang,
1987)
Antitumor activity
Antiviral effect, by inducing interferon production
Lowers blood pressure
Enhances bone marrow nucleated cell proliferation (Jia et al, 1993b)
Cardiotonic action, lowering serum cholesterol levels with no effect on triglycerides,
enhancing myocardial metabolism of hypoxic animals, and improving coronary artery
hemodynamics (Chang & But, 1986; Chen & Zhang, 1987)
Central depressant and peripheral anticholinergic actions on the autonomic nervous
system reduce the effects of caffeine and relax muscles (Chang & But, 1986; Kasahara &
Hikino, 1987)
Enhanced natural killer cell (NK) activity in vitro in mice (Zhang & Yu, 1993)
Expectorant and antitussive properties demonstrated in mice studies (Hsu et al, 1986;
Chang & But, 1986)
General immunopotentiation (Shin et al, 1986; Chang & But, 1986)
Anti-HIV activity in vitro and in vivo (Kim et al, 1994)
Improved adrenocortical function
Increased production of Interleukin-1 by murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro (Jia et al,
1993a)
Increased production of Interleukin-2 by murine splenocytes in vitro (Zhang et al, 1993)
Liver-protective and detoxifying effects (Chang & But, 1986)
No effect on type B monoamine oxidase obtained from mouse brain in vitro (Dai & Yin,
1987)
Protection against ionizing radiation when treated with G. lucidum both before and after
exposure (Chang & But, 1986; Hu & But, 1987)

Slight anti-ulcer activity, perhaps due to the central depressant effect (Kasahara and Hikino,
1987)
Increase white blood cells and hematoglobin in peripheral blood of mice (Jia et al, 1993)

In the last 20 years, G. lucidum has undergone a number of clinical studies with humans and is
thought to be beneficial for a wide variety of disorders, including neurasthenia, dizziness, insomnia,
rhinitis, and duodenal ulcers (Ying et al, 1987); liver pain (hepatodynia), symptoms associated with
anorexia, maldeveloped brain, retinal pigmentary degeneration, leukopenia, progressive muscular
dystrophy, atrophic nyotonus, and osteogenic hyperplasia (Chang & But 1986; Chang et al, 1984;
Huidi & Zhiyuan, 1982); and mental disease caused by environmental stress, Alzheimers disease,
liver failure, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes (Tamura et al,1987a,b,c,d,e). The clinical effectiveness of
ling zhi extract and its components in this wide range of disorders is still largely unsubstantiated by

~ 22 ~

modern internationally-recognized scientific standards, but it is currently being used in clinics and
tested extensively throughout Asia and other parts of the world.
G. lucidum has also shown favorable results in treating hepatitis, especially in cases without
severe impairment of liver function (Chang & But, 1986). For example, in a study of 355 cases of
hepatitis B treated with Wulingdan Pill, which includes the fruiting body of G. lucidum, 92.4% of
the patients had positive results (Yan et al, 1987). In a clinical report from the MARA Institute of
Technology, Malaysia, a lyophilized extract of the mushroom was said to be beneficial in
alleviating the symptoms of patients suffering from hepatitis B by significantly reducing the SGOT
and SGPT levels and leading to seroconversion in 1 case after 3 months of administration (Teow,
1994). Positive results were also seen in patients with diabetes, acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and
recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinomas.
Of special note are reishis action on the lungs and heart. In clinical studies conducted in China
during the 1970s, over 2000 patients with chronic bronchitis were given a tablet form of reishi
syrup. Within 2 weeks, 60-90% of the patients showed marked improvement, including increased
appetite. The older patients, especially, seemed to benefit the most, and those with bronchial
asthma, in particular, responded well (Chang & But, 1986).
As for its action on the heart, reishi has been reported to benefit patients with coronary heart
disease and hyperlipidemia, bringing about varying degrees of improvement in symptoms such as
palpitations, dyspnea, precordial pain, and edema (Chang & But, 1986). In one controlled study, a
reishi extract showed the ability to reduce blood viscosity and plasma viscosity in hypertensive
patients with hyperlipidemia, some of whom were recovering from an episode of cerebral
thrombosis (Cheng et al, 1993). In another study, reishi extracts were reported to reduce blood
cholesterol and lower blood pressure (Kanmatsuse et al, 1985). G. lucidum is said to act as a
cardiotonic and has also been used to treat arrhythmia (Ding, 1987a).
Another key action of Ganoderma spp. is found in its anti-allergic effects. Fructificatio
Ganodermae (FG), a formula of the fruiting bodies of several Ganoderma spp., including G.
lucidum, G. japonicum, and G. capense, has been used in China as a tonic for over 2,000 years.
Recent studies on FG have reported it to be effective in the treatment of chronic bronchitis,
bronchial asthma, and several other allergic diseases. Although the effective principles responsible
for this action have not been identified, it is known from animal studies that FG inhibits the
mediator release and, at high concentrations, suppresses the mediator activity. Although FG can
regulate the immune response, there are no reports of its effects on IgE antibody synthesis (Qiu &
Wu, 1986). We do know, however, that in animals, G. lucidum inhibits the release of histamine,
thus preventing or alleviating types I, II, III, and IV allergic sensitivity reactions. Reishi has been
observed clinically to stabilize immunoglobulin levels, reducing the number of excess antibodies
and boosting low levels. Since this effect includes stabilizing levels of IgE, IgM, IgA, and IgG
antibodies, reishi may help alleviate food sensitivities (Kohda et al, 1985).
Finally, reishi has been found to be effective for two unusual applications. First, it alleviates high
altitude sickness by oxygenating the blood. Chinese mountain climbers given G. lucidum before
ascending mountains as high as 4,000-5,000 m (13,200 to 17,000 ft.) felt minimal reactions to the
climbs (Chang & But, 1986). Second, and most unusual, G. lucidum has been found to be
surprisingly effective in treating myotonia dystrophica, a rare hereditary disease characterized by
muscular atrophy which begins in the face, neck, and larynx, and progressively affects the
musculature of the entire body. Eventually even the skin and many glands such as the pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and gonads atrophy as well. There is no known cure for this disorder.
Although reishi is not a cure, it can help alleviate symptoms. In one study, patients with myotonia
dystrophica were given 400 mg/day of water-soluble G. lucidum spores administered i.m. Many
showed marked improvement in muscle strength, improved sleeping and eating patterns, and weight
gain within 1-2 weeks. Patients unable to lift their heads before treatment were able to do so after

~ 23 ~

treatment, and their speech and walking ability improved as well. Indeed, in three cases the disease
even ceased to progress (Fu & Wang, 1982).
Toxicity
In animal experiments, reishi extracts have shown a very low toxicity. (Chang & But, 1986). There
is little reported data on the long-term adverse effects of reishi and its derivatives.
In TCM, G. lucidum is considered warming and acts to nourish, tonify, remove toxins, astringe, and
disperse accumulation (Hsu et al, 1986; Chang & But, 1986). Different types of reishi have different
tastes and thus affect different organs. There are thought to be six different types of G. lucidum
(classified according to color), each with a different use. For a summary of these types as they are
named and used in Japan, see Table 8. The red-colored variety is generally regarded as the most
potent and medicinal (Hsu et al, 1986; Matsumoto, 1979). The Japanese have used reishi as a folk
remedy to help cure cancer, heart disease, liver problems, high blood pressure, joint inflammation,
ulcers and other diseases (Matsumoto, 1977), which may be due to the ability of the aqueous extract
to increase fibrin degradation products and inhibit blood platelet aggregation (Kubo et al, 1983).
Medical Uses
In China and other parts of Asia, G. lucidum is used for many aging-related diseases, such as
coronary heart disease, chronic bronchitis, hypertension, and cancer (Chen & Zhang, 1987), and
also as a diuretic, laxative, sedative, and tonic (Liu and Bau, 1980). In China, numerous
preparations are made for daily use to promote health, inducing sound sleep and increasing
resistance to infections and heart disease, and are also recommended for a wide range of ailments
such as neurasthenia, chronic bronchitis, and coronary heart disease (Yang & Jong, 1989). The
Japanese government has officially listed reishi as an adjunct herb for cancer (Willard, 1990).
Preliminary clinical reports and practitioner experience seems to indicate that its
immunostimulating polysaccharides may make it useful for people who are HIV positive, as well as
for those who have Epstein Barr Virus (EBV), an infectious virus that causes mononucleosis
(Dharmananda, 1988). Because of a high adenosine content (e.g.150 mg%), reishi was not advised
for use by hemophiliacs, but a pilot study in five HIV-positive hemophiliacs given reishi extract
(adenosine intake, 1.35 mg/day) found no changes in blood aggregatibility, and it was concluded
that the extract could be safely used by these patients (Gau et al, 1990). It is important to note that
the adenosine content of various strains of G. lucidum varies greatly, and that a number of other
species of medicinal mushrooms also contain adenosine in significant quantities, namely,
Cordyceps sinensis, Auricularia polytricha, and Lentinula edodes (Shiao et al, 1994).
Other uses of G. lucidum include as an antidote for poisonous mushrooms (Ying et al, 1987) and
as an ingredient in skin lotions for protecting against UV radiation (Naeshiro et al, 1992b,d). It is
also used for nervous disability, dizziness, hepatitis, nephritis, gastric ulcer, leukopenia, and as an
expectorant and antitussive (Chang and But, 1986; Liu and Bau, 1980; Ying et al, 1987; Huang,
1993).
Reishi extract is being used with favorable results in a Moscow cancer research center for
treating cancer patients according to reports given at the First International Conference on
Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products held in Hong Kong, August 23-26, 1993 (Chilton,
1994). A clinical report from China (Lui, 1994) details a clinicians work with Ganoderma
detoxification and softening liver soup, which was given to 70,000 patients with a success rate in
toxipathic hepatitis of 90%, according to the author.
In my experience, it is especially suitable as a calming herb for people with anxiety,
sleeplessness, or nervousness accompanied by adrenal weakness or general neurasthenia or
deficiency syndromes. In this regard, it is to be much preferred to traditional western sedative herbs
such as valerian, which could be too warm and actually stimulating for some individuals.

~ 24 ~

THE SIX TYPES OF REISHI

Note: Information from The Mysterious Reishi Mushroom (Matsumoto, 1979). The original
source of these attributes is apparent from the Ben Cao Gang Mu wherein various Chih or tree
fungi are discussed from the earlier writings of the alchemist Ko Hung. The black or purple are
today identified by Chinese authorities as Ganoderma sinense and the red as G. lucidum and G.
capense. To date, these are the only species to which any of the Japanese color designates above
have been matched (Jones, 1994).
G. lucidum may be taken in a variety of formsin syrups, soups, teas, injections, tablets, and
tinctures, or as a bolus containing powdered medicine and honey. The dose in tincture form (20%)
is 10 ml 3x/day; in tablet form (for insomnia) the dose is 1 g tablets, 3 tablets 3x/day. The syrup
dose is 4 to 6 ml per day (Huang, 1993).
As an antidote for poisonous mushrooms, make a decoction of 120-200 g of dried G. lucidum in
water (Liu and Bau, 1980; Ying et al, 1987), and drink 3-5 cups a day.
Notes
The polysaccharides extracted from G. lucidum have shown higher anticomplementary activity than
Krestin (PSK), an immunostimulant extracted from Japanese Trametes versicolor (Jeong et al,
1990). Also, an analysis of the relationship between chemical structure and antitumor activity in the
glucans of Grifola umbellata, Ganoderma lucidum, Trametes versicolor, and Omphalia lapidescens
revealed that the common unit of these active glucans is a C-6 branched (1-3-b-D-glucopyranosyl-
(1-3)-b-D-glucopyranosyl residue. Branching frequency appears to be important in determining
activity (Miyazaki, 1983).

~ 25 ~

Some products containing Ganoderma include a melanin-inhibiting skin preparation, a hair-
growing extract which includes Japanese horseradish, a bath preparation, and a sake drink (Jong and
Birmingham, 1992).

RELATED GANODERMA SPECIES
The Genus Ganoderma Karst. contains a number of species that have been used medicinally, or
may prove to be useful in the future (Zhao & Zhang, 1994). For instance, G. oregonense grows in
the western U.S., and has no particular history of use but is currently being harvested and
substituted for reishi by some herbalists (personal observation). Though this species may prove to
be identical with G. tsugae which does have a history of use in China, this kind of substitution
should be carefully evaluated, because there may be significant differences in activity between
species. For instance, Wang et al (1993) have said that the active high molecular weight
polysaccharides of the mycelium and fruiting bodies of G. applanatum, G. lucidum, and G. tsugae
showed marked qualitative and quantitative differences in the component sugars, the protein-
moiety content and average molecular weight.
Ganoderma capense
Another of the red Ganodermas used in China is G. capense (Lloyd) Teng, which might belong
in G. tenue Zhao, Xu et Zhang (Zhao & Zhang, 1994). Water extracts of G. capense contain
adenine, adenine nucleoside, uracil, uridine, and D-mannitol (Chang & But, 1986). From a liquid
mycelial culture, two anti-inflammatory alkaloids were isolated and named Ganoderma alkaloid A
(1-isopentyl-2- formyl-5-hydroxymethylpyrrole) and Ganoderma alkaloid B (phenylethyl-2-formyl-
5-hydroxymethylpyrrole) (Yang, 1990). Other alkaloids from the mycelium are ganoline, ganodine,
and ganoderpurine (Yu, 1990). Animal studies with G. capense show it has sedative (on the CNS),
peripheral anticholinergic, liver-protective, and detoxifying actions (Chang & But, 1986). It has also
increased immunocytes in mice (Xu et al, 1985), and other animal studies show G. capense can
potentiate the effects of some sedative drugs, including chloropromazine and respirine (Chang &
But, 1986).
Chinese physicians report success using an injectable preparation of the mycelia of G. capense
(the formula is called Bao gai ling zhi) to treat collagen-related diseases such as dermatomyositis
(a condition involving decay of muscle fibers accompanied by inflammation of muscles,
subcutaneous tissue, and skin), lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, and alopecia areata (Jones,
1992a). In one study involving dermatomyositis and multiple myositis, patients received 4 ml
intramuscular injections of G. capense lX/day for 1 month, or 2 g of a tablet preparation orally
3X/day for 2 months. The results were 6 cases cured, 6 markedly improved, and 7 significantly
improved (Chen et al, 1987). In a study involving 232 cases of alopecia areata (hair loss) treated
with G. capense, 30.17% of the patients were cured, 21.98% significantly improved, and 26.72%
improved. The course of the treatment was from 20 days to 10 months, with the best effects
appearing in 2-4 months (Cao et al, 1986). G. capense has also been found beneficial in hereditary
cerebellar ataxia (Wang & Fu, 1981), which was more effective if treatment was initiated in the
early stages of the disease (Zhiyuan & Huiti, 1981).
Ganoderma japonicum (Fr.) Sawada
A water-soluble glucan, with the structure of an alkali-soluble polysaccharide, isolated from G.
japonicum has demonstrated significant antitumor activity (Ukai et al. 1983). Animal studies have
shown G. japonicum to improve cardiac function by increasing myocardial blood flow and
microcirculation and to protect and detoxify the liver (Chang & But, 1986). Also, as with G.
lucidum, treatment before exposure has been found to significantly increase the survival rate of

~ 26 ~

irradiated mice (Hu & But, 1987). The fruiting body of G. japonicum contains ergosterol, organic
acids, glucosamine, and polysaccharides (Chang & But, 1986). A water extract strongly inhibited a-
glucosidase, a key enzyme in glycoprotein processing of viruses (Fung, 1993).

Ganoderma oregonense Murr.
As previously mentioned, this species may be identical with G. tsugae, but this has not yet been
determined. G. oregonense holds a crystalline substance which has shown a high degree of
activity against acid fast and Gram positive bacteria (Brian, 1951). I have experimented with
fruiting bodies of this species. It has a taste similar to reishi and produces very large fruiting bodies.
I displayed several in mushroom exhibits that were about 24 long and 8 wide with a thick lateral
stalk.
Ganoderma sinense
G. sinense Zhao, Xu et Zhang is considered by some taxonomists to be synonymous with G.
japonicum ; however, much controversy surrounds the distinction of G. japonicum (Zhao & Zhang,
1994). It is commonly known as zhi chih or zi zhi, the purple type of ling zhi, and is sweet and
warming. G. sinense was traditionally used to treat deafness, afflictions of the joints, and to
strengthen the shen, or spirit. It is also said to improve the complexion, increase agility, and
impart longevity (Jones, 1992a), and it may be used as an anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and to
improve stomach function (Liu and Bau, 1980). Both the mycelium and fruit-body have shown
analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity in arthritis models in mice and the mycelial extract
promotes the phagocytic ability of the immune system (Wan, 1992).

Ganoderma Tsugae
Another species is G. tsugae Murr., some forms appearing similar to G. lucidum, though it grows
mainly on conifers instead of hardwoods. Its common Chinese name, Song shan ling zhi, means
pine tree fungus or pine wound (Jingrong, 1979), but though it is common in the U.S. and other
parts of the world, it is more often found on fir and hemlock than pine (Gilbertson & Ryvarden,
1986). G. tsugae is today one of the major cultivated species of Ganoderma in Taiwan.
Three of the same triterpenoids, lucidone A, ganoderic acid B, and ganoderic acid C2, that occur
in reishi have been identified from this species. Significant hepato-protective activity from
carbontetrachloride-induced liver toxicity was seen from ganderic acid B from G. tsugae when
administered to mice (Su et al, 1993). The fruit-body also contains seven polysaccharides which
have shown strong antitumor activity against sarcoma 180 in mice. The more potent are water-
soluble polysaccharides which produced tumor inhibition ratios of 95.1-100.0% and prolonged life
span by 236.3-267.5% (Wang et al, 1993). Mycelial extracts administered to mice (i.p.)
significantly increased serum interferon levels and augmented splenic NK cell activity, but only at
doses of from 1-50 mg/kg (Won et al, 1992). In North America, G. tsugae is found on dead conifer
trees in the midwestern states, the Southwest, California, Maine, N. Carolina, and eastern Canada,
typically on hemlock (Lincoff, 1981).
Some of my students found a 16 pound fruiting body of this species or G. oregonense high in the
Sierra range in California on old hemlock. When fresh, it easily separated into tender strips like
cooked chicken. The taste was sweet, mild, and slightly bitter. We all sampled it extensively and
everyone pronounced it delicious. We packed the massive fruiting body (there is a picture in the

~ 27 ~

color section) out of the wilderness area for several miles wrapped in a sheet. A word of warning
about this species, though. If harvested before full maturity, it must be prepared as a tincture fresh
or sliced and dried within 12 hours, or it will mold and take on an unpleasant taste. We are currently
experimenting with the tincture and tea of this species.

Procurement
G. lucidium is arguably the most common medicinal mushroom found in tableted and liquid
products throughout the world. It is available in herb stores, natural food stores, Chinese herb
dealers in bulk, and including drug stores in a wide array of prepared products to boost energy
levels, improve sexual vigor, counteract aging, and for general health improvement. Various
Ganoderma species grow throughout the world, including the Amazon.

GRIFOLA FRONDOSA (DICKS.:FR) S.F. GRAY.
MAITAKE, HEN OF THE WOODS, SHEEPS HEAD

Synonyms
Boletus frondosus, Polyporus frondosus (Gilbertson and Ryvarden, 1987).
Other Common Names
G. frondosa is called maitake in Japanese, which means dancing mushroom. Some say it is so
named because in ancient times people who found the mushroom danced with joy since it could be
exchanged for its weight in silver. However, others feel the name maitake derives from the fact
that the fruiting bodies of adjacent fungi overlap each other, looking like butterflies in a wild dance
(Nanba, 1992; Harada, 1993). It is also called hen of the woods and sheeps head (Arora, 1994).
Small overlapping tongue- or fan-shaped caps with stalks that are often fused together occurring in
masses at the base of stumps and on roots.
Range
It is common in parts of the Eastern U.S., Europe, and Asia; also reported (rarely) from the western
half of U.S.
History
Maitake collectors in Japan traditionally guard their hunting grounds with hatch marks on trees
bordering the trove and keeping others out of the marked areas. Even so, maitake hunters always
forage alone and never divulge the location of their treasure, even to their own family. Until
cultivation techniques were developed in 1979, maitake was only available as a wild harvested
mushroom. In 1990, Japanese cultivators produced nearly 8,000 tons of maitake, and production is
expected to increase with expanding exports to the West (Harada, 1993).
Chemistry

~ 28 ~

Both - and (-D-glucans have been detected from maitake, with -D-glucans predominating. They
appear to occur in two formsthe native form (laminaran type) and the helix (curdlan) type (Ohno
et al, 1987). Other identified polysaccharides include a -D-glucan and a D-glucan (Kato et al, 1989;
Kato et al, 1990; Mizuno et al, 1988; Wei et al, 1991), grifolan (Oikawa et al, 1987), grifolin-LE
(Ohno et al, 1986a; Aduchi et al, 1989), MT-2 (Adachi et al, 1987), LELFD (Suzuki, I. et al, 1989)
and grifolan NMF-5N (Takeyama et al, 1988), as well as metal-bound proteins known to act as
carriers of metals in intestinal absorption (Shimaoka et al, 1990), and an N-acetylgalactosamine-
specific lectin (Kawagishi et al, 1990).
Dried maitake was found to be relatively rich in 5-nucleotides (106-366 mg/100g), including
GMP (Sekizawa et al, 1988; Sekizawa et al, 1989). The total lipid content of G. frondosa is 3.4%,
with octadecenoic and octadecadienoic acids being the major unsaturated fatty acids (Endo et al,
1981), and phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine (mycelium) and phosphatidylinositol,
phosphatidylserine, and phosphatide acid (fruiting body) the major phospholipids (Kojima et al,
1991). Ergosterol (vitamin D2) is the major sterol, at the concentration of 50-150 IU in 100g wet
material (Yokokawa and Takahashi, 1990).

Pharmacology
Maitake reduced blood pressure in rats without changing plasma HDL levels. Lentinula edodes
(shiitake) also lowered blood pressure but in addition reduced plasma free, VLDL-, and HDL-
cholesterol levels (Kabir and Kimura, 1989). Refer to the main entry on Lentinula edodes for
further information about shiitakes pharmacological activity.
Adachi and co-workers (1988) found a blood-pressure-lowering effect with the powder of
maitake fed to hypertensive rats in their normal chow. The effect was of rapid onset, short-lived,
and dose-dependent and was noted in a low-molecular subtraction from the ether-extracted fraction.
There was no activity reported from the water-soluble fraction, which may indicate that the tea of
maitake is not effective in lowering blood pressure, unlike reishi and shiitake, whose water-soluble
fraction has demonstrated this effect. However, an aqueous extract of maitake reduced serum
cholesterol levels in rats (Yagishita et al, 1977).
A hepatoprotective effect was found from an extract of G. frondosa (300 mg/kg) in rats in a
hepatitis model (paracetamol-induced). With the exception of shiitake extract, extracts of five other
edible mushrooms (Auricularia auricula, Flammulina velutipes, Tremella fuciformis, and
Volvariella volvaceae) failed to protect the rats (Ooi et al, 1993). In another report, a number of
popular medicinal fungi were tested for hepatoprotective protective effects (in vitro), showing
maitake to be among the active species (Lee et al, 1992).
Feeding maitake fruiting body powder (20% of the diet for 21 days1 gram/day) to genetically
diabetic rats has also lowered blood glucose levels in a non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
model (Kubo et al, 1994). The blood glucose-lowering effect was said to be both due to a high
(150,000) molecular-weight glycoprotein from the hot water decoction and from compounds of an
ether- ethanol extract. Nanba (1991, 1994c) reported at the Japan Pharmaceutical Conference that
when maitake powder was orally administered to rats, the water weight in the excrement increased
by about 120%.
Powdered maitake orally administered, enhanced the activities of macrophages, N-killer-cells,
and cytotoxic T-cells (by 1.4, 1.86, and 1.6 times respectively) and induced an 86% tumor growth
inhibition compared with those of non-treated tumor-bearing mice (Mori et al, 1987).
Various isolated polysaccharide and protein-bound polysaccharide fractions and sub-fractions
from maitake, which are both water-soluble and -insoluble, have also been tested for antitumor and
immune-enhancing effects in vivo (with animals) and in vitro (Wu & Zou, 1994; Ohno et al, 1988,
1986a, 1987, 1984; Suzuki et al, 1987, 1985; Adachi et al, 1987; Mizuno et al, 1986; lino et al,

~ 29 ~

1985). Nearly all (the D-fraction mentioned below seems to be the exception) of these fractions
are active by injection only and not orally (where tested in this dose form) (Ohno et al, 1986a),
varying only in the type of tumor it is most active against and the dose and regime with which it is
most effective. While scientists look for the most active fractions, which may be effective at low
doses and possibly patentable, these studies may also support the use of whole fruiting body teas,
extracts, and dietary additions, where one receives the benefit of the synergy of all of the fractions.
Whole powdered fruiting bodies have been shown to be active orally, and unfortunately, there is
little if any data on the chronic daily use of this (as well as other) species and their effect on the
immune system and general health. However, the testing of isolated fractions and sub-fractions may
be useful in pointing the way to the production of very active and safe preparations that can help
people overcome chronic immune diseases such as AIDS and cancer.
Recently, a number of studies have been performed with the so-called D-fraction (a 3-branched
b-l,6-glucan with about 30% protein) from maitake which has shown an interleukin-1 -stimulating
effect. This may be partly responsible for its anti-tumor effect (implanted MM-46 carcinoma and
IMC carcinoma) when given to mice by injection and also orally (Nanba, 1993). Nanba (1994b) has
also reported that D-fraction administered to tumor-bearing mice along with the chemotherapeutic
agent mitomycin C, markedly enhanced tumor inhibition, and that the extract inhibited the growth
of MM-46 breast cancer cells in mice when administered orally, even after the tumors were well
formed. The researcher also found the extract to be effective in the formation of new tumors and
slowing metastasis of existing cancer cells to the liver of mice.
See Table 9 for a complete review of anticancer and immune-potentiation effects of maitake.
Recently, murine monoclonal antibodies (Mab) were isolated by injecting mice with a
proteoglycan fraction derived from maitake and subsequent hybridization and culturing of spleen
cells (Hirata et al, 1994). The authors predict that the antibodies may recognize the type of
immunologically-active b-D-glucans that are found in maitake, shiitake, and other similar fungi,
thus acting as a means to identify active polysaccharides.
A sulfated proteo-glucan from maitake also shows anti-HIV activity and apparently prevents
HIV from killing T-cells in-vitro (Nanba et al, 1992), though the National Cancer Institute chose
not to follow up with subsequent studies (Japanese NIH, 1990, 1991; National Cancer Institute,
1991) because of the toxicity posed by sulfation, and also because of its high molecular weight,
which makes it difficult to study as an injectable (Shirota, 1994). Researchers have suggested that
maitake extract, as well as schizophyllan, may stimulate the immune system in people with chronic
fatigue syndrome (Ostram, 1992).
A group of researchers in Japan have identified a peptide that can enhance the absorption of
copper from the small intestine by increasing the level of soluble copper (Shimaoka et al, 1993).

~ 30 ~

LABORATORY STUDIES WITH MAITAKE EXTRACT: ANTICANCER EFFECT AND IMMUNE-
POTENTIATION

Note: Grifola fruiting bodies contain acid insoluble, alkali soluble, and hot water extractable D-
fraction, which is a polysaccharide bound to a protein in the ratio of 70:30. Oral dosages of fraction-
D (0.4% of maitake, dry weight), that is effective in mice at inhibiting tumors and restoring immune
functions suppressed due to the growing cancer, are about 0.75 milligrams/kilogram of mouse
weight. Although it is difficult to compare the activity in mice with humans, assuming a 1:1 activity
ratio would mean that a comparable dose of D-fraction, found in the quantity of 4 mg/g of fruit
body, is 47.25 mg for a 140 pound personthe amount contained in about 11.81 grams of maitake
fruiting bodyassuming a laboratory extraction similar to those in Hishida (1988) and others.
However, the usual dose recommended by doctors using maitake in cancer treatment is 3-7
grams/day (Shirota, 1994; Nanba, 1994a).
In Mori et al (1986), it was found that including dried maitake powder in the mouse chow as
20% of their feed seemed to activate the immune response as well as stimulate a strong antitumor
response.
The dose of fraction-D that proved effective in mice was administered every other day for 10
days. The hot-water extract of Grifola fruiting bodies was fractionated to create fraction-D by
successive precipitations and purification using several solvents: first ethyl alcohol, then other
solvents. The tumor-inhibition rate for the whole hot-water fraction (Pre-A fraction) only was
2%, as compared with 58% for fraction-D (29 times as strong). Whether a longer administration of
weeks or months of the hot-water extract (and perhaps in a higher dose than given in the
experiment0.5 ml every other day X 10/mouse) would lead to significant antitumor and immune-
enhancing effects is not clear (Hishida, 1988). It is interesting to note that Hishida claimed to have
found a substance in the pre-A fraction that inhibited immune stimulation, which may have led to
the very low tumor-inhibition rate of 2 %. Later purification may have eliminated those substances
responsible.
A maitake D fraction-containing extract is being studied in medical clinics in the U.S. for patients
with breast and colorectal cancers (Miller, 1994). In China a Grifola extract demonstrated an

~ 31 ~

anticancer effect in 63 patients with lung, stomach, hepatocellular cancers, and leukemia (Zhu et al,
1994). The extract was given orally, 4 capsules three times daily before meals for 1-3 months.
Nanba (1994a,b) reports that he has seen a lot of advanced cancer patients recovered from severe
side effects from chemotherapies (with fraction D). Maitake extracts with D fraction may also
prove to be an effective therapy for patients with AIDS. Dr. Joan Priestley, MD reports that her
patients with Kaposis sarcoma and other symptoms of AIDS show improvement when
administered the extract, and Dr. David Hughes, MD has had positive results with Kaposis
sarcoma lesions (Nanba, 1994a). These reports are encouraging, but keep in mind that they are
preliminary clinical reports, not controlled studies.
A prospective uncontrolled, non-randomized study was undertaken at the Ayurvedic Medicine
Center of New York (Gerson, 1994). Eleven volunteers with documented essential hypertension
were given three 500 mg caplets of maitake mushroom extract (Grifron) two times daily in the
morning and evening. Blood pressure (BP) was measured weekly for an average of six weeks.
There was a mean decrease in systolic BP of 14 mm Hg and 8 mm Hg in diastolic BP, which was
about a 7% and 9.4% average drop respectively. The drop was steady and consistent. Some of the
patients in the study were taking medication during the test, and of course, the possibility of the
patients getting used to the testing procedures and technician during the test leading to a gradual
decrease in blood pressure cannot be overlooked. The results do suggest that a follow-up controlled
study would be desirable.
A concentrated polysaccharide extract of G. frondosa was used in a randomized controlled
clinical trial with 32 chronic hepatitis B patients. The recovery rate was reported to be 72% in the
Grifola group and 57% in the control group. Seroconversion from HBeAg positive to negative was
44% in the Grifola group and 13% in the control group (Wu & Zou, 1994).
Toxicity
No data.
The closely-related G. umbellata (sclerotium) has a sweet, bland taste and mild energy (Chang and
But, 1986).

Medical Uses
When used consistently (3-5 times weekly) as a food or tea, it possibly aids in cancer-prevention,
immune-stimulation in people with cancer, support for people with cancer undergoing
chemotherapy (which is immunosuppressive), and people infected with the AIDS virus. It
potentially benefits diabetics (lowering blood glucose) and people with hypertension.
3-7 grams a day in supplement form, in tea, or in cooking (soups, etc.).
Related Species
Grifola umbellata, reviewed below.
Procurement
Maitake can be found in gourmet restaurants (I recently enjoyed a dish featuring them in Maine),
dried and packaged in gourmet grocery stores, occasionally through Chinese herb dealers, and
increasingly, in prepared products in Japan, throughout other parts of Asia, the U.S., and Europe. It
grows commonly in Europe and Asia and in the eastern U.S.

~ 32 ~

INONOTUS OBLIQUUS (PERS.: FR.)
PILAT. CHAGA

Synonyms
Poria obligua Bres.; Polyporus obliquus Fr.
Other Common Names
Black Birch touchwood, Birch mushroom, Clinker Polypore, tschagapilz, crooked Schiller-porling;
kofukisaruno-koshikake (Yokoyama, 1975).
The sterile carpophore conk is a hard black, deeply-cracked stalkless growth found on alder, birch,
and elm; notable from the appearance of having been burnt. The fertile fruiting bodies are transitory
and hard to find. Chaga can attain lengths of 4-5 feet.
Range
Poland, Western Siberia, throughout North America (Kier, 1961; Saar, 1991a).
History
Russian folklore from the province of Olonyets in northwestern Russia tells of a fungus which
grows on birch trees being revered for treating a variety of cancers. Folkloric reports also come
from Siberia, the Baltic, and Finland. Specifically, only the abortive sporophores of the fungus
were given to cancer patients as a tea until the cancer improved (Lucas, 1960). In Russia, besides its
well-known use against cancer (Grzybek et al, 1983), chaga is regarded as a tonic, blood purifier,
and pain-reliever (Hutchens, 1973) and was widely used against cancer in Poland in 1961. It was
recommended and approved for public use against cancer by the Medical Academy of Science,
Moscow, 1955 (Hutchens, 1973). In 1960, the U.S. National Cancer Institute received a report that
a decoction of chaga had been used successfully to treat cancer in Australia (Hartwell, 1971a).

Chemistry
Inooidiol, oxygenated triterpenes, trametenolic acid (Kahlos et al, 1986); tannins, steroids, alkaloid-
oramin-like compounds (Piaskowski, 1957); obliquol, (Kier, 1961) along with other trimethylsilyl
ethers of lanosterol-type triterpenes, specifically lanosterol; inotodiol (Ludwiczak and Wrzeciono,
1961, 1962); 3--hydroxy-lanosta-8,24-dien-21-al; 3-,2l-dihydroxy-lanosta-8,24-diene,
trametenolic acid (Kahlos and Hiltunin, 1988) and 3-,21-dihydroxy-lanosta-8,24-dien-21-oic acid
(Kempska et al, 1962). A Pteroiloglatamic acid derivative has also been isolated (Grzybek et al,
1983), as well as the aromatic vanillic-, syringic- and r-hydroxybenzoic acids (Lovyagina et al,
1958).

Pharmacology
Based on its long history of use against cancer, a number of eastern European researchers have
tested it in the laboratory for antitumor activity. Gatty-Kostyal et a1 showed an antitumor effect of
the alcoholic extract in 1954, followed by a number of other Polish and Russian researchers who
also tested various extracts in vitro and in vivo (Jarosz et al, 1990), which lead to the use of the
official preparation Befungin as an anticancer therapy (Grzybek et al, 1983). Oxygenated
triterpenes, particularly Inotodiol, of chaga have shown antitumor activity (in vitro) against MCF-7
mammary adenocarcinoma in vitro and in vivo in mice (Kahlos et al, 1987; Kahlos et al, 1986). In
animals, a water extract of chaga at non-toxic doses showed activity against carcinoma (Kier,

~ 33 ~

1961). The identity of the active compound(s) responsible for the antitumor activity is still under
discussion. Some researchers point to the triterpenes, especially obliquol, (Grzybek et al, 1983).
However, these compounds occur in very small amounts (less than 0.2%) in the official Russian
anticancer remedy Befungin, as does the proven anticarcinogenic compound, a pteroiloglatamic
acid derivative (Grzybek et al, 1983). Because of this, Grzybek et a1 (1983) tested the
polysaccharide fraction in the Allium-test, which measures the inhibition of the mitotic index. The
researchers claim that the test is predictive of experiments with animal tumor systems.
Polysaccharide fraction B from Inonotus showed positive activity in the test, prompting a call for
further research on chaga polysaccharides, especially since the fraction was found to be
contaminated with minerals, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Antitumor activity was only found from extracts prepared by lengthy heating or decocting,
which investigators noted was the means of preparation used in folk medicine. Infusions, prepared
by steeping the plant material, were not active against the tumor systems tested (Lucas, 1959).
Chaga showed no in vitro activity against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli (Broadbent, 1966).
A study in Poland with 48 patients having third and fourth stage malignancies found chaga
injections with cobalt salts to be the most effective form of preparation. In ten of the patients,
tumors reduced in size, pain decreased, hemorrhaging occurred less often and became less intense,
and recovery was attended with better sleep and appetite and feelings of improvement. Most of
these patients were women treated with chaga for cancer of the genital organs or breast cancer
(Piaskowski, 1957). Other clinical studies have been conducted in lung cancer patients with an
aerosol preparation and in inoperable genital cancer in women with an extract of chaga
administered by injection and suppository (Hartwell, 1971a).
Toxicity
No data.
Chaga is a Russian folk remedy for cancers, including inoperable breast cancer, lip cancer, gastric,
parotid gland, pulmonary, stomach, skin, and rectal cancers, and Hodgkins disease (Hartwell,
1971a). Russians also use chaga to treat ulcers and gastritis and to regenerate organs and glands. To
treat the lower bowel, decoctions are applied as colonics (Hutchens, 1973).
In Western Siberia, the Khanty people traditionally prepared chaga and still use the tea to treat
tuberculosis, stomachache, stomach disease, liver or heart disease, worms, and as an internal
cleansing agent. In the form of soap water, the fungus is used by women to make a wash for
external cleansing of the genitals following or during menstruation; for cleansing new-born infants;
for ritual washing; and as a soap substitute for washing the feet and hands or the whole body.
Soap water is prepared by burning chaga until red and then placing the charred fungus in hot water
and stirring until it breaks up, and the water turns black (Saar, 1991a).

Medical Uses
Russian clinicians concluded that in cancer patients chaga is useful in some but not all cancers; that
it prevents intoxication and regurgitation, improves appetite, and reduces pain; but that for cancer
chaga requires long-term use of at least one year (Larionov, 1965).
For cancer, chaga has been prepared as a tea, decoction, extract, syrup, injection, suppository,
tablet, and aerosol (Hartwell, 1971a).

~ 34 ~

The tea is prepared by boiling small pieces of the fungus in water for several minutes. Three
square centimeters provide 2.5 liters of tea. According to Hutchens (1973), the tea is taken in a dose
of three cups per day, 1/2 hour before meals, for 12-20 weeks with intervals of 7-10 days. Hutchens
advises that only the middle portion of fungus be used, which is a granulated mass distinguishable
from an outer rough part and a soft portion adjacent to the host tree. She suggests a tea be made
with warm water (5 parts to 1 of chaga) by soaking the fungus for 48 hours in order not to destroy
activity (Hutchens, 1973). However, this method is contrary to methods used by the Khanty (Saar,
1991a), who cut the fungus into small pieces and boiled it for a few minutes (3 cm of the fruiting
body/pot of tea). The Khanty drank the tea until the indispositions were over. And according to
antitumor studies, unboiled extracts had no antitumor effect in mice, but boiling apparently
activated the antitumor principals, leading to tumor inhibition in mice (Lucas, 1960). It seems that
both folkloric and laboratory evidence points towards boiling the grated fungus and administering
the tea. An alcoholic extract may also be effective, according to Russian studies.
Related Species
Inonotus sciurinus Imaz., I. tabacinus (Mont.) Kavst., and I. orientalis (Lloyd) Teng. of China have
shown high rates of tumor inhibition against Ehrlich carcinoma and sarcoma 180. The most active
was I. orientalis with rates of 100% inhibition against both tumor systems. I. cuticularis (Bull.:Fr.)
Karst. inhibited Ehrlich carcinoma by 100% and sarcoma 180 by 90%. This species occurs on
hardwoods throughout the U.S., Canada, and Asia. Medicinal uses include gastropathy,
hemorrhages, bromhidrosis, and leprosy. It is considered sweet, smoothing to vital energy,
strengthening to mind and spirit, and removing harmful wind (Ying et al, 1987).
Notes
According to Belova and Varentsova (1962), the tincture of chaga should be made 1:10 (weight to
volume) preserved with 10% ethanol. The solids content of the tincture should be about 2-2.3%, but
that of the decoction made by heating the powdered fruiting body to 80 degrees centrigrade for 1
hour is 6-9%. The decoction can be filtered, concentrated under vacuum to 20% solids and then
either preserved with 10% ethanol or dried to a powder in a food dehydrator (Yakimov et al, 1961).
Andreeva (1961) found that the maximum extraction of a polyphenol mixture was highest at 100
degrees centigrade, but that a self-condensation reaction changed the composition of the extract at
higher temperatures. Although the total steroid content of dry chaga was found to be 0.85-0.94% by
Loviagina & Shivrina (1962), the authors conclude that the total anticancer effect of the extract
must be due to compounds other than inotodiol, the only sterol shown to slow the growth of tumor
cells in vitro.
Procurement
To my knowledge, chaga is not available in prepared products outside of Russia. It grows on birch
and other hosts, especially in the eastern U.S. (I found several in northern Vermont), Alaska,
Europe, and other parts of the northern hemisphere.

LENTINULA EDODES (BERK.) PEGLER
SHIITAKE

~ 35 ~

Synonyms
Tricholomopsis edodes Sing., Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Pegler. The species name, edodes, means
edible.
Other Common Names
The common Japanese name for L. edodes, shiitake, derives from its association with the shiia tree
(Willard, 1990). Also known as snake butter, Pasania fungus, or forest mushroom (Liu and Bau,
1980) and Hua Gu in Chinese.
These light amber fungi are found on fallen broadleaf trees (Ying et al, 1987). The trees particularly
suitable for growing shiitakes are chestnut, chinquapin, beech, oak, Japanese alder, sweet gum,
maple, walnut, and mulberry. They have decurrent, even to ragged gills; a central to off-center
stem; an inrolled margin when young; and are covered with a delicate, white flocking. They are not
found in the wild in the United States but are widely cultivated. Commercial kits which allow one to
grow them indoors are available, and outdoor cultivation is also possible (see resource section).
Range
L. edodes is indigenous to Japan, China, and other Asian countries with temperate climates. A very
similar species occurs wild in Costa Rica (Arora, 1994).
History
Shiitake has been renowned in Japan and China as a food and medicine for thousands of years.
According to historical records, in the year 199 A.D., the Japanese Emperor Chuai was offered the
shiitake by the Kyusuyu, a native tribe of Japan. Even older documents record shiitakes use in
ancient China, where it was referred to as ko-ko or hoang-mo (Scientific Consulting Service).
The cultivation of shiitake is probably quite ancient. It is currently the second most commonly
produced edible mushroom in the world (Nakamura, 1992). The nascent interest here has been
spawned partly because shiitake tastes much more exotic and delicious than the bland Agaricus
bisporus of supermarket shelves, and partly because of the immense amount of research that has
been conducted on its varied medicinal properties.
Constituents
Shiitake has excellent nutritional value, containing proteins (2.22-2.60% fresh and 25.9% dry
weight), lipids (primarily linoleic acid), water-soluble carbohydrates (0.45-0.72 g/100 g dry
weight), total carbohydrates 67.0% (Terashita, 1990), insoluble (41.6%) and soluble (3.4%) fiber
(Horie, 1991), minerals (especially calcium), and vitamins B2 and C (Liu and Bau, 1980; Ying et al,
1987). High amounts of ergosterol, a provitamin which converts to vitamin D in the presence of
sunlight (Ying et al, 1987), is also present. In fact, studies have shown that exposing shiitake to
direct sunlight for 3 hours/day increases its vitamin D2 content up to 5 times. Shiitake is an efficient
source for this nutrient, containing between 873 and 4,381 IU/100 g of dry mushroom weight
(Kobayashi, 1988; Kiribunchi, 1990; Takamura et al, 1991; Takeuchi et al, 1991). Sunlight
exposure also increases the free amino acid content which is about 2,180 mg% in the dry fruiting
bodies, and it makes them sweeter and less bitter (Kiribuchi, 1991).

The mineral content of cultured shiitake mycelium (on a medium of 90% bagasse, 5% rice bran, 5%
wheat bran, and other nutrients) when extracted close to the fruiting stage with boiling water was as
follows (in mg/g of dry weight):

~ 36 ~

(Iizuka & Maeda, 1988; Ikebe et al, 1990; Lasota and Sylwestrzak, 1989)

As with many vegetables and fruits, the mineral content is highly variable, depending on the
substrate where it grows. For instance, shiitake cultured with extra calcium in its culture medium
has up to 3 times as much calcium in the fruiting bodies (Sasaki, 1990).
The mycelial cell-saps contain 30 enzymes and more than 10 amino acids, while the fruiting
body contains all the essential amino acids, with lysine and arginine being particularly abundant
(Liu and Bau, 1980) and methionine and phenylalanine the limiting amino acids (Lasota and
Sylwestrzak, 1989). In laboratory analysis it was found that amino acids, protein, glycogen, lipids,
ascorbic acid, and total ash contents increased as the fruiting body developed (Fasidi and Kadiri,
1990). Based on these findings, it may be desirable to consume fully mature fruiting bodies for
maximum nutritional value. The researchers generally found higher concentrations of nutrients in
the cap than the stem of the fungus. Potassium was the most abundant mineral element, followed by
phosphorus.
The compounds responsible for the characteristic odor of fresh shiitake have been determined to
be l-octen-3-ol, ethyl acetate, 2-octenol, and octyl alcohol with the addition of 1,2,4-trithiolane in
the boiled fruiting bodies. The latter compoundalong with 1,2,4,5-tetrathianeis characteristic of
sulfur-containing components (Ahn et al, 1987).
Shiitake is the source of two well-studied preparations with proven pharmacological effects
namely Lentinula edodes mycelium extract (LEM) and lentinan.
Lentinan is a cell-wall constituent extracted from the fruiting bodies or mycelium of L. edodes.
In essence, it is a highly purified, high molecular weight polysaccharide (of about one million) in a
triple helix structure, containing only glucose molecules with mostly (l-3)-(-D-glucan linkages in
the regularly branched main chain with two ( (l,6)-D-glucopyranoside branchings for every five -
(l,3)-glucopyranoside linear linkages (Aoki, 1984b). The configuration of the glucose molecules in
a helix structure is thought to be important for the biological activity (Hamuro et al, 1971b).
Lentinan is completely free of any nitrogen (and thus protein), phosphorus, sulfur, or any other
atoms except carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen (Chihara,1981). It is water-soluble, heat-stable, acid-
stable, and alkali-labile (Aoki, 1984b).
Lentinula edodes mycelium extract (LEM) is a preparation of the powdered mycelia extract of L.
edodes harvested before the cap and stem grow.
LEMs major active constituent is a heteroglycan protein conjugate, that is, a protein-bound
polysaccharide. It contains about 24.6% protein and 44% sugars, mostly the pentoses xylose (a
wood sugar) and arabinose (a pectin sugar), as well as glucose and smaller amounts of galactose,
mannose, and fructose (Iizuka and Maeda, 1988). LEM also contains various nucleic acid
derivatives; vitamin B compounds, especially B-l (thiamine) and B-2 (riboflavin); ergosterol; and
eritadenine, an anticholesteremic agent (Sharon, 1988; Breene, 1990). Besides active
polysaccharides and protein-polysaccharide complexes, water-soluble lignins were isolated from
LEM (Hanafusa et al, 1990). Both lentinan and LEM have been studied extensively for their
interesting biological effects, which will be reviewed in the following Pharmacology section.
Pharmacology

~ 37 ~

It is impossible to consider the pharmacology of shiitake without reviewing its two most important
preparations, Lentinula edodes mycelium extract (LEM) and lentinan. The chemical nature of these
two substances is reviewed in the preceding section. Lentinan and LEM have both demonstrated
strong antitumor activity, both orally and by injection in animals and humans. These substances
work by enhancing various immune system functions rather than attacking the tumor cells (or
viruses) themselves. In the following sections I will review the major published laboratory and
clinical work available on their antitumor, immune-regulating, and antiviral effects, as well as their
effects on the cardiovascular system.
It must be mentioned here that the immense volume of data available on lentinan alone is
overwhelming, and it is not my intention to mention each study. However, a vast majority of the
published studies are redundant and only serve to amplify or clarify certain points. In the following
sections, I will report on the most characteristic and current studies. Please note that all the studies
on lentinan quoted below are performed with test animals (nearly all with mice) by injection
either intraperitoneal (i.p.) or intravenously (i.v.), unless otherwise mentioned.
Antitumor Effects
To begin with, various polysaccharides extracted from L. edodes besides lentinan have shown
antitumor (Chihara, 1969) and immunostimulating activities (Cao et al, 1989), for instance, by
increasing phagocytotic activity of the peritoneal macrophages (Jiang et al, 1986). In one study, Fuji
et al (1978) isolated a polysaccharide containing an a-mannan-peptide complex (KS-2) that strongly
inhibited tumor growth when administered to mice both orally and i.p. in doses between 1 and 100
mg/kg. Intraperitoneal injections (in mice) of other intracellular polysaccharides increased the
phagocytotic function of the reticuloendothelial system (an important defense mechanism composed
of highly phagocytic cells), while extracellular polysaccharides showed no effect (Zheng et al,
1985).
Of interest to mushroom-eaters and health-care practitioners is whether lentinan or shiitake in its
whole form has any antitumor effect when taken orally as a tea, added to the diet, or used in
capsules or tablets, powdered or in extract form. Based on the number of active fractions from
shiitake fruiting bodies showing antitumor activity, this would seem likely. Nanba et al (1987)
found that powdered shiitake fruiting bodies fed to mice as 10% of their normal diet inhibited the
growth of sarcoma 180 and MM-46 tumors by 40%, but not B-16 melanoma, Lewis lung
carcinoma, or others. Mori et al (1986) found that if shiitake were made part of the feed (20% a
week) after tumor implantation, the tumor inhibition rate was 53.9%. If shiitake feed was given on
the same day, the inhibition rate was 72.4%. Powdered whole shiitake fruiting bodies administered
orally to tumor-bearing mice at 10% of the normal diet, improved macrophage phagocytosis, which
is thought to play a role in its tumor-inhibiting activity (Nanba et al, 1987).
Ikekawa et al (1969) found that an injection (i.p.) of the freeze-dried water extract of shiitake
(200 mg/kg/day X10) produced an inhibition rate of 80.7%. Although many early papers (before
1980) on lentinan report that it is not active orally, Aoki (1984b) stated that it is but gave no farther
details. However, studies in normal mice administered lentinan (1 mg in saline) orally demonstrated
that compared to controls, peripheral white blood cell counts showed no significant difference, but
that T helper cell and T cell ratios were significantly raised after one month of administration; ratios
then fell to normal after eight weeks, thus indicating the development of tolerance to lentinan
(Hanaue et al, 1989).
Lentinan was first isolated and studied in 1969 for its anti-tumor effects by Chihara and
coworkers of the National Cancer Institute of Japan (Chihara, 1970b). Lentinans antitumor activity
was significantly stronger than polysaccharides from many other fungi, lichens, and higher plants
(Arai et al, 1971), but it appears to be active in certain animals for some, but not all, types of tumors
(Maeda et al, 1974).

~ 38 ~

The purified polysaccharide has been shown in animal studies to be nontoxic and enhance the
immune response, producing strong tumor regression and even disappearance of tumors by 5 weeks
in sarcoma 180 (Maeda et al, 1974b; Togami et al, 1982 ), ascites hepatoma 134 (Moriyama et al,
1981), and Ehrlich carcinoma (Ying et al, 1987), as well as a number of other experimentally-
induced cancers in allogeneic, syngeneic, and autologous hosts as well as preventative activity
against chemical carcinogenesis. Injections in mice produced either an 80% reduction in tumor size
or complete regression in most of the animals. An intact immune system with a functioning thymus
gland was found to be a requisite for the anticancer effect (Maeda & Chihara, 1973; Dennert &
Tucker, 1973; Yamada et al, 1981), and when immunosuppressive agents (6-benzylthioguanosine or
X-radiation) were given with lentinan, the anti-tumor effect was reduced (Arai et al, 1971).
Lentinan has also been found to restore enzyme activity of X-prolyl-dipeptidyl-aminopeptidase,
which can be depressed in cancer patients and mice with implanted tumors (Kato et al, 1979).
Laboratory tests seem to point to an important role of the adrenal-pituitary axis and central-
peripheral nervous system, including serotonin, 5HT, histamine, and catecholamines in lentinans
antitumor activity (Maeda et al, 1974).
In Japan, lentinan is often used to help support immune function in cancer patients during
chemotherapy (for instance cyclophosphamide), often leading to increased survival times (see
Human Clinical Trials section). It is well-known that such chemotherapeutic agents can lead to
severe immune suppression. A number of animal studies also support this use (Dennart, 1973).
Hosokawa et al (1981) report on the importance of timing for the effective administration of
combination immunotherapy and chemotherapy. Studies in animals support the use of lentinan in
combination with immunobiological agents to treat cancer, such as a combined treatment with IL-2
(Suzuki, 1990; Yamasaki et al, 1989). Against spontaneous lung micrometastases in mice, lentinan
or IL-2 alone were ineffective. Used in a combined treatment, pulmonary metastases were
significantly inhibited. Thus, IL- 2 plus lentinan acted synergistically (Yamasaki et al, 1989).
Immune-Regulating Effects
As previously mentioned, lentinan does not attack cancer cells directly, but produces its anti-tumor
effect by activating different immune responses in the host. This activation was at first thought to
occur only in immune-compromised animals, but not in healthy animals (Maeda et al, 1974b) and
was called an immunorestorative agent, but recent work has uncovered a true immunopotentiating
effect, by showing a clearly augmenting effect on the proliferation of peripheral mononuclear cells
(PMNC) from healthy human donors, which is also supported by animal studies (Aoki, 1984b). It is
not presently known exactly what molecular interactions take place in the initial stages of lentinan
exposure in an animal system; however, there is a transitory but notable increase in several serum
protein components in the a-and b-globulin region, namely complement C3, hemopexin, and
ceruloplasmin (Maeda et al, 1974a). The following effects have been noted after lentinan
administration in animals and humans.
Lentinan can activate natural killer (NK) cells in vitro in the same concentrations that can be
achieved in the blood plasma of patients clinically-treated with lentinan (Tani et al, 1992; Sendo et
al, 1981). NK cell activity is involved in tumor suppression (Herberman & Nunn-Hargrove, 1981)
and either does not stimulate T-killer cell activity or only under certain conditions, but it is a strong
T-helper cell stimulant (Dennert & Tucker, 1973) both in vitro and in vivo (Miyakoshi and Aoki,
1984a,b) and can increase their levels (Liu et al, 1988). Lentinan has also shown the ability to
stimulate peripheral blood lymphocytes into increased lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cell and
natural killer cell (NK) activity mediated by interleukin 2 in vitro from the blood of healthy donors
and cancer patients at levels achievable in vivo by administration of clinical doses (Arinaga et al,
1992a; Fujimoto et al, 1992; Tani et al, 1993). Intravenous lentinan also significantly increased the
capacity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBM) from 10 patients with gastric cancer to
produce IL1-a, IL1-b, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-a) (Arinaga et al, 1992b). It can also inhibit

~ 39 ~

prostaglandin synthesis, which can slow T-cell differentiation in animals and humans (Aoki,
1984b). Lentinan has also been shown to inhibit suppressor T cell activity in vivo (Miyakoshi &
Aoki, 1984a), and, in addition, increase the ratio of activated T cells, and cytotoxic T cells in the
spleen when administered to gastric cancer patients with chemotherapy; this increase in activity of
the T cell subpopulation has been associated with decreased immune response in people with
certain cancers (Takahashi et al, 1992).
Lentinan can also stimulate Ig production in human cells in vitro, as well as interferon in the
peripheral blood circulation of cancer patients (Miyakoshi & Aoki, 1984b) and animals and
increases the production of lymphocyte-activating factor (Interleukin 1), which is able to enhance
the maturation of T cells. Interleukin 6 generation by human monocytes could also be augmented in
vivo (Sakamaki et al, 1993).
In an in vivo study, rats with peritonitis receiving combined lentinan-gentamicin treatment had a
significantly better survival rate than controls. Lentinan activated the peritoneal macrophage
secretory activity of active oxygen and produced cytokines which thus enhanced the ability of
PMNs to produce active oxygen, which possesses a bactericidal ability in PMNs
(=polymorphonuclear leukocytes) (Shen et al, 1993). Lentinan could also increase peritoneal
macrophage cytotoxicity against metastatic tumor cells in mice, but not against a highly metastatic
tumor type (Ladanyi et al, 1993). Of eleven patients treated with lentinan for carcinomatous
pleuritis or carcinomatous peritonitis, eight patients improved and in two the malignancy
disappeared, while in another two it diminished (Yoshino et al, 1989). Lentinan can activate the
normal and alternative pathways in the complement system and can split C3 into C3a and C3b,
enhancing macrophage activation (Aoki, 1984b).
When a 2-mg dose of lentinan was administered to twelve patients intravenously twice, the first
dose at 3-9 days before and the second the day before surgery, lentinan was effective in increasing
the CD4 cell ratios in lymph nodes of twelve gastric cancer patients and strongly increasing the
number of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (CD4, Leu11, LeuM3) in tumor tissue, but not in those of
peripheral blood compared with a control group (Takeshita et al, 1993).
Lentinans immune-activating ability may be linked with its modulation of some hormonal
factors, and it is known that these hormones play a role in tumor growth. For instance, the antitumor
activity of lentinan is strongly reduced by administration of thyroxin as well as hydrocortisone
(Aoki, 1984b). Lentinan can also restore tumor-specific antigen-directed delayed-type
hypersensitivity reaction (DTHR) (Izumi, 1981).

IMMUNE EFFECTS OF LENTINAN IN VITRO AND IN VIVO IN ANIMALS AND HUMANS

~ 40 ~

Antiviral Effects
Because viral diseases such as HIV are difficult to treat with modern pharmaceuticals, lentinan and
LEMs strong inhibitory action against a number of viruses is of great interest, and LEM seems to
be the stronger of the two.
Lentinan works through both humoral and cell-mediated immune mechanisms to support host
defense against various cancers, bacteria (tuberculosis), viruses (such as the AIDS virus), and
parasites (Aoki, 1984b; Mizuno et al,1992). Lentinan has shown antiviral activity in mice against
VSV (vesicular stomatitis virus)-encephalitis, Abelson (Chang, 1981), and adenovirus type 12
virus-induced tumors (Hamada, 1981). Lentinan could also stimulate non-specific resistance against
respiratory viral infections in mice. Notable protection was induced by lentinan administered
intranasally before lethal influenza virus infection which could be confirmed by a reduction of the
lung virus titres. Lentinan also conferred complete protection against an LD75 challenge dose of
virulent influenza virus, and significantly prolonged the survival time in mice after an LD100
challenge administered by i.v. Enhanced broncho-alveolar macrophage activity was also noted.
Measurable interleukin 6 was produced after 6 h, well before IL-6 induced by viral infection alone
(Irinoda et al, 1992).
Lentinan was successful in treating a patient positive for HIV but without AIDS symptoms
except for low helper-T cell and low lymphocyte counts and low NK cell activity. A drip infusion

~ 41 ~

of lentinan restored these immune cell counts to normal (Aoki, 1984a). Lentinan is particularly
active at augmenting helper-T cell activity (Akiyamaet al, 1981). Lentinan may also be useful in
clinical practice for strengthening immune and endocrine functions of elderly people and people
who are run-down from overwork, as well as the prevention of cancer in high-risk individuals, both
orally and by injection (Aoki, 1984b). In Japan, in the treatment of low natural killer cell syndrome
(LNKS), a disease which appears to be identical to chronic fatigue syndrome in the West, lentinan
was successful in reversing the symptoms of remittent fever, persisting fatigue, and low NK cell
activity (Aoki et al, 1987).
LEM may be useful in the treatment of AIDS. It has been shown to inhibit HIV infection of
cultured human T-cells (Iizuka, 1990b), and it potentiates the effects of AZT against viral
replication in vitro (Tochikura et al, 1987c). The mechanism of its action is not known for certain,
but the extract was found to activate macrophages and stimulate the production of interleukin 1.
LEM and lentinan are not the only active fractions of L. edodes. Water-soluble lignans with
antiviral and immunomodulating effects have also been isolated from shiitake mycelium (Hanafusa
et al, 1990), and JLS, a new compound recently derived from the mycelium, has shown the ability
to block the release of infectious herpes simplex virus type 1 in animals (Sarkar et al, 1993). The
fungus contains water-solubilized lignin derivatives, such as EP3 and EPS4, which have shown
immunological and antiviral activities not only against herpes simplex I and II, but also against
equine encephalitis, polio virus, measles, mumps, and HIV (Suzuki et al, 1989, 1990; Sorimachi et
al, 1990). In addition, an aqueous extract of the mycelium (known as JLS-18), consisting of 65-75%
lignin, 15-30% polysaccharide, and 10-20% protein, has inhibited the herpes virus both in vitro and
in vivo (Koga et al, 1991).
Bacterial and Parasitic Infections
Another area of research with lentinan is its ability to mobilize the humoral immunity to help ward
off bacterial infections resistant to antibiotics. For instance, lentinan was given to 3 patients who
were shedding Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli resistant to antituberculosis drugs. When
lentinan was given by IM injection, 1 mg/day, twice a week, titers of specific opsonin toward the
bacilli were so elevated that tuberculosis bacillus excretion ceased in one of the patients, and the
patients general conditions improved (Aoki, 1984b). Lentinan is also effective for limiting relapse
of tuberculosis infections in the lungs of mice (Kanai & Kondo, 1981) and increasing host
resistance to infection with the potentially lethal Listeria monocytogenes (Aoki, 1984b). Lentinan
may afford protection against toxic stress from bacterial endotoxin. For instance, when lentinan was
administered to rabbits with, or especially before, endotoxin, its clearance was increased (Yokota et
al, 1991). Lentinan increased resistance against the parasites Shistosoma japonicum and Shistosoma
mansoni, which may have been mediated through T cells (Aoki, 1984b).
Hepatoprotective Effects
LEM slowed the growth of cancerous liver tumors in rats by injection (Sugano et al, 1982). A
polysaccharide fraction from shiitake also demonstrated liver-protective action in animals (Lin and
Huang, 1987b; Mizoguchi et al, 1987b), as well as the ability to improve liver function and help
produce antibodies to hepatitis B (Amagasse, 1987).
In combination with polysaccharides from the fungi G. lucidum and P. versicolor, lentinan has
improved SGPT and completely restored GPT levels in the livers of mice with toxic hepatitis
(Zhang & Luan, 1986).
Crude extracts and/or cultures of the fungus have demonstrated liver-protecting actions (Lin,
1987), perhaps because of their high adenine and choline content (Ying, 1987); anti-inflammatory
actions via the inhibition of prostaglandin release from the cell walls of macrophages (Scientific
Consulting Service); and the ability to increase interferon production in vitro in human umbilical
leukocytes (Meng et al, 1987).

~ 42 ~

Cardiovascular Effects
Another active compound isolated from shiitake, eritadenine, has been shown to lower blood levels
of cholesterol and lipids (Yamamura and Cochran, 1974b). Added to the diet of rats, eritadenine
(0.005%) caused a 25% decrease in total cholesterol in as little as one week (Chibata et al, 1969).
The cholesterol-lowering activity of this substance is more pronounced in rats fed a high-fat diet
than in those on a low-fat diet (Rokujo et al, 1969). Other constituents as well may make shiitake
valuable for treating cardiovascular conditions. Recently, two new compounds have been isolated
and found to lower serum cholesterol, while the fungus tyrosinase helps lower blood pressure
(Ying et al, 1987). Various other studies have confirmed that shiitake can lower both blood pressure
and free cholesterol in the plasma (Kabir, 1987), as well as accelerate accumulation of lipids in the
liver, thus removing them from circulation (Kimoto et al, 1976).

A number of clinical studies have been conducted on lentinan, less on various other fractions or
whole shiitake fruiting bodies. Lentinan was shown to have antitumor activity and to increase the
survival time for 3 patients with inoperable gastric cancer (Mashiko et al, 1992; Shimizu et al,
1981), and of women with recurrent breast cancer who have undergone surgical therapy (Kosaka et
al, 1985). In a phase II study involving 2 groups of patients with progressive cancer but with no
serious liver, kidney, or bone marrow dysfunction and no prior treatment by operation or irradiation
within a month of the lentinan administration, lentinan alone did not improve immune parameters or
show an anticancer effect. However, lentinan administered once or twice a week with chemotherapy
did show a statistically significant difference (<0.01) in immune enhancement and an anticancer
effect (Taguchi et al, 1982). A follow-up phase III trial was initiated based on the findings of the
phase I and II trials. In this randomized controlled trial, 275 patients with advanced or recurrent
gastric cancer were given either one of two kinds of chemotherapy (mitomycin C with 5-
fluorouracil or tegafur) alone or with lentinan injections. Statistically, the best results were obtained
when lentinan was administered prior to chemotherapy and in the patients with both primary lesion
and without prior chemotherapy (Taguchi et al, 1981b). The results were evaluated on the basis of
prolongation of life, regression of tumors or lesions, improvement of immune responses, and side
effects. In another trial, the relationship between prolonged life span and changes of serum IAP and
albumin induced by the therapy of lentinan plus tegafur in inoperable and recurrent gastric cancer
was studied. The results were as follows: tumor regression (1 case, 2%), improvement of
performance status (PS), appetite, or pain (18 cases, 42%). Cases which showed a decrease of
serum IAP from abnormally high levels (more than 500 mu/ml) and an increase of albumin from
abnormally low levels (less than 3.5g/dl), had a significantly increased prolongation of life span by
comparison with the other cases (Ishigami et al, 1992). It is important to note that those patients
with low protein levels (< 5.9/dl) showed no response to lentinan, whereas those with normal
protein levels showed excellent results (Nishihira et al, 1988).
In another group of 16 patients with advanced cancer, lentinan (4 mg/week for 4 weeks) was
injected into malignant peritoneal and/or pleural effusions. Eighty percent of the lesions showed
clinical responses, and performance status was improved in 7 patients. The survival time for
patients who responded immunologically to the treatment was 129 days and 49 days for those who
did not respond (Oka et al, 1992).
In another controlled, double-blind study involving 72 cases of chronic persistent hepatitis,
lentinan was more effective than danshen (a Chinese herb, Codonopsis pilosula) for this condition
(Lin et al, 1987). Another study, too, found that a polysaccharide fraction from L. edodes was useful
for treating chronic viral hepatitis B (Zhu et al, 1985). Forty patients with chronic hepatitis B and
seropositive for Hbe antigenemia were given 6 grams of LEM daily (orally) for four months in an
unrandomized, uncontrolled clinical study (Amagase, 1987). The study focused on the number of

~ 43 ~

patients seroconverting from HBeAg positive to anti-HBe positive, which was 25% after LEM
therapy and was higher in patients with chronic active hepatitis, 36.8%. In addition, 17 patients
(43%) became seronegative for HBeAg. Liver function tests showed improvement even in patients
who remained seropositive. Only one patient reported side effectsabdominal fullness and loose
stools.
As for its effects on infectious disease, in a study of 3 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis who
had shed drug resistant M. tuberculosis bacteria for 10 years, after treatment with lentinan, the
excretion of M. tuberculosis ceased (Usuda, 1981). These findings have been supported by several
studies with mice (Kanai & Kondo, 1981; Kanai et al, 1980).
Another promising use of L. edodes is to boost the immune response in AIDS patients. In one
case study, when an extract (LEM) of L. edodes was used to treat an HIV+ patient with AIDS
symptoms, the T cell count rose from a baseline of l,250/mm3 to 2045/mm3 after 30 days, and then
up to 2,542/mm3 after 60 days. Improvements in symptoms were noted (Iizuka and Maeda, 1988).
After one week on dried shiitake (9 g), 10 young Japanese women showed a decrease in serum
cholesterol of 7%. Another group who ate 90 g of fresh shiitake showed a 12% drop in serum
cholesterol after 7 days. A further study in young women on fresh shiitake (90 g) for 7 days
included butter (60 g) in addition to the shiitake. In a control group of 10 women, only the butter
was added to the diet for one week. In this group serum cholesterol increased by 14%, whereas the
group on shiitake and the butter showed a decrease in serum cholesterol of 4%. A separate study in
people 60 years of age or older found the drop in cholesterol was 9%, whether they had eaten dried
or fresh shiitake (Suzuki and Oshima, 1974).
Toxicity
L. edodes is non-poisonous, though some people may experience minor side effects or allergic
reactions. For instance, during 17 years researchers have observed numerous cases of shiitake-
induced toxicodermia or shiitake dermatitis (Nakamura and Kobayashi, 1985; Ueda et al, 1992).
Nakamura (1992) reviewed the clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, and sources of shiitake
dermatitis. It is known that people who work indoors in the cultivation of shiitake are prone to an
immune reaction to spores called mushroom workers lung. Antibodies to shiitake spore antigens
can be demonstrated in people who show symptoms. Protective masks can help, but not entirely
eliminate, an eventual reaction to the spores after continued exposure (Van Loon, 1992). A watery
extract of the whole fruiting body is reported to lessen the effectiveness of the blood platelets in the
process of coagulation, so people who bleed easily or who are taking blood thinners should use
caution when chronically using shiitake or its water-soluble fractions (Yang & Jong, 1989).
LEM has shown no evidence of acute toxicity in over 17 years of popular use in Japan, even in
massive doses (over 50 mg/day for 1 week), though mild side effects such as diarrhea and skin
rashes may occur. Symptoms disappear after a short period, once the body has adapted to the LEM.
Likewise lentinan has no known serious side effects (Aoki, 1984b). Patients with allergies may
experience some negative reactions due to its histamine sensitizing properties (Chihara, 1981),
though this has not been demonstrated in humans. In a phase I clinical trial of 50 patients with
advanced cancer, 0.5 to 50 mg/person/day lentinan was given by injection for 2 weeks. Minor side
effects such as a slight increase in GOT and GPT liver enzymes and a feeling of mild oppression on
the chest were caused at 5 mg/day, but these disappeared after lentinan administration was stopped.
In a phase II trial, only 17 of 185 patients with advanced cancer had similar transitory side effects.
Skin eruptions were noted in 7 cases, mild oppression on the chest, 6 cases, and mild liver
dysfunction, 4 cases (Taguchi et al, 1982). In a follow-up phase III trial by the same researchers, 15
out of 275 patients experienced nausea and vomiting (2), heaviness in the chest (4), heat sensations
(2), and one case each of face flushing, a rise in blood pressure, and heaviness in the head (Taguchi
et al, 1981b; Aoki, 1984b).

~ 44 ~

The LD50 by IV injection into mice, rats, dogs, and monkeys is more than 100 mg/kg. Large
amounts administered IV chronically for 25 weeks showed definite signs of severe toxicity, but
anaphylaxis could not be demonstrated (Aoki, 1984b). In toxicity tests in animals, lentinan caused
no antifertility effects in males, and pregnant animals administered lentinan had normal litters with
normal offspring (Cozens 1981a, 1981b, 1981c). Lentinan seems to be very safe when given to
humans in the dosage range of 1-5 mg/day once or twice a week by IV injection (Taguchi et al,
1982).
In TCM, shiitake is said to have a sweet taste and be mild in nature. Shiitake is a food that is both
strengthening and restorative.
Medical Uses
Shiitake is used medicinally for any and all diseases involving depressed immune function,
including cancer, AIDS, environmental allergies, Candida infections (contrary to current fashion in
modern western medicine, which holds that fungi only aggravate yeast infections), and frequent flu
and colds. It also appears to be beneficial for soothing bronchial inflammation and regulating urine
incontinence (Liu and Bau, 1980), as well as for reducing chronic high cholesterol.
According to one prominent Japanese researcher, lentinan is an immunomodulating agent
which may be useful both therapeutically, as a general rejuvenative for older persons (no matter
what the condition of their health), as well as prophylactically to protect healthy, physically
active young people from overwork and exhaustion (Aoki, 1984b). In Japan, lentinan is currently
classified as a drug, whereas LEM is considered a food supplement.
Shiitake use in Cancer-Prevention
As more clinical research on lentinan is published, the effective range of application is becoming
more defined and somewhat broader. The immune mechanisms behind various types of cancer are
complex, so lentinan, or any immunostimulant, may or may not be useful for a particular situation
or individual. The best results will be realized when used in conjunction with other therapy under
strictly planned timing and schedules, and only when the host-tumor relationship is in good
agreement with such treatment (Chihara, 1981).
In my experience the best results with any immune adjuvants will be realized when one
considers the type of cancer (location), the individuals general health and immune and hormonal
status, as well as the individual constitutional type. Besides immune adjuvant therapy, it is
important to address imbalances in diet and other health habits and attempt to correct any
disharmony in other organ systems.
Shiitake mushrooms have cancer-preventive properties and can be a beneficial addition to the
diet. Recent statistics show that one out of three people may have cancer sometime in their lives!
Compounds that block the formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds from nitrites (which
occur in many meats and some vegetables) are produced in shiitake and other mushrooms (such as
matsutake and the common button agaric) when they are dried or heated. Uncooked shiitake
contains no detectable amounts of the nitrite-scavenging compound thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid
(TCA, thioproline); dried shiitake contains 134 mg/100 g (dry weight basis) of the compound; and
boiled shiitake holds 843 mg/100 g (Kurashima et al, 1990).

~ 45 ~

Shiitake and HIV Treatment
Researchers have suggested that LEM may be more effective than AZT in the treatment of AIDS
because it inhibits the cytopathic effect of giant cell formation in a cell-free system with MT-4 cells,
or a cell-to-cell infection system with MOLT-4 cells, both of which induce multinucleated giant
cells very efficiently. LEM may work by blocking the initial stages of HIV infection (Tochikura et
al, 1988). AZT inhibits cell-free infection of HIV, but it is ineffective in preventing the formation of
multinucleated giant cells. AZT is also expensive and is known to cause severe bone marrow
toxicity and a host of other side effects (Physicians Desk Reference, 1993). Furthermore, it may
become less effective over time or may not offer any long-term survival advantages even with early
use (Fackelmann, 1992). LEM is non-toxic and less expensive. It costs $825/kilo (1,000 grams)
wholesale, and assuming an average therapeutic dose of 3 grams/day, the cost would be about
$2.48/day, or $74.40/month. The dose for prevention or maintenance would be about $.83/day or
$24.75/month. See the reference section for suppliers. While products of LEM that are already
encapsulated are considerable higher per dose, they do offer convenience, and are readily available
from natural food stores and herb shops. However, these products are not suitable for the treatment
of ailments where therapeutic doses of LEM are required (over 1 gram/day) because they are too
expensive. I recommend encapsulated products mainly for prevention of disease and maintenance
of health, as a daily dietary supplement. Of course, more clinical trials will be necessary to assess
the long-term benefit of LEM for HIV and AIDS. I also recommend seeking the advice of a
qualified health care professional before discontinuing any medications prescribed by a doctor.
It is important to note that lentinans anticancer effect is highly dose-dependent. The traditional
dose of the whole dried fruiting body in tea, soup, or other dishes is given as 6-16 grams; of the
fresh fruiting body, about 90 grams (Liu and Bau, 1980).
According to manufacturers recommendations and the few clinical trials performed with
humans, during the initial stages of AIDS or chronic hepatitis the best dose of LEM may be
between 2-6 grams/day in 2 or 3 divided doses orally. Once the disease is more stable, the dosage
may be decreased, perhaps to 1/2 -1 gram per day (Sharon, 1988). For lentinan, the optimum dose is
1-5 mg injected IV or IM twice a week and greater doses can cause immune suppression (Aoki,
1984b).
Interestingly, it has been clinically established that smaller doses of intravenous and
intramuscular lentinan are more effective than larger doses for cancer patients (1 mg IV injection is
considered safe, while 10 mg may produce marked depression in the host immune response).
However, it should also be noted that what is considered an excessive dosage intravenously may be
a favorable dosage for oral administration (Aoki, 1984b).
Commercial preparations of L. edodes are available in the United States in natural food markets.
The tablets are usually made from a dried water-extract of the mycelia or fruiting bodies, because
drying concentrates the lentinan and other active principles. Standardized extracts are also available,
and they are preferred because the amount of lentinan present is certified and clearly stated on the
bottle.
Note that for full therapeutic doses, although fresh shiitake can be a valuable dietary supplement,
the amount one would need to eat for medicinal doses is so high that it might cause digestive upset.
That is why LEM, which is concentrated and easily absorbed, is preferred as medicine.
Related Species
The mycelial extract of L. cyathiformis, a species native to Hungary, showed antitumor activity in
mice against Ehrlich ascites tumor and sarcoma 180. This fungus was reported to be significantly
more active than mycelial extracts of three samples of L. edodes collected in the Orient (Korea,
Japan, and Vietnam) (Rethy et al, 1983). L. ponderosus O.K.M. is found in the western U.S. from
August to October (Lincoff, 1981). L. velutinus Fr. and L. crinitus (L.:Fr.) Fr. are boiled for use as

~ 46 ~

foods by the Sanama Indians of Brazil (Fidalgo and Prance, 1976). Neolentinus lepideus (Fr.)
Redhead (=L. lepideus Fr.), found from May to September in many parts of the U.S. and in
California during winter (Lincoff, 1981), has shown antitumor activity in mice (sarcoma 180 and
carcinoma 755) (Espenshade and Griffith, 1966).
Notes
L. edodes shows higher anticomplementary activity than krestin, an immunostimulant extract from
Japanese Trametes versicolor. It shows more potent anticomplementary activity than G. lucidum,
Cordyceps spp., and Agaricus campestris, as well (Jeong, 1990).
Procurement
Shiitake can be found in many markets throughout North America, Asia, and Europe. It is one of
the most commonly cultivated mushrooms. I encourage home cultivation, which is an exciting (and
certainly one of the most inexpensive) ways to have enough of this fantastic fungus for daily use.
See the resources section in the Appendix for sources of mycelium and the books The Mushroom
Cultivator (Stamets and Chilton, 1983), The Shiitake Growers Handbook (Przybillowicz and
Donoghue, 1991) or Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms (Stamets, 1994) for more
information on cultivation. Shiitake is increasingly popular in prepared products throughout Asia,
North America, and Europe, and LEM is available in tablet or capsule form.

TRAMETES VERSICOLOR (L.:FR.) PIL.
TURKEY TAIL

Synonyms
Boletus versicolor, Polyporus versicolor (Gilbertson and Ryvarden, 1987). Coriolus versicolor
(L.:Fr.) is often used for T. versicolor, but Trametes is now generally accepted as correct (Arora,
1994). Other synonyms less frequently used include Polystictus versicolor Fr.and Polyporus
versicolor (Arora, 1986).
Other Common Names
In Japan, T. versicolor is also known as kawaratake, which means mushroom by the river bank
(Namba, 1980). In China, the fungus is called yun-zhi, meaning cloud fungus (Yang et al, 1993).
This common denizen of the woods is true to its name, as the multi-colored cap resembles turkey
tails. Its fan-shaped fruiting bodies grow in overlapping clusters on dead logs. The top is zoned,
usually in shades of brown, white, grey, or blue (though this is variable), and it sports hairy bands.
The underside of the cap is white and shows minute pores which do not discolor after scratching.
Range
T. versicolor is common worldwide. I have seen it growing in many parts of the United States and
Europe, and it grows throughout China (Yang et al, 1993).

~ 47 ~

History
For the year 1987 in Japan, PSK (polysaccharide Kureha, which is extracted from turkey tail)
accounted for 25.2% of the total national expenditure for anticancer agents (Fukushima, 1989).
Florists in Europe recently adopted this fungus as one of the top species for commercial design
(Poppe, 1991).
Chemistry
The lipid fraction from the carpophores of T. versicolor amounts to 1.7% of the total weight and
contains the lanostane-type tetracyclic triterpenoid ergosta-7,22,dien-3-ol as the major sterol
(common in many other Polyporaceae), along with smaller amounts of ergost-7-en-3-ol
(fungisterol) and ergosterol (Yokoyama et al, 1975; Endo, 1981). They also contain (-sitosterol
(Kim et al, 1978) and hydroxymethylquinoline (Abraham and Spaso, 1991). The two principal
immunologically active fractions are PSK or Krestin, a water-soluble, protein-bound
polysaccharide that has (-1, 4-glucan as its main component as well as (-1,3 linkages and 38%
protein (Sakagami and Takeda, 1993), and PSP, a polysaccharide-peptide consisting of 10%
peptides and 90% polysaccharides (Yang et al, 1993). Miyazaki et al (1974) isolated an antitumor
polysaccharide that did not contain nitrogen and called it coriolan.
Pharmacology
Pharmacological activities that may be due to the protein-bound polysaccharide PSK include the
inhibition of sarcoma 180 (Hirase et al, 1976a; Ueno et al, 1978; Yan, 1985); improvement in the
functioning of blood vessels (Ito and Hidaka, 1980a); support of hepatic function (Ito and Hidaka,
1980b); restoration of serum lysozyme content and normalization of spleen index in irradiated mice
(Cai et al, 1987); immune function enhancement (Iwaguchi, 1985), and the possible prevention of
liver cancer (Wang, 1989). Against lethal cytomegalovirus infection, the action of PSK appears to
be through NK cell activation (Ebihara and Minamishima, 1984). Also, nitrogen-containing
polysaccharides extracted from T. versicolor mycelia increase antibacterial potency and prolong
antibacterial effects of antibiotics and can increase antibiotic sensitivity in antibiotic-resistant
bacteria (Kureha Chemical Industry Co., 1978).
Two polyoxygenated ergosterol derivatives showed cytotoxicity (in vitro) against hepatoma cells
(Valisolalao et al, 1983). T. versicolor has been used in the control of the tobacco mosaic virus
found on Nicotiana tabacum (Asano et al, 1979).
Animal studies have shown that PSK, which is derived from the mycelium, has immune-
enhancing activity and a broad antineoplastic scope. It has been shown to prolong the survival time
of irradiated mice, stimulate phagocytotic activity of macrophages, and improve the functions of the
reticuloendothelial system (Zhu, 1987). In cyclophosphamide-induced granulocytopenia in mice,
PSK (i.p.) caused a significant increase in granulocyte production (Mayer and Drew, 1980). PSK
(oral) restored antibody (IgG) production in mice bearing sarcoma 180, but not in normal mice
(Nomoto et al, 1975).
In regard to PSKs antitumor properties, it acts directly on tumor cells, as well as indirectly in
the host to boost cellular immunity. It has shown antitumor activity in animals with adenosarcoma,
fibrosarcoma, mastocytoma, plasmacytoma, melanoma, sarcoma, carcinoma, and mammary, colon,
and lung cancer (Tsukagoshi et al, 1984). An intriguing feature of this compound is that injection of
PSK at one tumor site has been shown to inhibit tumor growth in other sites, thus helping to prevent
metastasis (Ebina et al, 1987b). Also, PSKs antitumor activity is enhanced in combination with
radiation, chemotherapy, or immunotherapy. Oral administration of PSK as 10% and less of rat
feeds suppressed carcinogen-induced cancers of the colon, esophagus, breast, and lung (Tsukagoshi
et al, 1984).
PSK has also demonstrated antiviral activity. It may inhibit HIV infection by modifying the viral
receptor or by stopping HIV from binding with lymphocytes (Tochikura et al, 1987a). Another

~ 48 ~

mechanism through which PSK is reported to have general antiviral activity is through the
stimulation of interferon production (Ebina et al, 1987a).
PSP is an immunostimulant extracted from T. versicolor mycelia. Although similar to PSK,
which is also extracted from the mycelia, PSP is devoid of the sugar fucose while PSK is without
the sugars rhamnose and arabinose. The major sugar in PSP is glucose, and the polysaccharides
main chain is linked by (1-3 and 1-4 glycosides. PSP has shown activity by the oral route and by
injection (i.p.). In normal mice, oral doses of PSP (0.5-2 g/kg) caused greatly increased phagocytic
activity, comparable to Acanthopanax (300 mg/kg, oral). PSP increased T-cell numbers (in vitro),
interferon production (in vitro), and increased interleukin production in mice (PSP, 1,500
mg/kg/day X5, orally). Co-treatment of mice with PSP and cyclophosphamide resulted in a
significant prevention of decreases in white blood cell and IL-2 production. In tumor-bearing mice,
PSP stopped thymus atrophy and increased serum IgG values. PSP showed tumor-inhibiting activity
in animals with sarcoma 180, P388 leukemia, monocytic leukemia, Ehrlich ascitic tumor, histiocytic
lymphoma, human lung adenocarcinoma, and various cancers of the liver, stomach, nose, and throat
(Yang, 1993).
A glycoprotein obtained from the mycelia of Trametes spp. showed activity (in animal and in
vitro tests) against experimental hypertension, diabetes, cancer, thrombosis, and rheumatism. The
protein inhibits blood platelet aggregation and is analgesic, antipyretic, antihyperlipemic, anti-
arrhythmic, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilating. It has also been shown to reverse conditions
associated with nephron disorders, improve proteinuria and proteinemia-associated conditions, and
regulate prostaglandin formation and degradation (Ikuzawa, 1985).
An extracellular polysaccharide from T. versicolor administered to mice (i.p. or oral) challenged
with herpes or influenza viruses caused serum interferon induction and inhibited a decrease in
phagocytosis (Chen, 1986).
Whole T. versicolor has been shown to lower serum cholesterol in animals (Yagishita et al,
1977) and, in combination with the herb Astragalus membranaceus Bunge, it has been found to
enhance neutrophil function and speed recovery in rabbits suffering from burns (Liu et al, 1985).
Finally, a powdered extract (from a 70% ethanolic tincture) of this species was tested in rats by
injection in a Hippocratic screening of higher fungi and demonstrated mild tranquilizing and
diuretic activity (Malone et al, 1967).

PSK has been used both orally and intravenously as an immune adjuvant in clinical medicine.
Cancer patients given 3 g of PSK per day have shown increased interferon production (Ebina et al,
1987a). In cancer patients, PSK also antagonistically elevates the activity of phosphofructokinase
and shows antioxidant activity, working as a superoxide and hydroxyl radical scavenger (Nakamura
et al, 1986). PSK has been shown to be effective against many human cancers (Hotta et al, 1981)
but seldom with satisfactory results administered alone. In combination with radiation in stage III
uterine cervical cancer patients, PSK (3-6 g/day) prolonged the life span and appeared to have
enhanced the sensitivity of the cancers to radiation therapy. One study performed at the Department
of Gynecology, National Cancer Center Hospital in Tokyo (Kasamatsu, 1982) tested the influence
of PSK on the survival rate with cervical cancer patients. PSK was given orally in the dose of 3-6
grams a day in conjunction with radiation therapy. After radiation, patients having no observed
tumor cells remaining was 36% with PSK and 11% without. Two-year survival rate was 94% with
PSK and 74% without; 3-year survival rate was 85% and 59%, 5-year survival rate 64% and 41%
respectively. The rate of cancer deaths within 5 years was 21% with PSK and 52% without.
Improved survival rates have also been reported in gastric cancer patients from PSK (6 g/day) in
a combination treatment with the chemotherapeutic agent tegafur following gastrectomy and

~ 49 ~

patients with postoperative stomach cancer. In a randomized, controlled study with 462 curatively
resected colorectal cancers, PSK was given orally for over 3 years following mitomycin C (by iv on
the day of surgery and 1 day following) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) orally for 5 months. At the time
of reporting, the average study follow-up was 4 years. The increased diseasefree survival curve of
the PSK group over the control group (who only received the 2 drugs) was statistically significant
(Mitomi et al, 1992). In another similar study, PSK was administered after the same
chemotherapeutic regime as the previous study to 56 patients and a placebo to a group of 55 control
patients. The rate of remissions and the survival rate in the patients taking PSK was significantly
higher than the control group. Enhanced immune functions, including enhanced polymorphonuclear
leukocyte activity was said to be a significant factor in explaining the results (Torisu et al, 1990).
PSK was tested as an adjuvant immunotherapy in a group of patients with carcinoma of the
nasopharynx (n=21), and found to significantly increase (35 versus 25 months) the median survival
time over the control group (n=17) as well as the 5-year survival rate (28% versus 15%). All
patients in both groups had previous radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy (Go & Chung,
1989). Another earlier study with nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients (n=67) reported similar results
(Chung et al, 1987). The dose was 1 gram 3 times daily for a minimum of 1 month. Three cases of
toxicity were noted.
Other uncontrolled clinical studies have reported enhanced or recovered cellular immunity from
PSK in patients with glomerulonephritis, sarcoidosis, and idiopathic nephrotic syndrome.
Symptoms decreased, and relapse was prevented. Improved symptoms and normalization of
immunity were reported in systemic lupus erythematosus, and in cases of lupus, chronic rheumatoid
arthritis, sclerosis, Behets disease, and dermatomyositis, peripheral lymphocytes showed recovery
of blastogenesis. Others have reported that PSK causes a significant decrease in LDL cholesterol in
hyperlipidemia (stage IIa) patients, a significant decrease in cyclophosphamide-induced
chromosomal damage in children (Tsukagoshi et al, 1984), fewer sick days, and increased immunity
in patients with recurrent genital herpes (3-5 g/day) (Kawana, 1985).
A controlled clinical trial of PSP was conducted in 485 cancer patients (211 control patients)
treated with the polysaccharide-peptide (3 g/day for 30 days orally) in combination with radio-and
chemotherapies. The patients were diagnosed with cancers of the esophagus, stomach, and lung. As
a result of PSP, side effects from the conventional therapies most significantly lessened in the
categories of pain, poor appetite, tiredness, weakness, and dryness of the mouth and throat. The
clinicians noted that in TCM, this indicates an invigorating action on the heart and spleen.
Compared to control patients, body weight in the PSP group was significantly higher, and their T-
cell ratio, NK cell activity, and IL-2 levels were also higher. To counteract the decreases in white
blood cell, hemoglobin, and platelet levels which accompany chemo-and radiotherapy, batyl alcohol
is often given at the same time. PSP in place of batyl alcohol produced comparable results. The rate
of remission in the esophageal cancer patients who received PSP plus chemotherapy was 72%,
whereas those on chemotherapy alone had a remission rate of 42%. PSP also raised the one-year
survival rate for this type of cancer by 11%. The main immunologic pathways activated by PSP to
inhibit tumors are through helper T-cell, NK cell, and complement C3 (Yang, 1993). In breast
cancer patients treated with 4epidoxorubicin and cyclophosphamide, PSP stabilized and nearly
prevented white blood cell decreases from the chemotherapy (Shui et al, 1992).
Toxicity
Unlike many standard anticancer drugs, the PSK in T. versicolor produces few, if any, side effects
on the bone marrow or other organs, and it shows no immunosuppressive action. In general, T.
versicolor has very low levels of toxicity (Su et al, 1987) and produces few or no side effects
(Tsukagoshi et al, 1984). The oral LD50 of PSP is reported as 10.0 mg/kg. Negative results were
found on the Ames and chromosome distortion tests (Yang & Jong, 1989).

~ 50 ~

The taste and energy is sweet and slightly warm; enters the spleen and heart meridians; invigorates
the spirit (Yang et al, 1993).
In TCM, T. versicolor is used to clear dampness, reduce phlegm, heal pulmonary disorders
(Ying et al, 1986), strengthen the physique, increase energy, and benefit people with chronic
diseases (Yang & Jong, 1989). In Mexican folk medicine, the fungus is used to cure ringworm or
impetigo of the skin (Alfaro et al, 1983).
Medical Uses
In China, it is considered useful for infection and/or inflammation of the upper respiratory, urinary,
and digestive tracts, curative to liver ailments, including hepatitis B and chronic active hepatitis,
and is used for general immune weakness and tumors (Ying et al, 1987).
Take as desired in tea, up to 20 g 3X/day. Powder the dried fruiting bodies and take up to 5 grams a
day in capsules. For PSP, one gram 3 times daily (Yang & Jong, 1989).
Related Species
T. pubescens has exhibited anti-tumor activity (Shibata et al, 1968), and T. hirsutus is also active
against sarcoma 180 in mice, and it is a popular folk remedy for benefiting lung diseases, stopping
coughing, and promoting the regeneration of muscle (Ying et al, 1987). Coriolus consors contains
coriolin, an antibiotic that has been shown to inhibit Gram-positive bacteria and Trichomonas
vaginalis (Takeuchi et al, 1969). In addition, many species of Trametes have shown antibacterial
activity (Hervey, 1947).
Notes
T. versicolor is an excellent fungus to collect in the wild, as it is widespread and abundant. To
prevent larvae from damaging the fruiting bodies, it should be frozen promptly after harvesting for
24 hours and then dried, or dried soon after harvest in a food dryer at 120 degrees. Trametes number
approximately 15 species in the western part of Canada and the U.S. (Lowe and Gilbertson, 1961).
The tea is mucilaginous and has a flavor and odor reminiscent of cream of mushroom soup. You
may also add a handful of the fruiting bodies to the Wei Qi Soup recipe (page 45), or chew the
mushroom raw (it tastes and feels something like mushroom-flavored chewing gum, which is
actually more enjoyable than one might first imagine). For the last 10 years, I have often eaten 2 or
3 of the fresh fruiting bodies as Im walking in the woods. I also know people who take 4-10 grams
of the fungus powder daily as a tonic and cancer preventative. The mild-tasting fruiting bodies can
also be used to make soup stock.
Procurement
Review the Notes section above for information on collection from the wildit is widely available,
often in large quantities. PSP and PSK are just beginning to be available in the U.S. and Europe,
and are commonly prescribed in Japan for a variety of diseases and as a health food as discussed
above.

KOMBUCHA

~ 51 ~

Also called kombucha tea, the tea mushroom, Fungus japonicus, tea kvass, etc., Kombucha is a
tough jelly-like skin, which is really a complex association or symbiosis of yeasts (which are
simple fungi) and bacteria. Over the last 50 years, and probably much longer, Kombucha has
enjoyed cycles of popularity in many European countries, throughout Asia and the U.S. and is
currently experiencing a reawakening of interest, with numerous reports in the popular press (i.e.,
Taking the Fungal-Tea Plunge Newsweek. January 9, 1995) and on television. Kombucha tea can be
considered a traditional fermented food and the Kombucha skin is eaten as a dessert delicacy
called Nata in the Philippines. As a traditional food and beverage that has been widely used over
hundreds of years, Kombucha tea probably has some health benefits, but the fantastic claims that
are made for it are undoubtedly overblown. These claims include anti-aging effects, such as
restoration of hair and cancer-prevention. A list of other reported uses would place the tea into the
realm of the panacea: gout, rheumatism, arteriosclerosis, high blood pressure, irritability,
constipation, mental fatigue, and low sex drive. To my knowledge, no studies exist to support such
claims. I consider it simply a healthful (when made properly) and to some, a flavorful beverage that
is fun to make at home. The social aspect of discussing how our Kombucha is doing, how well it
grows on different teas, and sharing the offspring with friends and even strangers, is an important
part of its allure.
In 1928, Hermann reported on his identification of two bacteria, Bacterium xylinum Brown and
B. xylinoides Henneberg (both are now known to be the same organism, Acetobacter aceti subsp.
xylinum [Brown] comb, nov.), and a second bacterium, B. gluconicum Hermann (now
Gluconobacter oxydans subsp. suboxydans [Kluyver and de Leeuw] comb, nov.), named after its
ability to form gluconic acid. Researchers have subsequently determined that Kombucha is a
symbiotic association of vinegar bacteria, mainly A. aceti subsp. xylinum, which produces the
pure cellulose mat or pellicle which we associate with the name Kombucha, Acetobacter
ketogenum (sic) Walker and Thomas (now Acetobacter aceti [Pasteur] Beijerinck), the G. oxydans
subsp. suboxydans already mentioned, and nest-like masses of yeast cells embedded in the mat,
mainly Pichia fermentans Lodder, and also Saccharomyces apiculatus (Reess) (now Kloeckera
apiculata [Reess Emend. Klocker] Janke), Saccharomycodes ludwigii Hansen, and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe Lindner (List & Hrhammer, 1973; Bergeys Manual of
Determinative Bacteriology, 8th ed., 1975). It is entirely possible that other bacteria and yeasts are
present in a given batch of Kombucha tea, depending on the type of tea used, the temperature, the
starting culture, the percentage and type of sugar used, and other factors.
When the Kombucha organism is grown on a tea infusion which provides nitrogen, vitamins and
minerals, other essential nutritive substances, and sugar, its yeasts proliferate. They transform the
sugar into small amounts of alcohol, much of which is ultimately changed to acetic acid (up to 3%)
by the bacteria, which also thrive on B vitamins produced by the yeast. This process gives the tea
a sweet and sour smell of fermenting apple cider. The finished tea is reported to contain on average
between 0.5 and 1% alcohol, as well as lesser amounts of lactic acid, tartaric acid, malic acid,
malonic acid, citric acid, and oxalic acid (List & Hrhammer, 1973). When black tea is used to
make the nutrient solution upon which the organism grows, small amounts of caffeine are present,
depending on the brewing method and the caffeine content of the original tea. During the
fermentation process, the caffeine is not entirely degraded and is still present in the finished tea
(Hermann, 1927). Simple sugar content in the finished product, even when table sucrose is used, is
minimal, about 3 %.
Reports that the tea contains usnic acid, a lichen acid that has antibiotic properties, is simply not
true, and I can find no published chemical analysis of kombucha tea or of the organisms in it that
identify glucuronic acid as a constituent or metabolic by-product, despite second-hand reports that
they do. If it is present, it occurs in minor amounts. Gluconic acid, which is a major component, is
chemically distinct from glucuronic acid and is not used by the liver for detoxification of hormones
and toxic compounds as is glucuronic acid (Osol et al, 1955).

~ 52 ~

The infusion of Kombucha is said to have been extremely popular as a folk remedy for
thousands of years (Fasching, 1985). The first recorded use of the tea was during the Chinese
empire of the Tsim-Dynasty in 221 B.C. (Frank, 1991). It was known as The Remedy for
Immortality or The Divine Tsche. The Tsche (meaning tea) was said to be introduced in Japan
by the Korean doctor Kombu in 414 B.C. (Fasching, 1985). Frank (1991) says the name originated
from the Japanese name for a seaweed, kombu, and from the word cha, meaning tea. His
contention is that someone may have made the culture from kombu tea, and the name was
erroneously transferred to the culture. Kombu tea is still sold throughout Japan and is very popular.
Subsequently, Kombucha tea came to be used in India, Russia, and other Eastern countries. It is
reported that Kombucha enjoyed wide popularity until World War II when black tea and sugar
(with which it is grown) became scarce (Fasching, 1985). In the 1960s a German doctor named
Sklenar developed a biological cancer therapy using mainly Kombucha, which he had learned
about in Russia during the war.
Glucuronic acid, lactic acid, and acetic acid are mentioned with regard to Kombuchas effect
on metabolism, particularly concerning its detoxifying function through its linkage with
D-glucoronate (R. Fashing, 1988; K. H., 1986; H. Korner, 1987; U. Ruckert, 1987). Sklenar
theorized that the glucuronic acid causes detoxification, based on its known detoxifying
function in the liver. The glucuronic acid forms conjugates with metabolic waste products
and harmful substances, such as drugs or poisons, thereby facilitating the detoxification
process (Fasching, 1994). This theory has no basis in fact, according to a very thorough
search of the scientific literature, but acetic acid and lactic acid may have mild detoxifying
effects; they have been widely reported in the literature on fermented foods to retard the
growth of harmful bacteria, while promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria in the
intestine.

Directions for Making Kombucha
A. Pour 34 oz of water into a glass or enamel pan and set on stove.
B. As the water is heating up, add 2 oz sugar and stir until dissolved (if honey is being
substituted, add it after the tea has reached room temperature).
C. When the water boils, remove the pan from the heat and add 1-4 teaspoons or 2-5 teabags
(to taste) of either black or green tea. Steep 10-15 minutes.
D. If tea leaves have been used, strain through a strainer; if a teabag was used, remove it.
E. Let the mixture cool to lukewarm and then pour it into a glass jar or glazed earthenware jar
(to make larger amounts use a large glass cooking bowl or a glass aquarium) (Frank, 1991).
Ideally the container should have a wide mouth, and there shouldnt be too much air space
above the liquid.
F. Add about 10% Kombucha from the previous batch (if you are making it for the first time,
get the extra starter liquid with the culture, or add two tablespoons of boiled vinegar to the
tea).
G. Place the culture in the liquid, taking care to not break the layer on the upper surface (the
smooth, shiny surface should be face up, with the brown, rougher layer underneath).
Sometimes the culture floats and sometimes it sinks to the bottom, which may depend on
how soft or hard the water is.
H. Use cheesecloth to cover the mouth of the container and secure with a rubber band.
I. Place in a warm spot (a constant temperature between 64 and 78 F. is optimum) out of
direct light and leave without moving for 8-10 days.*

~ 53 ~

J. Remove the culture after washing your hands.
K. Strain the tea into bottles and store in the refrigerator or in another cool place (Frank
suggests not filling the bottle all the way to the top and using corks which can be removed
in case pressure should build up). If the cap is tight enough (use an old champagne bottle
and tie down the top), the drink can become sparkling, but be cautious when taking the top
off.
L. Leave the yeast sediment in the original container, but once a month it should be poured out
as well and the container washed with hot water. At this time, wash the culture with cold
water and then replace it in the container.
M. Keep approximately 10% of the tea in the fermentation container (unless it needs to be
washed, in which case it may be poured back in after the container is washed).
*Some people contend the tea should be poured off after 6 days in winter and after 3-4 days in
summer, when it should be allowed to sit in glass containers for another 3 days before drinking.
Frank writes that after 12-14 days, the sugar is completely converted and the taste similar to dry
wineand it is easier to digest at this stage. Also, Russian researchers have reported that the
antibiotic activity found in Kombucha is at its highest peak on the 7th and 8th days (Frank, 1991).

There are no clinical trials to support the effectiveness of Kombucha in cases of cancer, although
it is being promoted as an effective biological cancer therapy.
After careful studies of the available literature, as well as other obtainable information, the Swiss
Society for Oncology and the Swiss Cancer Association have not found data that would support
Kombuchas use in the treatment of cancer. After my own thorough search, I must come to the
same conclusion, though further studies and experience may prove me wrong.
For weakened digestion, Rosina Fasching suggests drinking 1-2 glasses of Kombucha first thing
in the morning and after meals at noon and at night. Its taste has been described as thirst-quenching,
delicious, and slightly sour. In the 1940s Irion recommended taking about 1/2 cup on an empty
stomach in the morning and another 1/2 cup both after lunch and after dinner.
A reduction in the number of colds has been observed by some people taking the tea as a
preventive remedy (Fasching, 1994). Also, because of its reputed purifying effects, it is reported to
be a good protectant against the daily assault on our bodies from various environmental pollution.
Some use kombucha once a year as one would take a spring tonic.
During the 1960s the Waischenfelder Apotheke was recommending Kombucha to be taken daily
as a preventative and therapeutic remedy for such diverse ailments as the onset of arteriosclerosis,
constipation, physical and mental fatigue, low sex drive, and convalescence. Hans Irion, who was
then director of the Brunswick Pharmaceutical Academy, also advocated its use for high blood
pressure, nervousness, overweight, sports activities, excessive mental activity, and symptoms of
aging (Fasching, 1994).
Hagers Handbuch (List & Hrhammer, 1973) states that Combucha is used as a folk remedy
for edema, arteriosclerosis, gout, constipation, and stones.
It is reported that Russian, Japanese, and Indian Kombucha afficionados consume approximately
11 oz per day (Frank, 1991). According to this dosage, one would drink 3.5 oz 3 times each day,
once upon arising, once either before or after the midday meal, and once before going to bed.
Note: Smoking in the same room where the Kombucha is growing is reported to cause it to
mould or dissolve.

~ 54 ~

Zeller (1924) warned against using alternative mixtures of tea or sugar, as substitutions can
disrupt the delicate balance of yeasts and bacteria. The Swiss pharmacist, Bergold, also cautioned
against using older fungi, which might be contaminated by various molds. Apparently cultures of
dubious origin exist on the market.
Although some critics caution against making the beverage at home or drinking Kombucha tea,
it is certainly no more difficult than making yogurt or sauerkraut. Preparing food and medicine with
our own hands (just make sure they are clean!) certainly has its merits and eliminates the endless
environmentally-unfriendly packaging we are constantly having to deal with. As Gunther Frank
points out, the making of Kombucha has been successfully handed down from generation to
generation by the Chinese for over 2000 years without any sterile lab techniques.
Several tests for pathological organisms occurring in traditional fermented foods have
consistently shown that they are safe (Frank, 1991; Hasseltine & Wang, 1986). Stamets (1994)
reports that after experimenting with Kombucha he has observed spontaneous contamination of
batches with various green, pink, or black molds. He suggests either throwing the batch out or
rinsing a portion of the organism thoroughly with cold water and reintroducing it into a fresh batch
of tea and sugar. He mentions that a firm rubbery texture is a good indicator of whether the
Kombucha organism has been degraded by infection from potential pathogens. If the organism falls
apart when handled, it is best to discard it.

OVERVIEW OF ALL MEDICINAL MUSHROOM SPECIES

~ 55 ~

~ 56 ~

~ 57 ~

~ 58 ~

~ 59 ~

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~ 61 ~

~ 62 ~

~ 63 ~

~ 64 ~

Summary of Uses and Doses of Medicinal Fungi

ARRANGED BY SPECIES

~ 65 ~

ARRANGED BY SYMPTOM OR CONDITION

SYMPTOM/CONDITION SPECIES
Altitude sickness reishi
Arrhythmia reishi
Bleeding false tinder polypore, wood ear, earthstar, puffball
Bronchial inflarnmatlon shiitake, reishi
Cancer, breast chaga, shiitake
Cancer, esophageal artist's conk
Cancer, gastric split gill
Cancer, skin stinkhorn
Cancer, liver turkey tail
Cancer preventative red-belted polypore, maitake, turkey tail, shiitake
Cancer, uterine chaga

~ 66 ~

Chemotherapy (to counteract side effects) maitake, shiitake, turkey tail
Cholesterol, high shiitake, jelly fungus, oyster mushroom
Colds and flu shiitake
Coughs snow fungus, earthstar, hoelen, reishi
Diabetes turkey tail, maitake, reishi, shiitake
Diarrhea false tinder polypore
Dizziness honey mushroom, reishi
Dry skin chanterelle, honey mushroom
Eye inflammation tremella
Fever hoelen
Gastritis honey mushroom, chaga
Hemorrhoids wood ear, gilled polypore

~ 67 ~

Hepatitis reishi, shiitake, hoelen, turkey tail
High blood pressure maitake, shiitake, reishi
Immune weakness maitake, shiitake, turkey tail, reishi
lndigestlon true tinder polypore
Insomnia reishi, honey mushroom
Low energy turkey tail
Muscle spasms wood ear
Muscle tenslon oyster mushroom
Nervousness reishi
Neurasthenia honey mushroom, reishi
Poor vlsion, night blindness honey mushroom, chanterelle
Rhinitis reishi

~ 68 ~

Ulcers chaga, enokitake, reishi
Urinary tract infections zhu ling
Viruse shiitake, turkey tail, birch polypore
Wounds, bleeding earthstar, puffball

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