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POND LIFE
A GUIDE TO COMMON PLANTS AND
ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICAN
PONDS AND LAKES

by
GEORGE K. REID, Ph.D.
Under the editorship of
HERBERTS. ZIM
and
GEORGES. FICHTER
Illustrated by
SALLY D. KAICHER
and
TOM DOLAN

FOREWORD
A pond o r a lake offers a n opportu nity for exciting dis
coveries. There one can become acquai nted with m a ny
kinds of pla nts a n d a n i m a ls a n d learn how they live to
g eth e r in a com m u nity. This book describes and i l l us
trates some of the most com mon of the thousa nds of spe
cies of p la n ts a nd a n i m a ls fou n d i n or near these waters.
Some are more a t home i n clear, cool lakes than i n sha l
low, warm ponds. Others a re f o u n d i n strea m s a s w e l l a s
i n sti l l waters or may g row i n the nearby wetla nds.
Many persons have contributed to this book. The a rt
ists, Mrs. Sa l ly Kaicher a n d Mr. Tom Dolan, have ren
dered accurate i l l ustrations. Professors M u rray F. Buell,
of R utge rs Un iversity, a n d Robert W. Pennak, of the
Un iversity of Colorado, provided p h otog ra p h s from
which i l l ustrati ons were made. The U n iversity of South
Florida permitted l i bera l use of l i b rary fa ci lities. Thanks
a re due a lso to col leag ues, experts, a n d org a n izations
for their inva l uable help i n providing speci mens o r in
checking the text for accuracy a n d usefu l n ess.
G.K.R.

Copyright 1987, 1967 renewed 1995 Golden

Books

Publishing Company, Inc.,

New York, New York 10106. All rights reserved. Produced in the U.S.A. No part of
this book may be copied or reproduced without wriHen pennission from the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-16477. ISBN 0-307-24017-7.
GOLDEN BOOKS, GOLDEN, A GOLDEN GUIDE, and G Design are trademarks
of Golden Books Publishing Company, Inc.

CONTENTS
PONDS AND LAKI:S

C HARACTE R I S T I C S OF WATER
HABITATS

p.

FOOD WEBS

4
10
17

22

COMM U N ITY C HANGES

24

OBSERVING A N D COLLECTING

27

PLANTS

Algae

Bacteria
Fung i
Bryop hytes
Vascu l a r Pla nts . .
ANIMALS

On e-celled Animals
Spong es
Hyd ras

Jel l yfish . . . .
Rotifers
Moss A n i m a l s . . . . . . .
Worms .
Flatwo rms . . .
Arthropods
Cru staceans
Insects
Water Mites a n d Spiders
Mol l u sks
Snails .
C la m s . . . .
Oth e r Invertebrates
Vertebrates

Lam p reys .
Bony Fishe s
A m p h ibia n s
. .
Re ptiles

Birds
. . . . .
Ma m m a l s
MORE
I N DEX

I NFORMAT I O N
.

30
31
38
38
39
42
74
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
84
85
86
94
113
114
114
116
118
120
120
121
129
136
143
152

155

1 56

S p ri n g

S u m mer

P ONDS

AND

LAKES

In spri n g a n d sum mer, a ctivity is cease l ess i n a pond o r

sma l l lake. Wate r striders skate over the surfa ce. Drag
onfly nymphs, which wi l l soon change i n to swift, d a rti n g
adu lts, c l i m b t h e stems o f catta i ls. C lose to shore a cray
fish grabs a n d eats a worm-a nd moments later a bass
devo urs the crayfish . A turtle p lops off a log a n d beg i n s
t o browse o n p l a nts. Countless sma l l shri m p l ike cope
pods strai n their microscopic p l a nt food from the water
and then become food for sma l l fishes that, i n turn, a re
eate n by large fishes or by wad i n g birds. As the water
coo l s in a utumn, a n i m a ls become less a ctive. I n w i nter,
the pond or lake is rather q uiet, a nd i n the North, o n l y
a few a n i ma l s sti l l stir under the ice.
4

Fa l l

Winter

To understa n d the teeming life in a pond, one m ust

know what conditions are necessa ry to support it. This
study of in l a n d waters -ponds, la kes, a n d strea ms-is
ca l led l i m n o logy. It is a d ivision of the broader sci e n ce
of ecology, which deals with the ways p l a nts a n d a n i
m a l s l ive togeth er i n particular enviro n m e nts. li m n o logy
is concerned with a l l the interre lated fa ctors that i n fl u
ence the i n la n d-water environm ent. Thus it treats not
only biology but a lso chem istry, geog raphy, weather,
c l i m ate, and other similar factors or conditions. O n ly a
few of the m a n y thousands of p l a nts a n d a n i m a l s that
live i n or near ponds, la kes, a n d strea ms are described
and i l l ustrated i n this book. As your interest i n "pond
probing" g rows you can co nsult the books listed on
page 1 55 for more detai led i nformation.
5

A POND

is commonly described by l i m n o l ogists as a

quiet body of water so sh a l low that rooted p la nts g row
co m p l etely across it. Its water tem perature i s fa irly uni
form from top to bottom a n d tends to change with the
air temperature. There is little wave a ction, a n d the
bottom is usua l ly covered with m ud . Typica l ly, p l a nts
g row a l l a long the shore. The amount of dissolved oxy
gen may va ry greatly in a 24- hour period.
A l a ke is usua l ly larger than a pond. The water is too
deep for p l a nts to grow except around the shore. The
temperature of the water i s relatively stab l e from day to
day, but i n northern la kes, tem perature "layeri ng" oc-

curs in s u m m e r (p. 1 5) . The a mo u nt of disso lved oxygen

d u r i n g a 24- h o u r period remains about the sa me. Be
cause of the broad expa n se of water exposed to the
wind, sh ores o n the down-wind side a re co m m o n ly wave
washed, ba rren stra nds of sa nd or roc ks.
What people know as a pond or a l a k e loca l ly, h ow
ever, differs from one region to a n other. In some p l a ces,
for exa m p l e, the pond i l l ustrated on p. 6 would be
ca l led a m a rsh. Ma ny of the broad lakes in F lorida a re
sha l low, a n d though they lack pla nts i n the midd l e, their
water temperature a n d a m o u nt of disso lved oxyge n fol
low the pattern of ponds.

of bodies of water a re
cal led ponds. The basi n s of some ponds a re poth o les i n
g lacial debris a n d a re fi l led by seepage a n d r u n off
water from the surrou n d i n g l a n d . Others a re cutoffs
from o l d strea m cha n n el s. Some are temporary, oth e rs
perm a n e nt. Despite their d iffere n ces i n orig i n a n d age,
all are much a l ike i n size, depth, and s i m i l a r featu res.
A few of the m ore common a n d disti n ctive kinds of
ponds a re shown h ere.

SEVERAL DIF FERENT KIN DS

CYPRESS PO NDS a re common in

the central a n d l ower Mississippi
Basin a n d a l o n g the coastal plain
of the southeaste r n U .S. Their
water is often b rown ish, a n d
m a n y are d ry d u ri n g pa rts of the
year. Along the shore, w i l l ows
a n d bay trees are mixed with
cypresses, w h ich ofte n g row out
into t h e water.
Above.

BOG PONDS are found i n moist

tem perate regions over m ost of
N.A. Their water is usua l l y h i g h l y
a c i d a n d is ofte n m ud d y . C e d a r s
d o m i n ate t h e h i g h g r o u n d , a n d
ald ers g row profusely o n the
shore. Thick beds of sphag n u m
exte nd
outward
from shore.
F l oati ng-leaf p l a nts m a y cover
Bel ow.
the s u rface.

MEADOW-STREAM PONDS de
vel o p where a stream w i d e n s
a n d the s p e e d of i t s c u rrent
d rops sharply. Pondweeds, stone
worts, catta ils, and others with
emergent l eaves g row i n the
s h a l lows. Water l i l ies, water
s h i e l d , and others send floati n g
leaves to the s u rface.
Above.

MOUNTA I N P O N D S a re ofte n
formed by g l aciers. I n some, the
bottom is p u re rock; i n othe rs,
deep, soft m u d . Many a re ice
free only briefly and d ry up i n
s u m mer. Sedges g row a l o n g
margins. Desp ite the s h o r t s u m
mer season, m a n y k i n d s o f a n i
m a l s l ive in these icy waters.

FARM PONDS a re b u i l t as a part

of good fa r m i n g practices. They
also provid e fi s h i n g a n d boat
i n g. A farm pond s h o u l d be at
least 3 feet deep at the shore l i n e
to prevent p l a n t g rowth a n d
h a v e a sp i l lway to control water
l evel. I t s h o u l d fill from see page,
not from a stre a m that w i l l soon
fill the basin with silt.
9

CHARA CTERIS TICS

OF

WATER

Water wi l l dissolve more su bsta n ces than wi l l a n y other

liquid, and for this reason it is ca l led "the u niversa l sol
vent." Oxyge n , carbon dioxide, a n d nitrogen are a b
sorbed from the atmosphere. Oxygen is a lso contrib
uted as a by-p rod uct of photosynthesis (p. 30), and car
bon dioxide is released by both p l a nts a n d a n imals i n
respiration ( p . 1 2). Phosphates, ch lorides, a n d si m i la r
m i nera l sa lts a re d isso lved i n run-off a n d seepage water.
WATER
M O LE C U LE S
a re
strongly attracted to o n e a n
other through t h e i r two hyd ro
gen atoms. At the surface this
attra ctio n p rod u ces a tight fi l m
over t h e water. A n u m ber of
orga nisms live both on the upper
a n d o n the l ower sides of this
surfa ce film (p. 1 7) .

dotted lines show

hydrogen bonds in
water molecu les

DENSITY O F WATER is greatest at 4C (39.2F). It

becomes less as water warms a n d , more i m po rtant, a s
it c o o l s t o freezing at 0C . Then it c h a nges to ice w h i c h
floats as i t s density is o n ly 0.917. Ice is a lso a p o o r c o n
d u ctor a n d thus red u ces h e a t l oss f r o m below. O n ly
very sha l l ow ponds ever freeze sol id.
1.000
>.....

v;

0.999

0.998

0.997

0.996
Tem p. in C.
10

10

II

12

pond

air

c::=:J temperature

of water is g reat. It a b
sorbs a n d releases h eat m uch more slowly tha n does air.
For this reason p l a nts a n d animals of m ost ponds a n d
lakes a re not usua l ly subjected t o sudden ly varied tem
peratures. Though t h e air temperature may c h a n g e ra p
idly and g reatly, the water temperature of a deep lake
changes s l owly. In a shal low pond o r lake, the water
temperature varies with the air temperature, as a bove.
HEAT- H OLD I N G CAPA C I TY

permits enough light to

penetrate for pla nts to carry on p h otosynthesis. The
depth to which light ca n penetrate d ecreases a s water
becomes m o re turbid or contains more suspended mate
ria ls. Few p la nts g row in m uddy ponds beca use the si lt
absorbs lig ht.
TRA NSPA REN CY OF WATER

Clear Lake

40%

3ft.

20%

25%

9ft.

5%

20%

5 It

LIGHT PENETRATION

II

O X Y G E N
C A R B O N D I OX I D E
CYCLE

oxygen

..
a re passed back
and forth betwee n pla nts and a n i m a ls and thei r environ
ment. The proportion of these gases i n the atmosphere
i s genera l l y consta nt: oxyg en, 21 percent; carbon diox
ide, .03 percent. In pond, lake, a nd strea m waters they
usua l ly va ry g reatly, even from night to day.
Oxyg en, which is n ecessa ry for the surviva l of n early
a l l p la nts a n d a n i m a ls, is q uite so luble in water, but the
a m o u nt dissolved i n fresh water is m u ch lower than in
the atmosphere. Oxyg en from the air is a bsorbed s low
ly, but the process is speeded when wind a nd waves dis
turb the water surface. A lso, the coo ler the water, the
more disso lved oxygen it wi l l hold.
D u ri n g the day, when sunlight pen etrates the water,
p la nts give off oxygen as a by-product of photosynthe
sis more ra pidly tha n it is used i n respi rati o n by p la nts
a n d a n i m a ls. A reserve of oxygen builds up. I n darkness,
when ph otosynth esis stops, both pla nts a n d a n i m a l s use
OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXI DE

12

Oxyg en level in
a p ond bui lds up by
day, d rops at night.
Carbon dioxide
fol lows reverse cycle.
day

Oxygen
Ca rbon
Dioxide

- night

this oxyge n . For this reason the oxygen content i n ponds

a n d sha l low la kes va ries g reatly i n a 24- h o u r period .
Carbon dioxide, more soluble in water than oxyg e n ,
comes both f r o m the decay o f org a n i c materi a l a nd from
respi ration of pla nts and a n ima ls. Some i s a lso contri b
uted by g ro u n d water a n d from the atm osphere, either
directly or with ra i n . Near the bottom of deep la kes the
a mo u nt of d issolved carbon dioxide may be q uite high.
Few pla nts a n d animals ca n survive i n this reg i o n . Car
bon dioxide is used by pla nts i n photosynthesis. It is the
source of the carbon found in fats, protei ns, and ca rbo
hyd rates, the basic food su bsta nces of a n i m a ls.
Carbon dioxide is i m portant a lso i n determ i n i n g the
water's p H-its deg ree of acid ity o r a l k a l i n ity. I t com
bines with water to form wea k carbonic acid, which in
turn rea cts with l i m esto n e o r d issolved l i m e, if present,
to form ca rbonates and bicarbonates. Th ese compounds
are indirect sou rces of carbon a n d serve a lso a s "buff
ers" that reg u late p H . The pH of water often determines
what a n i m a l s a n d pla nts live there (be l ow). For exa m
p l e, m o l l usks with limy s h e l l s ca n not live i n a cid waters.

pH

14

13

Solid

Solution

When comm o n soil (NoCI) dissolves, it sepa rates i nto i o n s (No+ e n d

C l - ) tho! diffuse throughout t h e so l u tio n .

DISSOLVE D MINERA LS i n pond, lake, a n d strea m

waters i n c l ud e phosphates, n itrates, c h lorides, sulfates,
ca r bo nates, a n d oth ers. These "minera ls" orig inated i n
chem ica l com bin ation with such elements as potassi u m ,
mag nesi u m , ca lcium, sod i u m , and iron . I n solution these
com po u n d s a re sepa rated i nto their com p o n ent ions.
(For exa m p le, ca lci u m carbonate, Ca C03 becomes
Ca++ and C Oa--.) The mi nerals a re a bsorbed by pla nts
as ions rathe r than as sa lts. All p la nts and a n i m a ls re
quire sma l l amou nts of these min era ls i n building cel l
protoplasm a n d body tissues. Floati n g pla nts take their
minerals di rectly from the water; rooted a q uatic p lants,
from the pond bottom . Animals get m i nerals from their
plant a n d a n i m a l foods. Minerals are released a lso from
plants a n d a n i m a l s that die and decay in the pond o r
lake. Thus the m i nera l s a re k e p t i n cyc le.
Floati n g mat of green o l g a e ( 1 ) gets m i n erals f r o m water, the rooted
p i o n ! (2) from the pond bottom, and the turtle (3) from its p l a n t food .

14

occurs in deep la kes of tem

perate zones. In summ er, the surface water a bsorbs the
sun's heat a n d warms faster than the water below. The
warmed water is less dense than the cold water, so it
floats on the cool lower layers. By midsu m mer there are
three d isti n ct layers.
Not e n o u g h light penetrates the middle and l ower
layers to permit ph otosynth esis, a n d a mixing o r circula
tion of water between the upper a n d lower levels is p re
vented by the therm ocline, a layer of sudden tempera
ture d rop that acts a s a barrier to vertica l m ovements.
Also, decomposition of orga nic debris in the lower layer
i n creases the amount of carbon dioxide a n d red u ces
oxyg en there. In these deep bodies of water nearly a l l
of the fishes a n d other a n i m a l s live a bove the ther
mocline, where food a nd oxyge n a re p l e ntifu l.
TEMPERAT URE LAYER I N G

1 5

D u r i n g spri n g a n d fa l l
overtu rns, t h e temperat u re
of the water is equal ized
throughout the lake.
Fi shes and other a n i m a l s
a r e active a n d widely
d istributed.

Activity is greatly re
d u ced i n w i n ter, u nder
the ice. Many
a n i m a l s hibern ate in
the mud or debris at
the bottom. Some fishes
conti n u e to feed but
less actively.

The u p per layer of water cools in a utu m n u nti l it ap

proaches the temperature of the water i n the midd l e and
lower layers. Aided by winds, the surface water si n ks,
causi ng circu lation from top to bottom . This is c a l led
"fa l l overturn." In wi nter, the cold s u rface water con
ti n ues to si n k unti l , near the freezi ng poi nt, its density
beg i n s to decrease. The n ea r-freezing water (below
39.2F.) eve ntua l ly turns to ice at the surface.
The cover of ice p revents the wind from circu lati n g
t h e water, a n d "wi nter stagnation" occurs. Thick ice o r
s n o w a lso screens out the light and may stop ph otosyn
thesis. Pla nts a nd a n i m a ls may die d u e to a lack of oxy
gen; this is ca l l ed "wi nterki l l ." When the ice m elts i n
spri n g a n d t h e su rfa ce water warms a bove 39.2 F . , it
beco mes m o re dense. Aided by winds, a n other circula
tion a n d mixing, ca l led "spring overturn," occurs u nti l
the water temperature is again relatively u n ifor m .
16

IN

HABITATS
PONDS AND

LAKES

Ha bitats are p laces i n which rather disti n ctive groups

of p l a n ts a nd a n i m a l s a re fo u n d . I n la kes a nd l a rg e
ponds, the f o u r easily recog nized ha bitats are the s u r
face fi l m , open water, bottom, a n d shore.
is the ha bitat of air-breath i n g ,
floati n g a n i m a l s a n d o f th ose a n i m a l s w i t h speci a l de
vices that permit them to wa l k o n the surface without
brea king th rough. Some kinds of beetles, water bugs,
and free-fl oating p la nts a re ada pted to life o n ly o n the
upper side of the fi l m . The la rvae of som e beetles a n d
flies spend m uch t i m e h a n g i n g o n t h e u nderside o f the
film. Surfa ce-dwe l l i n g a n i m a l s feed o n the floati n g
pla nts, prey on one a n other, o r eat i n sects o r oth er a ni
mals that drown a n d then fl oat o n the surface.

THE S URFACE FILM

17

life con sists o f large, free-swi m m i n g a n i

ma ls, such as the fishes, and of sm a l l m icroscopic p la nts
and a n i m a l s that d rift suspended in the water. The d rift
ers, ca l led p l a n kton , vastly outn u m be r a l l the l a rg e r
po n d i n h a bitants. Sma l l suspended p l a nts, o r phyto
p l a n kto n , a re mostly a lgae, the basic food in ponds and
lakes. At times, some phytop l a n kton species m u ltip ly i n
g reat n u m bers, fo rming a "bloom" t h a t c l o u d s the water.
The zoop la n kton consists of sma l l suspended a nima ls
n u merous tiny crustacea ns, rotifers, some insect la rvae,
and oth e r i nvertebrates. The kinds and n u m bers of p l a n k
ton organisms va ry seasona l ly but are usua l ly m ost
a b u n dant in spri n g .
Turtles, bi rds, and l a r g e fi s h e s freq uent the o p e n
water a rea. Sma l l fishes usua l ly remain a m o n g p la nts
near shore. At n i g ht, some kinds of i nsect la rva e and
crusta cea ns mig rate from the bottom towa rd the su rfa ce,
then retu rn to deeper water as daylight comes.
The ope n-water a rea ends where p l a nts become
rooted. Ponds and sha l l ow la kes with emergent pla nts
extending from shore to shore lack an open-water a rea.
Deep open water of large lakes supports little o r n o life.
OPEN-WATER

18

of ponds a n d lakes offers a variety of

l ivi n g conditions from the shore outward to the deepest
reg ions. A sa ndy bottom in the shal lows (p. 20) may be
i n h a bited by sponges, snai ls, earthworms, a n d insects.
If the water is quiet, the bottom is usua l ly covered with
mud or si lt and conta i n s much orga n i c debris. C rayfish
and the nymphs of mayfl ies, dragonflies, and d a m se l
flies a re some of the many kinds of a n i m a ls that burrow
into the bottom m uds. Others live a m o n g the pla nts,
where food is usua l ly ple ntifu l a n d where they find pro
tection from predators.
Livi n g conditions o n the bottom i n deep open water a re
q u ite different. If the lake is very deep or the water tur
bid, light d oes n ot penetrate to the bottom and pla nts
ca n n ot g row. A n i m a l s ca n find little shelter, the a m o u nt
of disso lved oxyge n is low, a n d the carbon-dioxide con
centration is high. Among the few larger a n i m a l s that
ca n live i n the deep bottom zone a re some of the earth
worms, s m a l l clams, and fly l a rvae ("bloodworms" a n d
"pha ntoms") . Ba cteria of decay are com m o n ly a b u ndant
i n the deep region. T h ey are i mporta n t i n retu rning
chemicals to the cycle of life.

THE BOTTOM

19

extends from the water's edge

outward as far as rooted pla nts g row. In most ponds
and i n many sha l low lakes, this a rea may stretch from
shore to shore. I n many la kes there are typica l ly th ree
disti n ct concentric borders of floweri n g p lants, except
where the shore is so rocky o r swept by waves that
pla nts ca n not g row.
C losest to shore i s the emergent plant zone. It is dom
i nated by pla nts that a re rooted to the bottom a n d have
stems and leaves a bove the surface. Grasses, sedges,
and rushes a re pla nts typical of the emergent zone i n
ponds a n d lakes t h e world over. Ma n y kinds o f frogs,
bi rds, and m a m m a ls find food and she lter here. A vari
ety of a lgae, protozoa n s, worms, i nsects, snai ls, a n d
sma l l fishes l ive a m o n g underwater p l a n t stems.
Broad, flat- leaved water lilies and such floati n g p l a nts
a s water ferns and d uckweeds cha racterize the floating
leaf plant zone. Beca use the masses of fl oati n g l eaves
shade out the light, bottom pla nts may be scarce. Some
snails, bugs, a n d mayflies lay their eggs on the under
side of leaves. Many kinds of a lgae live in this zone,

T HE LITTORAL H A B I T AT

20

Subme rsed P l a n t

N a Rooted P l a n ts

either attached to larger pla nts or floati n g free. Sun

fishes a nd others breed and nest here.
The i n n ermost ba n d of vegetation forms the submersed
plant zone. Pondweeds, hornworts, a n d waterweeds are
typica l of this zone. A l l have leaves that are either long
a n d sinuous or bushy a n d very bra nched, c h a ra cteristi c
adaptations of those few fl owering p l a nts that g row
co m p l etely submerged . The fl owers a re p o l l i nated a bove
the su rfa ce; the seeds germi nate a nd the young p l a n ts
deve lop o n ly u nder the water.
The littora l zone, d o m i n ated by h i g h e r p l a n ts is the
ri ch est i n the pond com m u nity. Here are the g reatest
n u m ber of species, both p la n t a nd a n i m a l . The l ittora l
zone is easiest for the o bserver to visit a n d to study.
21

FOO D

W E BS

Except for sun light, the source of en ergy needed by

g reen pla nts for photosynth esis, a pond or a lake either
conta i n s o r p roduces everyth i n g necessa ry for the sur
viva l of the pla nts a n d anim a l s that live i n or near it.
Ponds, because they a re usua lly sma l l , are especia l ly
good p laces i n which to learn the relationships of pla nts
and a ni m a l s to their environment and to one a n other.
The m ost com mon l i n kage is through production o r con
s u mption of food.
All green p l a nts, from floati ng m icrosco pic p lants to
such flowering pla nts as pond lilies, m a n ufacture food.
P la nts become food for plant-eati ng (he rbivorous) a n i
ma ls, such as mayfly nymphs, small crustaceans, a n d
s o m e kinds of beetles. These a n i m a ls are i n turn preyed
upon by sma l l flesh-eati ng (ca rnivorous) a n i m a l s i n
c l u d i n g fishes, dragonfly nymphs, a n d beetle l a rvae .
larger fishes e a t the s m a l l e r fishes, crustacea n s, a n d in
sects. If not eaten, every plant a n d animal eventua l ly
dies a n d decom poses. Its protoplasm is red uced to the
basic materials that g reen pla nts need for g rowth. I n
this way the cycle of foods i s conti n uous.

I n ponds, food w e b s (cha i n s or

pyra m i ds) may be complex, with
many d i rect a n d i n d i rect food
sou rces supplying con s u mers. A l l ,
however, co n b e traced ulti mately
to g reen p l a n ts, the primary food
p roducers, which d erive energy
from the su n . This diagra m shows
a few food relationships. The
black a r rows show the most di rect,
most i m porta nt paths; the red,
those of lesser i m p o rta nce.
22

Relative Amou nts of O r gan i c

Matter Produced i n a Pond

Plants
87%
Zoo p l a n kton
thousands of copepods,
water fleas, midge la rvae

Phytop l a n kton
m i l l i o n s of a l gae, flagel lates,
diatoms, desmids, baderla
Large carnivores are at the peaks of
food pyramids, based on p l a nts, with many
i n ter m edi ate herbivores a n d ca rnivo res.

COMMUNITY
CHANGES
PONDS AND LAKES

IN

The n u m ber and kinds of pla nts a n d animals making u p

a pond o r lake com m u n ity changes conti n uously. These
orderly and prog ressive changes are cal led "successio n . "
S o m e of t h e changes a r e rapid, oth ers come slowly.
Often it ta kes h u n d reds of years for the succession of
life i n a pond to be completed . Various stages of matu
ration ca n often be seen in the d ifferent ponds i n one
region. In its you ng stage, organic matter from pioneer
plants and a n imals and from debris h a s j ust beg u n to
accumu late i n the pond (1) . I n ti me, seeds of a few e m er
gent p la nts are carried to the pond by the wi nd, water,
o r pond-visiti ng anima ls, and pla nts begi n to line the
shore (2). Then sma l l fish es, snails, m ussels, caddisflies,
mayflies, and dragonflies find sufficient food to live in
the pond. Some a rrive as eggs carried o n the feet of

24

birds or oth e r pond visitors. Adult i nsects may fly from

pond to pond; frogs, turtles, m i ce, and othe r large a n i
mals travel over land.
Eventua l ly pondweeds become abu nda nt on the bot
tom, a n d the e mergent shore pla nts g row farther o ut
i nto the pond. A l l contri bute more a n d m o re organic
matter to the bottom as they die a n d decay. And, a s the
pla nt popu lation changes i n character, the kinds of
fishes, i nsects, and oth er animals a l so cha n ge.
Finally emergent vegetati on extends all the way
across the pond, which now may be ca l led a m a rsh (3).
(Ma rshes may a lso origi nate in other ways.) B u l lheads,
sa lamanders, frogs, and tu rtles a re the dominant la rge
anima ls; worms l ive in the thick bottom m ud , a n d m a n y
aquatic i nsects a re f o u n d i n the shal low, weedy waters.
land pla nts close in around the shore, g rowi n g in t h e
r i c h h u m us. The fi l l i n g conti n ues unti l what w a s once a
pond becomes either a g rassy prairie or a forest (4).
This is the sta bi lized or climax stage.

25

Changes in the com munity a lso occur from day to

n i g ht a n d from o ne season to the next. Many a n i ma ls
stay i n bu rrows or hide i n the dense plant g rowth by
day. At night they emerge and m ove about i n search of
food . Some plan ktonic crustacea ns float to the surface
at nig ht, then return to the depths duri ng the day. After
a quiet wi nter, with the pond often ben eath i ce, life
flourishes again with spri n g warmin g . Pla nts bloom, im
mature i nsects molt and take off i n swarming fl ights of
adu lts, fishes spawn, and frogs and tu rtles emerge from
h i bernation. A ctivity conti nues th roughout the sum mer,
then subsides in a utu m n as winter approaches a n d the
tem perature of the water d rops.
depth

8 :30 p . m .

. -:;x :::F: : ;;:; _..+J;ki-:.l

.

. ...

. :

'

:'

'

1 ft.

2 ft.
3 ft.
4 ft.

1 0 :30 p . m .
1 ft.
2 ft.
3 ft.
4 ft.
12 :30 a . m.
1 ft.
2 ft.
3 ft.

NIGHT AND
DAY CHA NGES

In a 1 2 -h our per iod,

a population of copepods in a Florida
pon d varied i n density
as shown here. T he horizontal spread i n dicates ther elative
n u m bers of i n d ivid u a l s
a t e a c h 1 f t . i n terva l .
Note that b y 8: 30 a . m .
they have nearly a l l
d ropped back to deep
water a g a i n .

4 ft.
4 :30 a . m .

;i!l'l :..:;:::,
-..... : .:::.. .if'
.: \
:
' \ ... :.."'l
. . .: :: . :.'-.:
.
:.::)). : : .:} ':; ! :::-= '.:f: iH:.:: ::{ }:=.?!::::.
. . . . .. .
.

26

. .

8:30 a . m .

OBS ERVI N G

AND

C O L LEC T I N G

Ma ny o f the pla nts a n d a n i ma ls of ponds a n d la kes ca n

be observed a n d identified i n their natura l surround
ings. Often , h owever, it is n ecessary to collect them for
closer i nspection, or sma l l pla nts a n d a n i m a ls may be
kept i n aquari u m s to learn more about their h abits. It i s
i nteresti ng t o note the ada ptations of pla nts a n d a nimals
to va rious h a bitats (p. 17) a n d to o bserve the variations
i n types fou nd in d ifferent kinds of ponds.
Large pla nts a n d a n i m a ls do n ot requ i re special o r
expensive col lecti n g equipment. C o m m o n household
utensi ls o r easi ly constructed items can be used . Speci a l
equipment c a n be bought from biologica l supply fi rm s.
Abu n d a n ce of life along a n d in ponds rewards both observer a n d col lector.

27

N ETS a n d ather stra i n i n g devices

a re esse ntial for col lecti n g . To
catch flyi n g i nsects, use a cone
sha ped net of fi n e-meshed cloth
on a rou n d frame a n d attached
to a l o n g h a n d l e . A bag-sh a p ed
net on a very sto ut frame with
a strong h a n d l e is used i n the
wate r, o r a piece of window
screen m o u nted between two
sticks can be u sed for collecti ng
a m o n g p l a nts o r l itter. Catch
fishes and larger a n im a l s i n a
m i n now seine.

P l a n kton nels a r e m a d e of
very fi ne-meshed cloth. At least
180 meshes to the i n c h a re
needed for phyto p l a n kton . A
fairly satisfacto ry net for l a rg e r
plan kton a n i m a l s can be m a d e
b y attach i n g the u pp e r part of
a lady's stoc king to a hoop of
proper size. Then c u t off the foot
and tie the cut end a r o u n d the
neck of a jar. The net can be
d rawn t h r o u g h the water (p. 27),
o r wate r d i p ped from the pond
a n d pou red t h r o u g h it.
W H I T E ENAMEL PANS a re u se
ful for sortin g t h ro u g h deb ris
ca u g h t in the hand net. A l ittle
of the debris is put i n to a p a n
h a l f fi l led with water. The l ive
a n im a l s a re soon seen movin g
a b o u t over t h e white bottom .
Forceps a re the m o s t practical
i n struments for transferri n g s peci
mens.
A WATERSCOPE, O R UNDER
WATER V I EWER, ca n be made
by sealing a piece of g l ass in
a botto m l ess b uc ket o r water
proofed box. C o m m e rcial water
scopes are ava i l a b l e a l s o .
A P LANT HOOK ( g r a p p l e) at
tached to a l i n e is u sefu l for p u l l
i n g in pla nts from d e e p water
for exa m i n atio n .

28

COLLECTI NG EQUI PMENT

K I L L I N G JARS for i n sects c a n be

m a d e of a wad of cotton soaked
with clea n i n g fluid (carbon tetra
c h loride) p l a ced i n the bottom
of a screw-ca p jar. Other ty pes
of k i l l i n g jars c a n be b o u g h t
from b i o l o g i c a l s u p p l y ho uses.
V IALS AND JARS conta i n i n g a
p reservative are i m porta n t to
have on a col lect i n g t r i p . J a rs
with screw c a p s a r e best. T h e
t w o c o m m o n preservatives a r e
alcohol a n d forma l i n . R u b b i n g
a l c o h o l (isopropyl) is s u i ta b l e .
Ethyl a l c o h o l is g e n e r a l l y s o l d i n
95-perce n t strength a n d c a n b e
d i l uted t o 6 0 t o 7 0 percent.
Com mercial f o r m a l d e hyde is us
u a l l y 40 percent form a l i n a n d
s h o u l d be d i l uted to 5 perce n t
forma l i n .
SHOULDER BAG, o r knapsack, is
very u seful for carrying co l lecting
g e a r, c o n t a i n e r s , fir s t-a id k i t ,
knife, pen c i l , notebook, and per
sonal items.
AQUARI U M S provide a n excellent
place to study the habits ond life
histories of both p l ants a n d a n i
m a l s . S p e c i m e n s may be k e p t f o r
a long time if the aquarium i s "ba l
anced " i n food , plants a n d animals.

bag
NOTES AND LABEL S g ive the
speci m e n s y o u col l ect their sci
e ntific va l u e . In the f i e l d , you
ca n make t e m p o ra ry l a b e l s with
a pencil a n d place t h e m i n the
via l o r bottle wi th the speci m e n s .
late r the l a b e l s ca n be typed
o r p r i nted caref u l l y i n a per
m a n e n t ink. A l ways keep t h e m
with the speci m e n s.

COLLECT I N G E Q U I PMENT

29

PLANTS
Pla nts form the m ost conspicuous part of the pond, la ke,
a n d strea m environme nt. Their ro l e is hig h ly i m p o rta nt,
for o n ly pla nts can convert solar energy i nto chemical
energy stored in food. Green pla nts-those co ntaining
ch lorophyll pigments-do this i n the p rocess of p h oto
synth esis, uti lizing carbon dioxide, water, a n d ligh t en
ergy from the s u n .
The si m p lest of the plants a r e the tha l lophytes, the
g ro u p containing the bacteria, fungi, and a lgae (pp. 3138). Many of these l ower p la nts a re sin g l e-cel led a n d
m icroscopic, b u t they som eti mes occu r in such a bun
dance that they color the water and give it a d isti n ctive
odor. These sma l l est of the p la nts a re the m ost impor
tant food producers in the aquatic e nviron ment. Fila
m ents of a lgae that form the fa miliar pond scums usua l ly
h a rbor m a ny microscopic a n i m a ls.
larger and slig htly more comp lex i n stru cture and life
h i story are the bryop hytes, the group containing liver
worts and mosses (pp. 39-4 1 ) . They g row a b u ndantly
i n t h e moist soi l a long sh ores, and a few are aquatic.
Vascular pla nts, o r tracheophytes, include the ferns
(pp. 42-45) and the seed-bearing p lants (pp. 46-73).
These are the largest and most com plex of a l l the p l a nts.
Ferns are m ost typical of m oist shores, though a few
species a re a q uatic. Some of the seed-bea ring p la nts
g row com p l etely submerged . Oth ers are rooted in th e
bottom, but their leaves or fl owers may be on or a bove
the surfa ce. These pla nts offer p rotection a n d nestin g
sites t o a variety of fishes and oth er a nima ls; s o m e a r e
importa nt foods of mamma ls, waterfowl, and turtles.
G rasses, herbs, and shrubs rim the shore; trees form the
crow n i n g border.
30

form pond scums and the g reen hairy g rowths

on subm erged o bjects in ponds a nd lakes. "Blooms" of
diatoms may give the water a brownish color. T he indi
vidua l pla nts range in size from si ngle cells to the mats
of stoneworts resembling dense g rowths of higher plants.
The si ngle ce l ls of some a lgae a re joined together to
form chains o r fi l a m ents. Oth er sing l e-cel led a lgae swi m
like one-ce l led a nimals. Algae are fou n d i n a l l natura l
waters-even in hot springs. They conta i n ch lorophyl l
a n d often other pigments.
Algae form the broad base on which the food pyra
mids in ponds a n d lakes are built. In ma nufacturi n g food,
a lgae release oxygen, increasi n g the amount dissolved
in the water. When overa bunda nt, h owever, their decay
may depl ete the oxygen and cause "sum merkill" of
aquatic plants and a nimals.
ALGAE

MAJO R G R O U P S

OF

F R ES H - WATE R AL G AE

BLUE-GREEN ALGAE cells lack

nucle i, a n d p i g m e n t is scattered.
S l imy coati n g .
Page 32.
G R E E N ALGAE c e l l s have n ucle i;
pig ments in d istinct bodies. Most
a b u n d a n t pond a l g ae . Page 34.
STO N EWORTS are l a rg e g reen
algae, brittle d ue to l i me . Page 36.
EUGLENOI DS, g ree n ish or brown
ish c e l l s, swim with flagel l u m .
H ave r e d eyespot.
P a g e 36.
D I N OFLAGELLATES have one or
more
fl a g e l l a .
Fe
r e-swi m m i n g
p l a nts o f open waters. Page 36.
D I ATOMS are enclosed in two
shells that fit tog ether l i ke a
pill box.
Page 37.

31

BLUE-GREEN ALGAE a re simple, si ng le-ce l led p lants

without a wel l-defi ned nucleus (the cel l's control center) .
I n addition to g reen ch lorophyll, a blue a nd sometimes
a red pigment are a lso present. The pigments are spread
throug hout the cell rather than in d isti nct bodies o r p las
tids as i n all other a lgae. In m ost kinds of b l ue-green
a lgae the ce lls stick together to form slender strings, o r
fi la m e nts. T h e y a re m ost abundant i n p o n d s conta i n i n g
m uch orga nic matter, h e n c e the presence of rich growth s
of bl ue-g reen a lgae may be a clue to po l l uted waters.
Such blooms are com m o n in spring or sum m e r, when
conditions are favora ble a nd the a lgae reach a popula
tion peak. An a bundance of bl ue-green a lgae may give
water a disag reea ble odor or taste, and some make the
water poiso nous to a n i m a l s that d ri n k it.

ANABAENA rese m b l es a strin g

o f beads with l a rg e r e m pty cells
scatter ed a l o n g t h e fi lament.
Blooms of A na b a e n a are com
mon, d iscoloring t h e water a n d
g iving it a p u t r i d odor w h e n the
cells d ie a n d decay.
NOSTOC, similar to Anabaena,
is enclosed in a gelatinous mass.
Filame nts may float or become
attached to objects, living also
in swift strea m s o r o n moist
shores. In l a kes, may g row in
water 60 feet deep.
ANACYST I S is a loose colony of
small spherical green cells in a
sha pel ess gelatinous m a ss. The
colony floats i n t h e water a n d
is visible to the naked eye. Often
fo u n d with A n a b a e n a . May be
poisonous to a n im a l s .

OSCI LLATO R I A is a fi l a me ntous

b l ue -g e
r e n alga that g rows in
de nse , darkly colore d c l u m ps or
mats. U n de r m a g n ification the
sle n de r fi l a me nts c a n be e
se n
swayi n g or twisti n g . F r a g me nts
com m o n l y brea k loose a n d float
away, sta rting ne w mats.
R IV U L A R I A g rows as fi l a me ntous
c l u m p s i n a thick ge l atinous
mass. T he c l u m ps, some time s an
inch thick, a e
r ofte n encruste d
with l i m e . W he n a b u n d a n t, this
alga g ives water a m u sty odor,
a n d rich g rowths m a y clog wate r
works fi lte rs.
AGMENELLUM consists of a flat
or c u rve d p late of bright b l ue
gre e n ce l ls . Large p l ae
t s sepa
rate into s m a lel r e
r cta n g u l a r
shape d u n its. T he c o l o n ies usual
ly float free l y i n the wate r. S ome
time s ca l l ed Me rismope dia.

GOMP H O S P H A E R I A g rows i n a
gol b u l a r colony, the
ce l l s e
s t
s i n g l y or in pairs in ge latinous
she aths, joine d l oose ly by sticky
stra n d s to ce nte r . Se ve ra l spe cie s
occu r wide ly in l a kes; some de
ve l o p blooms.

L YNGBY A is a fi l a me ntous b l ue
ge
r e n a l g a wide ly d istribute d i n
lake s a n d stre a m s . E a c h fi l a me nt
is surrounde d by a t h i n , ge lati
n o u s sheath. S ome spe cie s float
fre ely; others are attache d . Spe
c ei s shown g rows i n spirals.
B L U E- G R E E N A L G A E

33

GREEN ALGAE are bright g rass-green with pi g m e nts in

speci a l plastids, o r ch loroplasts. The c e l l has a well

d efined nucleus. Green algae occur as single cel ls, as
round a n d flattened colonies, and as fi la m ents. Green
a lgae a re more abundant i n ponds and la kes than a l l
oth er a l g a l g roups com bined. Some species are marine.

v ulgaris
x 1 500

CHLORELLA,
a
s i n g l e-ce l l ed
g reen a l g a , m a y occ u r in cl u m ps
or loose a g g regates or as soli
to ry cells scattered among other
algae. Widespread i n N . A ., es
pecia l l y i n org a n ic a l l y rich and
poll uted waters, giving them a
m u sty odor.
S P I ROGYRA i s a com m o n fi l a
mentous gr een a l g a with a spiral
c h l oroplast i n each cel l . Fr e
q uently for m s d e n se b l a n kets on
the s u rface of ponds i n s p r i n g .
I n related M o ugeotia, cells have
a long platelike chloroplast that
turns inside cell as i t a d j u sts to
i n ten sity of s u n l i g ht.
C LADOPHORA has lang, s l i m
cells that f o r m bra n c h i n g fi la
ments. Some species g ro w at
tached; others float and may
form tangled m a ts. U n d e rwater
cu rrents may roll Cladoph ora
i n to balls 3 to 4 inches in diam
eter. When its core d ecays, b a l l
rises to t h e su rface.
DRAPARNALDIA consists of bar
rel-sha ped cells that form l o n g
stri ngs, or fi l a m e nts. T h e m uc h
b r a n c h e d fi l a m ents bear tufts of
smaller branches at i n terva l s . Us
u a l l y g rows attached to rocks,
sticks, or other objects.

P E D IASTRUM A N D HYDRODIC
TYON ar e closely related . Pe di
a ts rum, a c o m m o n and wide
spread
floating
( p l a n kton ic)
form, has m a n y species. Hydro
die/yon, or Water Net, forms flat
sheets or cyl i n d rica l colonies sev
eral inches across. Both th rive i n
q u iet water s.
SCENEDESMUS A N D A N K I STRO
DESMUS, often fou n d together ,
are par ticular ly a b u n d a n t i n
s m a l l p o n d s a n d pools. A nk isl ro
desmus is u s u a l l y i n term ixed with
other a lgae. Sce nedesm us cells
ar e s m a l ler, and most species
gr ow i n colon ies.
DESMIDS are b e a u tiful l y s h a pe d ,
bright g reen c e l l s common i n
p l a n kto n , especia l ly i n soft- water
(low p H ) l a kes a n d bogs. T he
clear con n ectio n , or isth m us, be
tween the two sem icells is a char
acteristic of desm ids. T he cells of
some desmids a d h er e e n d to
e n d , forming fi l a m e nts. T wo com
m o n s i n g l e-ce l l e d types are Mi
crasl erias, d ivided into typical
semice l l s, and Closf erium, with
cells u s u a l l y cr escent-sha ped a n d
with n o isth m us.

M icrasterias
l runcal a
x2 50

VOLVOX for m s large hol low

spher ica l colonies of cells, each
of which h a s a n eyespot a n d two
fl a g e l l a . S om e colon ies consi st of
thousa n d s of c e l l s e m bedded i n
a gelatinous envelope f r o m which
the flagella protrude. In most
species the cells ar e joined by
stra n d s of proto p l a s m . D a u g hter
col onies form with i n the parent.
As fl a g ella beat, V olvox rotates
and rolls t hr o u g h water.

GREEN A LGAE

35

fl ex ilis
8-1 2 in.
E U G L E N O l D S may a l so b e classi
fi ed a s a n i m a l s because of their
abil ity to move independently.
Some species l a c k p i g m e n t a n d
obta in food i n a n i mal fashion,
but. most have c h l orophyll and
m a n ufact u re their own food .
Eugle n a is common in ponds rich
in org a n ic matter a n d may g ive
the water a bright green color.
It h a s a single fl a g el l u m and a
conspic u o u s red eyespot. Phacus
is very s i m i l a r, b u t the cell is
pea r-sha ped a n d less flexible.

36

STONEWORTS are g reen algae

b u t are so m uc h l a r g e r than
others fo u n d i n fresh wat e r t hat
they are sometimes classifi ed i n
a g r o u p by themselves. Ston e
worts g row best in h a rd water
(high p H ) , ofte n forming d e n se
mats on the pond botto m . T h ey
u s u a l ly h ove a g a r l ic-l ike odor,
a n d some species a re covered
with a t h ick, brittl e l i m y c r u st.
Both C ho re and N itella bear red
reprod uctive structu res at leaf
nodes.
D I NO FLAGELLATES
hove
two
whiplike fl a g e l l a . C eratium, a
common type, is spined a nd
brownish in color. Its two fl a
g e l l a lie i n a g roove of the shell
cove r i n g the sing le-ce lled p l a nt.
Most species a r e m a rine, but the
one i l l u strated and C . ca rolin
ian a live in ponds and l a kes. C .
hirun dinella is c o m m o n i n pla n k
ton of h a rd- water l a kes, often
d eveloping brown blooms. Peri
cl inium is m a i n l y m a ri n e ; about
30 species i n fresh water.

S T O N E W O R T S, E U G L E N O I D S , D I N O F L A G E L L A T E S

DIATOMS a re m i croscopic, sing le-cel led yellow-g reen

a lgae. The two ha lves or "va lves" of their c e l l overlap
a n d fi t together like the ha lves of a pil l box. T h e cel l
wa l ls, of s i l ica a n d pecti n, may be fi nely scu l ptured with
pits a n d l i nes. The fi n e lines a re so perfectly formed
that they a re used for testi ng the focus of m i croscopes.
Some species are com m o n i n p l a n kto n . T h ese ca n m ove,
prope l l ed by a band of p rotoplasm strea m i n g a l o n g a
slit in the va lve. Others c l i n g to submerged objects or to
one a n other in l oose fi l a m ents.

Asterion ella

y9 ';dleew
/

(lop or bottom )

D I ATOMS

37

Thiothr xi sp. x 1 00

S pha eroti/us sp. x500

BACT E R I A a re m icroscopic, a
r ng
i n g from 1 /25,000 to as sma l l
as 1 /250,000 of a n inch. Most
kinds obta i n their e n ergy from
d ea d pal nts a n d a n ima ls and
thus a r e the principal a g ents of
decay. T h ey ret u r n such chemical
n utrients a s nitrog e n , s u lfur, a n d
phosphorus to t h e pond or al ke.
A Q U A T I C F U N G I g row as pa a
r
sites on l iving p l a nts or a n ima l s
a n d a s s a p rop hytes on those that
are dead. Wa ter molds (Sa p
role g na
i , M itrula , a n d others)
a re
seen
a s whitish, fu zzy
g rowths, the b r a n c h i n g fial m ents
sprea d ing over and into wounds
of fishes or other pond a n i m a l s

Bacteria are s e l d o m a b u n da nt i n
wa ters with a h ig h ox ygen con
tent, hence a r e a
r re i n clea r
pon d s or l a kes. The fi l a m e ntous
types a bove l ive i n wa ter with a
h i g h hydrogen s u l fi d e content
(T hi oth rix); in rich organic con
tamination (S pha erotilis); a n d in
a h i g h iron content (Leptothrix) .
or on pla nts. I n a q ua ri u m s a n d
ha tc he ries, these f u n g i a l so g row
on fish eggs a nd ma y be dffi
i cu l t
to c o n t r o l . The f u z z y fi l a me nts
a re r e p ro d u c t ive s t r u c t u r e s .
Spores o r e produced i n g reat
n u m bers and d i spersed by water
m ovements. They g e r m i na te a nd
g row into new fi l a m e nts.

reproductive
structures
x 1 00

38

B A C T E R I A- F U N G I

Lept othrix sp. x 1 00

BRYOPHYTES (Mosses a n d Liverworts) g row i n m oist

shady a reas throughout the world. They a re com m o n in
bogs and swa m ps, and i n th e h u mid tropics they often
grow o n trees. Great beds of liverworts and m osses usu
a l ly deve lop o n newly clea red g rou n d . T h ese ric h car
pets help to prevent soil erosi o n a n d hold moisture, t h u s
pavi n g the w a y f o r h i g h e r pla nts.
LIVERWORTS grow o n moist soi l and rocks a lo n g shores,
and a few species l ive i n water. The body, o r tha l l us, of
some liverworts is fl at and lobed (liver- l i ke); i n oth ers
it is bra n c h ed a n d leafy.
R I C C IOCARPUS often forms
dense p u rp l e-green m osses o n
pond su rfaces. Each tha l l us is
thick a n d lobed, with threa d l i ke
p u r p l i s h scales below.

natans

0.5 i n .

R I C C I A S have
m a n y slender
branches. Wh e n a b u n d a nt, the
pla nts m a y p i l e u p i n a g reen
mass on shore or form a n etlike
sheet o n the su rface.
JUNGERMA N N I A
has leaflike
pa rts a rran g ed a b o u t a ste m .
S o m e species occ u r on l y i n fast
streams; others g row as emer
gen t p l a nts i n q u iet waters.
MARC H A N T I A g rows o n moist
shores. M a l e an d f e m a l e plan ts
a re separate. Sperm swim to the
fem a l e a n d ferti l i ze the egg,
which then d evelops i n to a
spore-prod u c i n g sta g e . It rema i n s
parasitic on the fem a l e a n d re
leases spores that g row i nto n ew
sex u a l -sta g e pla nts. March antia
also prod uces b u d s, or g e m m a e ,
h
t a t g row into new p l a nts.
L I VERWORTS

39

MOSSES g row in de nse mats, m u c h like liverworts, but

the flat leaflike structures of m osses grow from a centra l
sta l k . At times a spore case, usua l ly on a long stem,
g rows from the leafy sta lks. Spores ripen i n the case a n d
a re released . E a c h spore t h a t germ i n a tes becomes a
leafy p l a n t that reprod u ces sex u a l ly. The cyc le is com
p l eted when a spore case is prod u ced again .
Boat-leaved Sphag n u m
S . palustre

S P HAGNUMS, o r Peat Mosses,

a re the most fa m i l i a r m o sses of
cool p o n d s and bogs. The n u
merous species g row in thick
g reenish mats a l o n g the edges
a n d sometimes over the s u rface
a s a floating mat. A p l a nt's
leaves a re dead near bose of
sta l k but g reen and g rowi n g
ne a r t ip . leaves conta i n n u me r
o u s em pty c e l l s w i t h m a n y h o l e s
i n their wa l l s . T h e s e c e l l s m a y
hold several times t h e i r weig h t
i n water, w h i c h is released slowly
a n d keeps the moss moist even
i n d r y weather.

Sha rp-l eaved

Sphag n u m
S . capi//ace um
water-h olding

S . mage//anicu m

/,

empty

cel l s

MOSSES

c l o rophy l l
cel ls

S . palustre

The mo ny species of sphog

n u ms a r e iden tified by o variety
of features. In one g r o u p the
branches form rather thick tufts,
and the w a l l s of the em pty cel l s
o r e stre ngthened by spira l thick
enings that are c l e a r l y vis i b l e as
lines. In a n ot h e r group, the
branches a re s l i m a n d ta pered ,
a n d t h e em pty c e l l s d o n o t hove

40

S . affine

0 fYU
)

spiral thickenings.
Another d isti nctive feature is
the shape of the l iv i n g c e l l s,
those that contain c h l o r o p h y l l
a n d h e n c e a re g re e n . As shown
a bove, the c h l or o p h y l l cells of
S . mag ella n icum ore e l l iptica l .
Those o f S . palustre o r e n a r row
ly tria n g u l a r, but i n S . a ffi n e
the t r i a n g l e s are e q u i latera l .

WATER MOSS g rows in cool c l i

mates. It is f o u n d most c o m m o n l y
as a ta n g l e d m a t of feathery
g reen fi l a m e n ts o n s u b m e rg e d o r
on parti a l l y s u b m erged objects
a l o n g lake o r pond shores. A
variety of sm a l l a n im a l s l ive i n
t h e s e d e n s e g rowths. The stems
a re s l e n d e r and often h i g h l y
b ra n c h e d , the t i p s u s u a l l y l ig hter
i n color than t h e bases d u.ri n g
the g rowi ng s e a s o n . S p o r e s are
l i b e rated i n s u m m er.

Dichelyma
ca p i/la ce u m

to 3 i n .

FOUNTA I N MOSS is fo u n d usu

ally i n fast-flowing, c o l d -water
streams b u t occasion a l l y g rows
in p o n d s . T h i s d a r k - g reen moss
occurs either as a fl oating mat
or a s a waving mass atta ched to
sto nes o r other ob jects. la n ce
shaped leaves o f F o u nta i n Moss
ore d e n s e l y c l u stered a b o u t the
sta l k except n e a r its base. O n e
o f the la rgest of the m osses.

novae-a ngliae
to 3 i n .

WATER H Y P N U M is a n aq uatic
form of Tra i l i n g H y p n u m of
d a m p woods. It g rows on stones
o r i n soi l i n bogs and ponds but
i s most a b u n d a n t in fast- flowi n g
streams. Leaves may be b r i g h t
o r v e r y d a r k g re e n . T h e leaves
are a rr a n g e d s p i r a l l y and closely
p ressed a b o u t t h e stem, g i v i n g
it a rather fu l l a p pearance.
P H I LO N O T I S i s a d a r k g reen
moss of slow o r sta g n a n t waters.
Its e rect stems, about 2 i n c h e s
l o n g , often form a c r e e p i n g m a t
on rocks o r sa n d . M a n y smal l
a n i m a l s fi n d food a n d cover i n
the matted moss. S p o r e c a p s u l e s
on l o n g , s l i m stem s . P l a nts t u r n
w h i t e when d ry.

Ph ilonotis sp.
1- 3 i n .

MOSSES

41

(Tracheop hytes) gen era l ly have

roots, stems, and leaves with tubelike cond u cti n g tissues.
One set of tissues (ph loem) tra n sfers m a n ufactu red food;
a n other (xylem) cond ucts water u p from the roots a n d
a lso a i d s i n s u p porti ng t h e pla nt. T h ese fea tu res a re
ada ptations to life on l a n d , wh ere most of the m ore th a n
250,000 vasc u l a r pla nts l ive. A few species a re a q uati c :
t h a t i s , seeds germi nate i n water and p l a nts g row s u b
merged or a re at least rooted i n water .
Ferns a n d their relatives are com m o n l y referred to a s
" l ower vasc u l a r p l a n ts." The f e r n a l lies o n t h i s page
g row i n water o r i n very m oist soi ls. O n p . 43 a re a q u a -

VAS C U LAR PLANTS

Q U I LLWORTS o re fern a l l ies

common i n s h a l low wate rs, wet
mead ows, and occa sion a l l y in
clear l a kes. T h e fleshy bose of
leaves is eaten by waterfowl .
H O R SETA I LS o r e fe r n a l l ies. Of
about 25 species, seve r a l g row
in mead ows and a l o n g pond a n d
lake shores. T h e g r o u p fl o u rished
a b o u t 280 m i l l ion years ago.
M a n y hove ro u g h ste ms due to
sil ica content.

spore
bearing

42

F E R N )_ L L I E S

tic ferns, fo l lowed on p p . 44-45 by wetla n d ferns. I n

ferns, t h e spore- p rod u c i n g (sporophyte) is t h e fa m i l i a r
pla nt. T h e sex u a l sta g e i s i n conspicuous.
"Higher vascu l a r p l a nts" bea r seeds, fl owers, and true
roots. Those that g row i n pond o r l a k e waters o r a long
the shore range i n size from tiny pondweeds to giant
cyp resses. S o m e of t h e most common of these m oi st-a rea
seed - bea rers a p p e a r on pp. 46-73 .
WATER S H A M R O C K S ore ferns
of s h a l low waters. Their four
clove r-l i k e l e a fl ets, u s u a l l y float
ing, rise o n s l e n d e r sta l ks from
creeping ste ms rooted i n the
m u d . Differen ces i n the seed l ike
spore cases that d ev e l o p n e a r

the leaf bases ore usef u l i n

i d e n tifyi n g species. M . q ua dri
folia , a native of E u r o pe, g rows
in eastern states. M. vestita is
also fo u n d l o c a l l y i n the East
but is a weste rn species, a s are
M . macro p oda and M. uncinata.

Spore Case
Com p arison

leaf

Ma rsilea
vestita

t, toothed

.!. I M .
:J2' .q ua dri foli

2-6 smooth
cases

.
2-6 h a ry
cases

WATER F E R N S occ u r in a l l k i n d s
of q u iet waters from coast t o
coast. Leaves l o b e d , sca le-like.
Form red d ish-green mats. Repro
d uce by b r e a k i n g a part.

V
\..

SALV I N I A is a n i n trod uced fe r n ,

mostly of worm e r reg i o n s . Leaves
have p i m p l e - l i k e swe l l i n g s a n d
stiff h a i rs on t h e u p p e r s u rface .
S u bmerged leaves a r e root l i k e .

43

CRESTED WOODFERN is a l acy

e ve rg e
re n e
f rn of low, we t woods
and m a rshe s. Grows i n rounde d
c l uste rs from rootstock. S im i l a r
S pi n u l ose Fern a l so c o m m o n
a l o n g ponds, g rows i n short
rows. Both 2 fee t ta l l .

MARSH FER N, with t h i n, de licate

el ave ,
s g rows a b o u t 2 . 5 e
fe t
tal l . Ve ry e
s nsitive to frost. Com
mon from ce ntral N . A . e a stward,
e specia l l y in wet me ad ows. le af
el ts o p posite a t base, becom i n g
a le
t r nate toward t i p .

RATTLESNAKE FERN has tria n g u

l a r l acy fronds. S pore case s con
ta i n i n g ye l l ow spore s are borne
on a e
s parate ste m . Common in
we t l a n d s a n d along shore s of
wood l a n d ponds, p a rtic u l a r l y in
acid, shade d soils. Commonly to
2 e
f e l ta l,
l ofte n ta lel r .

ADDER'S TONGUE FERNS, 4 to

15 i n c he s ta l,
l i n h a b i t wet fie l d s
a n d l a ke shore s t h r o u g h o u t N . A .
The i r s i n gel el af, a b o u t h a l fway
u p sta l k, is spoon-s h a pe d . Spore s
ae
r borne at tip of a sle nde r
sta l k risi ng a b ove t h e leaf. Re
late d to Rattle sn a ke Fe rns.

Ophiog lossum
vulgatum

44

FERNS

C I N NAMON F E R N , common i n
easte rn N . A . , h a s twice-d ivided,
n a rrow ste ri l e fronds a b o u t 3
e
f et t a l.
l Spore stal ks, a p pear
i n g in e a r l y s p r i n g , a re at fi rst
ge
r e n, the n c i n n a m o n . le afsta l k
base h a i ry.

R O Y A L F E R N o c c u r s wide ly from
Me xico into C a n a d a i n wet soils,
m a rshe s, and even i n shal low
waters of ponds. leaves a e
r
twice -d ivided a n d m a y be 6 feet
t a l l , with l i g h t brown spore cases
at tips.

V I R G I N I A C H A I N FERN g rows
i n acid bogs, swa m p s, and wet
l a n d s of ce ntral and eastern
N.A. The leave s, about 3-4 ef e t
t a l l , arise from sca l y rootsta l k s
that wind t h r o u g h the soi l . D o u
b l e rows o f spore c a s e s are
found on u n d erside of leafle ts .

OSTR I C H FERN is o ne of t he
l a rge st N.A. f e r n s, with ste rile
fro n d s u p to 5 feet ta l l . Spore
be a r i n g fronds, n e a r l y 2 feet
t a l l , a re d a rk, hard, and pod
l i ke. Widely d istr i b u ted i n cen
tral a n d eastern N.A. i n swa m p s
a n d a l o n g l a k e sho res.

CATTAILS, fi rst of the fl oweri n g pla nts treated i n this

book, are common i n m a rshes a nd d itches a n d a lo n g

sha l l ows o f la kes, ponds, a n d s l o w streams. The long
slender leaves reach a height of 6 to 8 feet. The fl ower
stem s, usua l l y shorter than the leaves, bea r two masses
of flower parts. Cattai ls spread by their wind-borne
seeds a n d a lso by their sta rchy u nderground root-stocks.
Twe lve species occur i n N .A.
B R O A D - L E A V E D C A T T A I L is
found t h r o u g h most of N .A. U p
per flower c l uster of m a l e {sta m
i nate) flowers a n d l ower c l uster
of female ( pisti l l ate) flowers a re
closely joined on the catta i l .
S tem sturdy, l eaves flat.

NAR ROW-LEAVED CATTA I L oc

c u rs i n easte r n N.A., g rowing in
both fresh and brackish waters.
Male and fem a l e flower c l u sters
a re wel l sepa rated on flower
spike. S te m is s l e n d e r, the l eaves
rounded.

leaves
0.5 in. wide

flower,
o r catta i l

46

CATTA I LS

B UR-REEDS g row i n wet soi l or i n sha l l ow waters, com

m o n ly with catta i ls, to which they are c l osely related .
The two a re freq uently the dominant pla nts in the m a rshy
borders of ponds. Bur- reeds have long slender leaves.
Their seeds a re borne on sepa rate sta l ks in d e nse bur
like c l u sters. A bout 1 0 species occur in N .A., m ai n ly i n
centra l a n d northern a reas. Seeds eaten by waterfowl ;
seeds a n d leaves b y m uskrats.
GIANT BUR-REED, 3 to 6 feet
tall, is widely d istributed i n N .A .
I t flowers i n early s u m m e r . T h e
I o rg e c l u sters of f e m a l e flowers
are located below s m a l l e r m a l e
c l usters o n some stem . S traplike
l eaves float o n s u rface.

WESTE R N
B U R-REED,
smaller
t h a n G i a n t B u r-reed, is c o m m o n
f r o m the northern R o c k i e s to the
Pacific a n d a lso i n New E n g l a n d .
I nsect l a rvae a n d o t h e r s m a l l
an imals
l ive
on
u n d e rwater
stems.

deta i l of
male flower

c l u ster of ripe
n u tlets

n u tlet
BUR-REEDS

47

a re the la rgest fa m i l y of truly a q uatic

seed p l a nts. They are perennia ls, g rowi ng mai n ly i n cool
regions. More th a n 60 species g row i n fresh-water ponds
a n d lakes a n d some even i n brackish a n d salt wate r.
Severa l kinds of ducks feed a l m ost w h o l ly on pond
weeds. The dense underwater g rowths of po ndweeds
p rovide cover for fish es, snai l s, and other a n i m a l s. Pond
weeds survive the wi nter by usi n g food stored i n their
undergro u n d stems a n d tubers. Tu bers a lso brea k off
a nd g row i nto n ew p l a nts. I n summer, heavy g rowths of
some pondweeds may interfere with boati ng, fi s h i n g ,
a n d swi m m i n g . Most fresh-water pondweeds have spike
like fl owers; leaves usua l ly a ltern ate a lo n g the ste m .

PO N DW E E DS

LEAFY P ON DWEED i s fo u n d i n
clear p o n d s a n d stre a m s of
northern N .A. Its l eaves, a l l sub
m e rsed, a r e t h i n and ta p e l i ke
with flower spikes in axils. Fruit
kee l e d .

has
B R O W N LEAF
FLOAT I N G
broadly rounded floating leaves
and l o n g , ribbo n - l i ke , s u b merged
leaves. F r u i t with a l m ost n o keel .
It g rows in q u iet waters t h r o u g h
out N.A.

is
P O N DWEED
BERCHTO LD'S
common in n o rtheastern and cen
tra l N . A . Both floating and s u b
merged l eaves a re s l e n d er.

SAGO PONDWEED is widespread

i n N . A . i n hard -wate r a n d brack
ish l a kes, ponds, a n d s l u g g is h
streams. T h e stems are m a ny
bra n ched , and the leaves are
s l e n d e r . Beca use its tubers a n d
seeds a r e a h i g h l y prize d water
fowl food, Sago P o n d weed h as
been widely p l a nted .

CRISP PONDWEED, i n trod uced

from E u rope, is wid espread in
eastern a n d central N.A. Grows
in clear and p o l l uted wate rs,
sometimes at depths of 5 feet.
C r i n k led, rather broad leaves
a re s u b m erg e d ; a ltern ate on
lower stem, c l u stered a n d o p po
site n e a r t i p . Fruit beaked .
V A R I A B L E P O N DWEED has
broad, rather e l l i ptical floati ng
l eaves and somewhat na rrower
s u b merged l eaves. Wid espread
i n tem p e rate N . A . waters.
48

PONDWEEDS

H O R N E D P O N D W E E D occurs i n
ponds, l a kes, c a n a l s, o n d brack
ish waters from coast to coast.
U n l ike those of other p o n d
w e e d s , t h e H o r n e d P o n d weed's
slim leaves o re a rranged op
posite o n the s l e n d e r ste m . F l a t
tened f r u it, or n ut l et, h a s teeth
a l o n g its outer m a rg i n . N utlets
sometimes eaten by waterfow l .

PONDWEEDS

49

often ca l led Waterweeds, typi ca l ly g row sub

m e rged . Their slender leaves are swo l le n at base and
form whorls along the stems. About 35 species are known
i n te mperate a n d tropica l regions, but o n ly 8 occur in
N.A., most a bu ndantly i n eastern states. Stems, leaves,
and seeds a re a favorite food of d u cks. Plants p rovide
she lter for many sma l l aq uatic a n i m a ls.

NAIADS ,

BUSHY P O N D W E E D is common
in
shollow
l o kes
and
s l ow
streams in n orthern states. I n
de e p water (20 feet o r m o re),
g rows with long wavi n g stems;
i n shal low water, d e n se a n d
b u s h y . Seeds s h i n y a n d smooth.
SOUTHERN NAIAD is fo u n d i n
c e n t r a l a n d n o rtheaster n states,
but most c o m m o n i n the South.
R a n g e exte n d s i n to S . A. Seeds
d u l l a n d roug h .
S P I N Y N A I A D g rows i n brackish
waters and i n s h a l low fresh
water ponds and l a kes. Leaves
coarsely tooth e d . W i d e l y d i s
t r i b u ted in N . A . b u t a b u n d a nt
o n l y loca l l y . Seeds broad .

Spiny N a i a d
N. marina
3 ft.

50

NA IADS

include Arrowheads, or Duck Po

tatoes, which usua lly have edible tubers. The l eaves a rise
i n bunches from a basa l sta l k and may be egg -sha ped,
slender, o r a rrow-shaped. F l owers, which h ave 3 peta ls,
are borne o n long slender stems. About 50 species in
N.A. Some are emergent; others g row s u b m erged i n
shal low water.
WATER PLA NTA I NS

WATER P L ANTA I N g rows i n wet

a reas from Canada southwa rd.
The broad l y ovate l eaves a re
coarsely v e i n e d . P i n kish or wh ite
flowe rs are a t e n d s of stiff stem s
r i s i n g a bove l eaves.
DUCK POTATO g rows in s h a l
low shore zones of a l l q u iet
waters i n N . A . except i n the
Southwest. length and shape of
l e af blades varies with d e pth of
water. Widely p l a nted; thick tub
ers a favorite waterfowl food .
GRASSY A R ROWH EA D is com
m o n i n ponds and a l o n g streams
of easte r n N.A. The leaves vary
i n shape - broad i n s h a l l ow
water, n a rrow in d e e p .

Duck Potato
Sagitta ria
loti folia

to 3 ft.

G r assy A rrowhead
S . grominae

to 2 ft.

Nater

A T E R P-L A N T A I N S

51

i n c lude o n l y a few a q uatic speci es, d if

fi c u l t to i d e ntify. Their two-ran ked (2 rows on ste m ) ,
pa ra l l e l-veined leaves h a v e s h e a t h s l o o s e l y encircling
ro u n d h o l low stems. F lowers i n spikelets.

TRU E GRASSES

S H O RT-A W N
FOXTA I L , fo u n d
throug h o u t N . A . except in t h e
southern states, g rows i n s h a l
low p o n d s , d itches, or w e t a reas
periodica l l y d ry . Sometimes tra i l s
o v e r su rface o f p o n d s . Spike lets
i n a s l i m , d e nse c l u ster.
C O R D GRASS h a s stra i g h t ste m s
a n d l o n g stro n g l e aves. I t g rows
in sha l l ow water a l o n g l a kes
whe re its roots b i n d t h e sa n d .
A l s o g rows i n m a rs h e s except i n
Southeast. S p ike lets i n t w o rows
u p spike.
M A NNA GRASSES a r e pere n n i a l
p l a nts w i t h ta l l ste m s g rowing
from rh izomes, o r rooted stems.
About 10 species are known i n
N.A., w h e r e t h e y a re m ost a b u n
d a n ! i n the East.
C U T GRASS h a s feathery m a sses
of seed c l u sters and fi n e l y saw
toothed leaves. C o m m o n i n s h a l -

1 -4 ft.

R E E D GRASS
has l a n g fl a t
leaves, p l u m e l i ke flower c l u sters,
and stiff ste m s . A l o n g lakes a n d
ponds, except i n Southeast.
W I LD RI CE is a n ative grass that
grows i n shallow water. A c h o ice
food of waterfow l . Grows in
n o rth-ce ntral N.A., less a b u n
d a ntly E a s t a n d S o u t h .
C A N A R Y G R A S S g rows i n w e t
areas a n d a l o n g s t r e a m b a n ks
over most of N .A . , except in the
Southeast. leaf b l a d e s fl at, ste m s
erect. T w o o t h e r s p e c i e s i n g e n u s
a r e terrestria l .
BLUEJ O I N T GRASS is t h e o n l y
a q u atic of a b o u t 20 N .A. species
i n this g e n u s . I t i n h a b its shores
a n d other wetl a n d s from Gree n l o o d Oo
o o oOho'" U .S.

t'"'1"

W i l d Rice
Ziza nia a q1u--=

C a n a ry G rass
Phala ris

leaf
sheath
GRASSES

.5 3

are g rasslike p l a nts with th ree- ran ked leaves

(3 rows o n stem ) . The basa l sheath of each leaf g rows
ti g htly a ro u n d the solid stem , which is tria n g u la r i n cross
secti o n . Ma ny of the approximately 3,000 species in this
fa m i ly g row i n water or i n wetla nds.

SEDGES

BEAK R U S H E S (about 200 spe

cies) are pere n n i a l s fo u n d main
l y i n warm regions. Species
shown is common i n n o rth-centra l
a n d easter n states, rarely i n
Northwest. Ducks eat n u t l ets.

CAR EX (about 1 ,000 species) a re

widely d istributed sedges of
q u iet wafers, m a rshes, a n d wet
meadows i n tem perate reg ions.
Seed c l u sters, or n utlets, g row
closely to the th ree-sided stems.

THREE-SQ UARE, a l so known as

the C h a i r- m a kers' Rush, is o n e
of about 1 50 b u l rushes. I t h a s
d e nsely packed s e e d c l u sters a n d
short leaves a r i s i n g n e a r base
of ste m . Grows i n s h a l l ows of
coastal and i n l a n d waters.

D U L I C H I U M h a s short l eaves
a n d , u n l i k e most sedges, a h o l
low ste m . I t g rows i n bogs a n d
along marshy s hores of q u iet
waters of the East Coast, in
n orthern states, and i n t h e Pa
cific Northwest.

leaves, th ree-ra n ked

......._ 1

tem
3

2 ..-(_

D. arun in aceum

1 -3 ft .
Carex
C. aq uatilis
1 -3 ft.

54

S E DGES-R U S H ES

n utlet
0. 1 i n .

Eleocha ris
obf usa

2-5 ft_

S P I K E R U S H E S ( a b o u t 1 50 spe
cies) g row i n m a rshes and a l o n g
shores. Stems, m a i n l y leafl ess,
a n d seed c l usters a rise i n a
c l u m p from m atted rootstock.
Water C hestn ut, n a t ive to C h i n a ,
is a t u b e r o f a s p i k e r u s h .

SAW GRASS, to a b o u t 1 0 feet

ta l l , g rows i n fresh and brack
ish water and in wetl a n d s of the
southeastern coastal p l a i n s in
c l u d i n g the G u lf. C h a racteristic
of Florida's Everg l a d e s . Leaves
have sha rp, spiny edges.

are emergent p l a nts with flatte n ed , often h o l

low leaves. T h e ste m s a re a lso h o l low o r pith-fi l l ed. F l ow
ers are borne in clusters on o r near ti p of ste m _ G row i n
s h a l low fresh water a n d i n salt ma rshes. Genus conta i n s
a bout 2 0 0 species, difficult t o disti n g ui s h .

RUSHES

SHARP-F R U I T E D R U S H h a s cyl i n
d r i c a l leaves a n d a projection o n
t i p of see d . Wid espread i n east
ern N . A .

BLACKROOT R U S H g rows i n
sh a l lows a n d a l o n g s h o res i n c e n
tral a n d easter n N . A . Rootstock
sto ut and black.

Backroot R ush

J . marginafus

flower

of a bout 1 ,500 species a re m a i n ly m oist-soil

land pla nts o f the tropics and temperate regions. S k u n k
C a b bage, J a ck-i n -th e - p u l pit, a n d t h e eco n o m i ca l ly i m
porta nt Taro a re a r u m s. Arums have sma l l fl owers c l us
tered tig h tly o n a spikelike sta lk. Leaves a re large a n d
n et-vei ned. Stems a re thick; roots, tuberous.

ARU MS

A R R O W A R U M has l a rge, fleshy,

a rrow head-shaped l eaves. The
flower mass and fru its a r e g reen
ish. Grows i n s h a l l ow waters and
o n wet shores i n centra l a n d
eastern N . A . D o n o t conf use with
Duck Potato (p. 5 1 ) .
WATER LETTUCE, a widespread,
warm.climate species, is found in
d itches, slow strea ms, and ponds
in southeastern U .S. Its brig ht
g re e n , fleshy leaves g row as
rosettes. New p l a n ts bud from
the basal stems.
SWEET FLAG g rows from t h e
Mississi p p i B a s i n e a stward to t h e
Atla ntic C o a s t . S p r e a d s by a
cree p i n g rootstock, w h i c h is thick
a n d p u n gent.

D U C KWEE DS, tiny fl oati n g herbs, are a favorite food of

waterfow l . A bout 25 species of th ese sma l lest of the seed
pla nts are known. Ti ny fl owers, rarely produced, g row
out of the leafl i ke body, which lacks true leaves a n d
stems. Reprod ucti o n is m a i n ly vegetative, b y a division
of the p la nt body.
GR EAT DUCKWEED has seve ral
rootlets beneath plant body, and
u n d ersu rface is freq uently pur
plish. I t g rows i n q u iet waters
and s l u g g i s h strea m s t h r o u g hout
N.A., sometimes form i n g de nse
mats o n t h e s u rface.

LESSER D U C K W E E D has a s i n g l e
rootlet h a n g i n g b e l ow p l a n t
body. I t is com m o n i n p o n d s a n d
slow strea ms t h r o u g h o u t m u c h
o f N . A . L i k e Great D u c kweed, i t
ofte n forms fl oati n g m a t s t h a t
cover a p o n d 's s u rface.

IVY D U C K W E E D p l a n ts often in
terl ock, their
leafl i ke
bodies
joined to form l a ttice-l ike sh eets
o n the su rface or j ust beneath.
P l a nts may l a c k roots. Ivy D u ck
weed is widespread in N .A., ex
cept i n t h e S o u t h .

WOLFFIA is thick, g ra n u l a r, a n d
lacks rootlets. I t is t h o u g h t t o
be the s ma l l est seed p l a nt. Often
occ u rs with Water F e r n ( p . 43)
a n d Lesser D u c kweed in q u iet
waters from t h e Mississ i p p i Val
ley eastward .

0.1 in.

DUCKWEEDS

57

PI C KERELWEEDS form a va ried fa m i l y fo u n d m a i n l y i n

w a r m reg ions. So me have free-fl oati n g , broad leaves;
oth ers have slender leaves and g row rooted in the m ud ,
e i t h e r subm erged or emergent. The fl owers a re s h owy.
Pickerelweeds a re com monly the fi rst p la nts on the new
land a s a pond fi l l s with sed i m e nts.
M U D PLANTA I N is more tolerant
of cold than m ost pickerelweeds.
I t g rows i n s h a l low ponds and
sl u g g i s h strea m s on the Pacific
Coast a n d i n central a n d easte r n
N .A. B l o o m s s u m m e r a n d a u
t u m n . Ste ms may t r a i l m a n y feet.

P I C K E R E L W E E D g rows i n s h a l l ow
water a n d a l o n g m u d d y shores
from the Mississ i p p i ea stwa rd to
Nova Scoti a . Its flowers a re
borne on a s p i k e . Severa l other
species d iffer i n shape of leaves.
O n e species h a s white flowers.

WAT E R
H Y A C I NTH ,
intro
d uced from S.A., is a fl oat
i n g p l a n t with broad leaves
and swo l l e n , a i r-fo i l e d leaf
sta l ks. The b l u e o r w h ite
flowers g row i n erect c l u s
ters. Water Hyacinths g row
in stre a m s a n d q u iet waters
i n the S o u t h . D e n se, feathery
roots h a r b o r a r i c h associa
tion of sma l l a n i mals; broad
leaves s h a d e bottom pla nts
and a n i m a l s . Dense g rowths
can b l oc k a stre a m .

PICKERELWEEDS

Water S'l'o rtweed

.p un c t a tum

pa/yg o n u

Am phibious
Smo rtweed
P. amphibium
1 0- 1 2 i n .

V('";"
SMARTWE E DS i n c l ude o n l y a few aq uatics i n the m o re
tha n 250 N.A. species for m i n g the genus.
WATER SMA R T W E ED, a wide
spread species, has g l o ssy leaves
a n d spi kes of g reen ish-white
flowe rs a l o n g s l e n d e r ste ms.

AM P H I B I O US SMARTW EED, of
northern U .S. a n d southern C o n
a d o , has cl usters of p i n k fl ower s .
See d s o f b o t h o re w i l d l ife food .

l eaves
c l u ster.

WATERWE E D, FROG BIT, A N D WIL D CE LERY

are in whorls o r emerge from rootstock i n

WATE R W E E D is c o m m o n in many
p o n d s a n d also s l u g g ish strea ms
of the N o rtheast a n d Midwest.
I n favo r a b l e h a b itats it forms
d e n se mo sses. T h e closely related
Elodea, i n trod uced from South
America, is used i n a q u a r i u ms.
FROGBIT is found mostly in
q u iet, m ud -bottomed waters in
the Southeast and i n the Missis
sippi Volley. May g row a s a
fl oating or as a rooted plant.
W I L D C E L E RY g rows i n easte r n
N .A. T h e thick, fleshy stems a re
a favorite waterfowl food . Afte r
the floating fl ower is p o l l i n ated,
a t h read l i ke stem p u l l s it u nd e r
water, where f r u it then ripens.

of more than 1 00 species a re widely

distrib uted in sh a l low ponds a n d slow rivers from the
tropics through tem perate a reas. They g row from thick,
bra n c h i n g rootstocks. Some a re sma l l , but m a n y kinds
have sh owy pink, yel low, or wh ite fl owers a n d la rge,
fl at, fl oati ng leaves that may cover a p ond's surface.
Many sma l l aq uati c a n i m a ls lay their eggs o n the l eaves
and stem s of water li lies.
WATER L I L IES

60

WATER S H I ELD, common in cen

tral a n d easte rn N .A ., h a s s m a l l
floating leaves. Its stems a n d the
u n d e rside of its leaves have a
gelati n o u s coati n g . Often eaten
by d ucks.

LOT US, widely d istr i b u ted

in
easter n N .A., fras wide leaves
and large, yellow fl owers. Its
long ste ms b r a n c h from thick,
tuber-like roots. I n d ia n s at.,. the
seeds and t u bers.

Y E L LOW WATER L I LY, o r Cow

Lily, is c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t cen
tral a n d easte rn N .A . I t g rows
from the m u d d y bottoms of
ponds a n d streams, often with
Wh ite Water Lily. T h e rootstock
is stout. The n otc hed l eaves are
r o u n d to hea rt-sha ped.

SCENTED P O N D LILY h a s l a rge,

notc h e d , r o u n d ed l eaves, d a rk
green on the u p p e r su rface a n d
red d is h - p u r p l e below. T h e p i n k
or wh ite flowers h o v e a rich,
sweet fragrance. Scented Pond
Lily has a w i d e r ra n g e t h a n
Wh ite W a t e r Lily.

W H ITE WAT E R L I LY occurs i n

streams, p o n d s , a n d lakes i n t h e
u p p e r Mississippi Valley a n d
G r e a t l a k e s reg ions. U n like other
water l i l ies, i t has l ittle sce nt.
Its leaves a r e not p u r p l ish un
d e rneath. F l owers open in the
m o r n ing a n d u s u a l l y c l ose by
Rootstock
and
mid afte r n o o n .
s e e d s e a t e n by w i l d l ife.

FANWOR T has a slender stem

covered with a jellylike s l i m e .
T h o u g h a m e m b e r o f t h e water
lily family, the whitish o r y e l l ow
ish fl owers are s m a l l . Fa nwort
occ u rs from t h e Mississi p p i Va l l ey
ea stwa r d . Dense g rowth s harbor
m a n y small a n i m a l s . Fa nwort is
a popular a q u a r i u m p l a nt, a n d
has b e e n w i d e l y i ntrod uced.

L ITTLE WATE R L I LY g rows in

Great lakes region and i n New
'
E n g l o n d . The attractive flowers
are sel d o m more than an inch in
d i a mete r. Grows i n deeper water
than most water l i l ies. More com
mon i n la kes than i n ponds.

WESTER N WA TER L I LY i n h a b its

ponds, sl ow-flowi n g strea m s, a n d
s h a l l ow l a kes f r o m the Rockies
to
northern
C a l iforn i a .
This
species has 9 sepa l s surro u n d i n g
i t s petals; m o s t w a t e r lilies have
6 sepa l s .

WAT E R L I L I ES

seed

fa n wort
Cabomba
caroliniana

Nymphaea t uberosa

61

O T H ER

P O N D AN D S H ORE PLANTS, representi n g

m o r e than a dozen d ifferent fa m i lies, va ry i n size, color,
a n d form, but all add to the ri chn ess of the sha l lows a n d
shores of ponds and lakes. Shore p l a nts p rovide cover
and nesti ng sites for m a m m a ls, birds, repti l es, and m a n y
kinds of invertebrates. O n ly a few of t h e s e h erbaceous
and woody p l a nts can be shown here. See a lso the
Golden Nature Guides Trees, Flowers, and Seashores,
a n d the Golden Reg iona l Guides for additi o n a l p l a nts
of la kes, ponds, and wetlands.
WATER C R ESS ( m u stard family)
was i n trod uced from Europe. It
g rows i n cold, spring-fed ponds
a n d stre a m s, often forming d e n se
mats. The spra w l i n g ste m s com
monly take root where they touch
the mud. C o m p o u n d leaves bear
3 to 1 1 r o u n d ish leaflets, la rgest
at tip. Seeds in s l i m pods. Used
i n salads or a s a g a rn is h .
ALLI GATOR WEED, a l ow-grow
ing, cree p i n g p l a n t of southeast
ern U.S., occurs c o m m o n l y i n
p o n d s a n d d itches. I n L o u isia n a
i t chokes bayous, m a k i n g boati n g
difficu lt. Stem s cree p i n g , often
ta king root at nodes. The l a nce
sha ped
leaves a re o p p osite.
F l owers are borne i n s m a l l d e n se
cl usters or heads.
GLASSWORTS
are
p l a nts of
brackish coa sta l waters a n d in
land a l ka l i n e l a kes and p o n d s.
O n e species is f o u n d on salt flats
a n d a l o n g shores of p o n d s in the
Rockies. The l eaves a r e s m a l l
a n d sca l e l ike; the stems soft a n d
jointed; b r a n c h es o p p osite. T h e
s m a l l fl o w e r s a r e embedded i n
the thick stems.

C rowfoot
long, slim,
pointed

Water Marigold
soft, rou n ded;
tips pointed

Water Milfo i l
o n ce divided,
a ltern ate seg ments

F a n wort
d ivisions n u mrous,
b l u n t-ti pped

COMPA R I SON OF P LAN TS W I TH F I N E L Y BRANC H E D LEAVES

HORNWORT, o r Coontail, g rows

beneath the s u rface in q uiet
Its
N .A.
thro u g h o u t
waters
l eaves, brittle a n d
branched
crowded toward t i p , a r e a r
ranged in whorls a r o u n d a
slender stem. H o rnwort's flowers
are pol l inated u nd e rwater. The
seeds, eaten by waterfowl, h ave
a to u g h cove r i n g .
YELLOW WATER CROWFOOT, a
muddy
on
g rows
butterc u p,
a reas or i n t e m p o ra ry ponds i n
cool e r parts o f N .A. I ts floating
leaves are broad and th ree
lobed; the s u b m e rsed leaves are
fi n ely branched. Both the n u tl ets
a n d l eaves are eaten by w i l d l ife.
Several oth e r y e l l ow butterc u p s
a re a l s o aq uatics.
WHITE WATER C R O W FOOT, a lso
a b utterc u p , occurs widely i n
N.A. except i n southern states.
I t g rows i n s h a l low ponds a n d
streams, i t s w e a k , flexible ste m s
th ick en
sometimes for m i n g
ta n g l e m ents. The finely branched
leaves are usually s u bm ersed .
N utlet is d isti n ctly beaked; s m a l l
emergent flowers are w h ite.

MERMA I D WEEDS (water m ilfail

fami l y) are common i n q u iet
waters of eastern N. A. Leaves
near base of stem n otch e d; those
above a re not. Three species.
ERYNGO, rel a ted to Water Pa rs
n i p, g rows a l o n g shores from
New Je rsey southward along
Atla ntic a n d Gulf coasts. A l so
called Button S n a k e root. F l owers
in. d e nse heads.

( b l a d d e rwort
BLADDERWORT$
family) a re m ost a b u n d a n t in
tropical waters, but a b o u t a d oz
en species g row i n centra l a n d
eastern N . A . S o m e b e a r o n their
branches tiny b l a d d ers i n which
sma l l a n i m a l s a re t r a p p e d .

WATER H EMLOCK, a l so called

Spotted Cowbane, is a com m o n
member of the p a rsley f a m i l y
g rowing i n wet soils t h r o u g h o u t
N . A . Blooms from J u n e t h ro u g h
September, i t s n u m erous w h ite
flowers borne i n a d e n se h e a d .
Roots, which rese m b l e sweet po
tatoes a n d s m e l l like parsnips,
are poison a us, as a re stems.
BLUE FLAG, a n i ris, g rows i n
wetl a n d s
and
along
shores
thro u g h o u t central and easte r n
N .A . T h e se p a l s of the sh owy,
u s u a l l y viol et-bl u e fl owers are
l o rg e r t h a n the peta ls. Blooms in
May a n d J u n e . The fl owers to 4
inc hes across.

n utlets

WATER M I LFO I L (water m i lfoil

family) is widespread in q u iet
waters and slow strea ms in m ost
of N . A . I ts s m a l l p u rplish flowers
g row near the stem tips where
leaves m a y d iffer i n size and
shape from those at base.
S U N D E W is a l ow-g rowi n g h e r b
found in bogs a n d w e t a reas
thro u g h o u t N.A. I n sects a re at
tracted to a n d c a u g h t in sweet,
sticky l i q uid sec reted by roselle
of ha i ry, flat l eaves.
P I T C H E R PLANTS have h o l l ow
leaves, s h a ped like a pitcher or
a trum pet, w h i c h conta i n a l iq u id
consisti ng of r a i nwater a n d a
fl u id from the p l a nt. I n sects are
d rowned i n the fl u id and ab
sorbed
("digested")
by
the
plant. Pitcher p l a nts g row in
bogs and wet soils i n easter n
N .A. a n d in C a lifo r n i a .
WATER LOBELIA, the o n l y strictly
a q u atic l o b e l i a , has a m i l ky
j u ice a n d l i g h t violet t u b u l a r
flowers w i t h fl a ri n g t i p s . T h e
flowers m a y extend a bove s u r
face or be s u bmerged . Leaves
form a roselle. Central N . A .

MAR E'S TA I L (water m i lfoil f a m

ily), found i n c e n t r a l N . A . , g rows
pa rtia l l y
s u b m ersed
or
on
marshy l a n d . Short l eaves, in
whorls of 6 to 1 2, are rigid
when e m e r g e n t, limp w h e n sub
mersed. Spreads from rootstock.

MARSH C I N Q U E FO I L is t h e o n l y
member of the rose f a m i l y t h a t
g rows m a i n l y i n wet l a nds. F o u n d
across c e n t r a l a n d
n orthern
N.A., mostly i n bogs.
PRIMROSE W I LLOWS (eve n i n g
prim rose fami ly) g row mostly in
the
tropics.
Seve ral
species
found in southern states. leaves
winged to ste m .
WATER P E N N YWORT, i n t h e
parsley f a mi l y, is widely d i s
tributed, g rowing in water or in
d a m p places. Often forms de n se
b l a n ket a l ong shores. Tiny flow
ers o re in o x i l s of r o u n d l eaves.
MARSH B E LLFLOWER ( b l uebell
family) g rows on shores a n d i n
wet meadows i n central a n d
eastern
N.A.
F l owers
bloom
from J u n e to A u g ust. S u b mersed
stems weak; l eaves s h o rt .
SMALL BEDSTRAW is a low
g rowing herb of the madder
family. Often forms mats along
shores, occ u r r i n g widely i n N .A.
F l owers J u ne t h r o u g h September.
Stems sq u a re, leaves whorled.
MARSH ST. J O H N'S-WORT is o n e
o f about 1 5 N . A . St. J o h n 's-worts
that g row i n wetla n d s . Most hove
yellow fl owers; a few, p u rplish.
Bloom from June to October.
Emergent l eaves m a y be dotted.
MAD-DOG S K U LLCAP, of the
mi n t family, is one of six c losely
related species that ore widely
d istrib uted i n wetla nd s in N .A.
Most have pu rplish-b l u e flowers.
Spread by u nderwater stems.

SWAMPC A N D L E
LOOSESTR I F E
( prim rose family) is a n ative o f
eastern N .A. I ntroduced i n c e n
t r a I a n d western states. Leaves
o p posite b u t a p pear whorled.

2 FALSE LOOSESTR I F E (prim rose

willow fam ily) c o m m o n i n east
ern N.A., forms floating tangles
i n ponds and o n wet shores.
Leaves o p posite.
3 WATER W I LLOW, o r Swa m p
Loosestrife (loosestrife family),
g rows t h ro u g h o u t eastern N . A.
leaves whorled, sessile. Ducks
eat seeds. M uskrats feed o n the
t h ick, s u b m e rsed stems.
4

WATER STARWORT is a s m a l l
p l a n t w i t h s l e n d e r ste m s a n d
spatula-shaped l eaves t h a t f o r m
fl o a t i n g c l u sters. F o u n d i n s h a l
low p o n d s a n d
slow-movin g
stre am s t h ro u g h o u t N.A.

5 WATER MARIGOLD (com posite

fami ly) h a s bright yellow flowers.
The s u b m e rsed l eaves are fi nely
branched, the emergent leaves
deeply n otch e d . Grows i n q u iet
waters of centra l N.A.

6 WATER PARSN I P ( p a rsley fam

ily) g rows i n p a n d s, l a kes, a n d
ma rshes t h ro u g h o u t N.A. except
i n Southwest. W h ite flowers in
u m b rella-s h a ped cl usters. Fru its
have corky ribs.

7 H EDGE HYSSOP (figwort family)

g rows i n wet areas and tem po
rary pools over most of N . A. The
flowers are w hite, y e l l ow, o r
bl u i s h. T h e l eaves a r e opposite
and lack stems.

WOODY PLANTS (trees, shrubs, a n d vines) of many

species g row a lo n g shores a n d i n wetlands. N o n e i s truly

a q uatic, but i n a few g ro u ps nearly all species are found
o nly i n wet o r moist soi ls. Most n ota ble among these a re
the wil lows. Other g roups, such as pines, oa ks, bi rches,
hawth orns, e l ms, and map les, i n clude one to severa l
species that com mon ly g row i n wet p laces. A l l of these
woody p l a n ts co ntri b ute to the tota l com m u ni ty. O n ly a
few of the m a n y possi ble exa m p les a r e s h ow n h e re.
W I LLOWS ( m o r e t h a n 1 00 spe
cies i n N . A .) range from s m a l l
s h r u b s to l a r g e trees, a l l b u t a
few s pecies g rowing in wet soils.
All w i l l ows have n a r row, point
ed, a lfer n a te l eaves. The m a l e
a n d f e m a l e flowers (catki ns) a re
borne on sepa rate p l a nts. Black
Willow, either a s h r u b o r a large
tree, is fo u n d a l ong s h o res, some
times even sta n d i n g i n s h a l l ow
wate rs, from easte r n C a n a d a to
the Dakotas southward to the
Gulf of Mexico.

POPLARS and a s p e n s, which

also belong to the willow fa m
ily, h ave broad, hea rt-sha ped
leaves and catkins more d roop
ing than those of w i l l ows. like
will ows, their tiny seeds a r e
p l u med a n d w i n d - b l ow n . Most
poplars a n d aspens g row in d ry
soils, b u t a few a re c o m m o n
a l o n g shores a n d i n wetl a n d s .
T h e s e i n c l u d e the Swa m p C otto n
wood of wester n N.A. and the
Easte rn a n d Balsam cottonwoods
of central and eastern N . A.

CYPRESS trees are d ecid u o u s

conebearers t h a t g row i n swa m p s
a n d wetl a n d s of the Southeast
a n d lower Mississippi Valley.
N ote root exte nsions, o r 11knees,"
and swo l l e n base of Bald Cy
press t r u n k . Pond Cypress is
s m a l l e r with scalelike leaves.

TUPELOS g row i n both wet a n d

d r y soils, b u t Water T u pe l o (Sour
Gum)
i s typical
of coastal
swa m ps a n d wetl a n d s in the
Southeast. The base of its t r u n k
is often swo l l e n . B l a c k G u m , a
m o re northern tree, is s m a l l e r
a n d l e s s com m o n i n wet l a n d s.

SYCAMORES g row i n moist bot

tom l a n d s a n d
along
shores.
American Syca m o re is wide
spread i n the East; two other
N .A. species g row i n the South
west. Seeds d evelop i n d e n se,
b a l l-shaped c l u sters; bark scales
off or peels i n shaggy plates.

OAKS (about 50 N .A. species)

a r e m a i n l y u p la n d trees; a few
g row i n mo ist to wet soils. A l l
produce acorns; leaves heavy,
a lternate, and of varied sha pes.
Water Oak is c o m m o n i n South
east.
Others
a re
Overc u p,
Swa m p , Wh ite, a n d Wil low.

70

ASHES g row m a i n l y in the moist

bottom l o n d s a n d a l o n g shores i n
the East. A l l of the s o m e 20 N.A.
species have o pposite, com p o u n d
leaves, thick twigs, a n d single
winged seeds. Most widely d is
trib uted in wetla n d s ore Green
Ash and Black Ash.

MAPLES ( 1 3 N.A. species) g row

on d ry slopes and a l so i n m oist
bottomlands. Two eastern species
-Red and Silver-are cha racter
istic of wetla nds; both a re called
Swa m p Maple. M a p l es have sim
ple, pal mately l o bed leaves.
Their seeds h ave two wings.

B I R C H ES tota l about 15 species

i n N.A., m a i n ly i n cool reg ions.
Two a re com m o n i n wetla n d s :
Red, ( R iver) B i r c h , fou n d a s fa r
south as F l o r i d a a n d Texas; a n d
the s h r u bby Western B i r c h of t h e
Rockies. B i r c h bark i s shaggy
a n d peels off i n stri ps. Horn
beam, or B l u e Beec h , also i n

birch family, is a s m a l l tree with

a sinewy tru n k and bl ue-gray
bark; g rows a l o n g stre ams and
i n moist soils. Alders (1 0 N.A.
b i rch
fa m i l y s pecies,
m a i n ly
weste rn) com m o n l y form d e n se
thickets. Speckled A l d e r is a n
easte rn wetl a n d species; Red
Alder, weste r n .

TREES

WH ITE CEDAR is a stra n g

scented everg reen w i t h sca lelike
leaves a n d s m a l l , fleshy cones.
G rows
most
a b u n d a ntly
in
b rown-water swam ps of South
b u t north to M a i n e . Two species
of arborvitae (Th uja), a l so called
w hite ceda rs, g row i n North.

SWAMP P I N E g rows a l o n g p o n d s
a n d i n swa m ps f r o m New Je rsey
southwa r d . I ts needles are in
b u n d les of 3, and the cones are
ro u n d . Rese m bles P itch Pine,
which l i ke m ost pines ( m o r e
t h a n 30 N . A . species), g rows
best i n d ry s o i l .

TAMARAC KS, o r Larches, are de

cid u o u s conifers ( l i k e cypress, p.
69) . Cones sta nd u pright. Most
l a rches g row i n d ry soils, b u t
Eastern Larch g rows i n swamps
a n d a l o n g s h o res i n central a n d
eastern N .A. I t is a pioneer i n
pond successi o n ( p . 2 4) .

CABBAGE P A LM ETTO, o r S a b o l
P a l metto, is a m e m b e r of the
p a l m fa m i ly. I t often g rows in
wetl a n d s from North Carol i n a
southward a n d a l o n g G u lf C oast.
Common
in
Florid a .
Other,
u s u a l l y s m a l l e r, p a l m ettos g row
in southern p i n e l a n d s _

TREES

71

SWEET GALE (waxmyrtle f a m i ly)

g rows in wetla n d s of northern
and central N . A . Its twigs g ive
off a spicy odor when b r u ised .
Flowers are catki ns, the m a l e
a n d fem a l e on separate p l a nts.

BOG ROSEMARY (heath f a m i l y)

is a low, rather i n c o n s p i c u o u s
s h r u b that g rows i n bogs a n d
ponds i n m i d d l e N . A . Spreads
from rootstock. G rows to about
2 feet ta l l .

family)
( heath
LEATH E R L E A F
g rows i n bogs a n d a l o n g pond
margins i n central N .A . The
d rooping fl ower c l u sters a re at
tractive a s a r e the p u r p l ish
l eaves i n winter.

B UTTO N B U S H ( m a d d e r family)
bears sma l l g l o b u l a r masses of
fl owers a t ends of leafl ess sta l ks.
Usua l l y a s h r u b but may reach
height of 50 feet. Seeds are
eaten by waterfow l .

R E D O S I E R DOGWOOD (dog
wood fa m i l y) g rows i n wet thick
ets t h ro u g h o u t m i d d l e N .A . A
l ow-g rowing s h r u b easily recog
n ized in winter when red bark of
new g rowth shows a g a i nst snow.
F l owers i n May. Berry-like fruits
are wild i ife foo d .

Poison
or
SUMAC,
SWAMP
S u mac, forms thic kets. Other su
macs (about 1 2 N . A . s pecies)
g row i n d ry soils. like Poison Ivy,
a l so i n cashew family, it h a s
poiso n o u s sa p. Leaves p i n n ate,
F l owers
red .
turn
a lternate;
prod uced g reenish fruit c l u sters.

and
feet
very
cen

COMMON W I N T E R B E R RY, o n e
of a b o u t 1 5 N .A. h o l l y f a m i l y
trees i n eastern N . A . , h a s a l ter
Red
n a te, decid u o u s l e a ves.
fru its a winte r w i l d l ife food .

S W A M P ROSE, w i t h erect
s t i ff stems, g rows n e a r l y 8
t a l l . I ts fl owers a re not
showy. G rows t h r o u g h o u t
tral and easte r n N . A .
72

S H R U BS

WOODY V I N E S m a y form i m
penetra b l e ta n g les i n s h o r e a n d
wet l a n d
th ickets.
Greenb riers
(Sm ilax),
gra pe
(Vilis),
and
honeysuckle (Lon icera) are wide
spread g ro u ps. Each con sists of
about two dozen species, i n c l u d
i n g o n e to sever a l typical o f wet

soils. Gree n b riers ( h o l l y family)

h ave stout, u s u a l ly str a i g h t s p i n e s
on g reen ste m s . Greenbriers a n d
g ra pes c l i m b by m e a n s o f ten
d rils-in g re e n b riers, a rising in
p a irs; i n g r a p es, b r a nched a t tip.
H o n eysuckle, sometimes s h r u b by,
has h o l l ow b r a n c hes.

Fox Grape

Limber H o n eysuckle

Vilis /abrusca

Lonicera dioica

ANIM A LS
A n i m a l s represe nti ng nearly a l l of the major g ro ups, or
phyla, a re found i n fresh waters. They ra n g e i n size
fro m mi croscopic one-cel led a n i m a l s (protozoa n s) to
Iorge ma ny-ce l l ed a n i m a l s (m eta zoa n s), such a s worms,
i n sects, fi shes, and a l ligators. Some spend their entire
life in water, hence o re wholly aq uatic. Others are
a q u a tic only i n some of their life sta ges. Many land
dwe l l ers feed a n d rea r their young i n ma rshes or a long
the shores of ponds, lakes, a n d strea ms.
Animals that live i n ponds and la kes have the sa me
needs a s th ose that live on land. There must be food
ava i l a ble, some deg ree of p rotectio n from p redators,
and an op portu n ity to reprod uce. The chemica l m ate
ria l of a n i m a ls' bodies may be passed from one a n i m a l
t o a n other as p rey is eaten b y p redator, b u t eventua l ly
it is retu rned to the pond cyc le when the a n i m a l s die and
thei r bodies decom pose (pp. 22-23).
M AJ O R G R O U P S O F P O N D A N I M A L S
ONE-CELLED A N IMALS, o r Pro
tozoa, are the s i m p l est of a l l
a n i m a ls. T h e y a re a b u n d a n t i n
p o n d a n d l a k e waters, espe
cially i n t hose e n riched with or
g o n i c matter. With s i m p l e pla nts
(algae, p . 31 ) , these tiny a n i
mals f o r m the p l a n kton pastures
that a re the basic link i n food
c h a i n s.
Page 76.
SPONGES are m ostly ma r i ne , the
members of o n l y o n e fa m ily l iv
i n g in fresh water. The la rvae
are free-sw i m m i n g , but the a d u lts
are attached, sometimes form i n g
sprea d i n g e n c r u stati o n s o n twigs
o r rocks.
Page 77.
74

HYDRAS (Coele nterata) have a

saclike body of two l a yers of
cells a n d a f r i n g e of tentacles
a ro u n d body open i n g . Page 7B.
R'OT I F E R S , f o u n d o n l y i n fresh
waters, are commonly m istaken
for one-ce l l ed a n i m a l s . Wheel
like rotation of c i l i a d raws i n
f o o d a n d wate r .
Page BO.
MOSS A N I MALS, o r Bryozoans,
are m a i n ly m a r i n e . Few species
l ive i n fresh water, g rowing in
11 mossy11 colon ies.
Page 8 1 .
WORMS a re n ever conspicuous
but they m a y b e a b u n d a nt u n d e r
stones o r i n d e b r i s . T h e seg
mented worms ( p p . B2-B3) in
clude
a q u atic,
bloodsucking
leeches a n d a l so e a rthworms.
Most flatworms ( p . B4) a r e para
sites; a few a r e free-l ivi n g .
S ma l le r g r o u ps on pp. 1 1 B- 1 1 9.
ARTH ROPODS are the m ost n u
m e r o u s of a l l a n im a l s. C rayfish,
i n sects, and spid ers a re the large
conspicu o u s types. Others a re
m i n ute b u t e q u a l l y i m porta n t a s
food f o r fishes a n d othe r a n i
mals.
Page B5.
MOLLUSKS have a soft body en
cl osed i n a l i m y shell -a single,
coiled structure (as i n s n a i l s) or
two h i n ged valves (as i n clams).
Page 1 1 4.
VERTEBRATES a re the fishes,
a m p h i b ia n s, reptiles, birds, m a m
m a l s-a l l h a v e b a c k b o n e s . S o m e
ore p l a n t eaters; o t h e r s a re car
nivorous, i n the top position in
most food c h a i n s .
Page 1 20.

(Protozoa) a re m icroscopic o r
nearly so, yet i n their si n g le cell they carry o n a l l life
p rocesses: reproduction, excretion, digesti o n , respiration,
a n d irrita bi l ity. Protozoa ns occur i n a g reat va ri ety of
body forms and have many different meth ods of m ove
ment. The more than 30,000 species live in a wide ra nge
of m oist a n d aq uatic ha bitats. I n n u m bers, they probably
exceed a l l oth er a n i m a ls i n ponds a n d lakes. Protozoa ns
rep rod uce by budding of a new i ndivid u a l from the
pa rent, by sp litti ng of the parent cell to form two new
cel ls, and by fusion of cells or cell pa rts.
Some p rotozoa ns feed on a lgae, yeasts, bacteria,
and oth er p rotozoa ns. Others su bsist o n dissolved or
decayi n g substa n ces, a n d a few m a n ufacture foods. I n
t u r n , they are p reyed upon b y hydras (p. 7 8 ) , r.otifers
(p. 80), a nd sma l l crustacea ns (p. 86) .

ONE-CE L LE D A N IMALS

Peridin i um
galun ense

x35

o; .I ,..-1

'

' .<..c. . __./

Arrideba prole us

x5

MASTIGOPHORA h ove w h i p l i ke
exte nsions of proto p l a sm (flagel
I a) . M a n y o re free-swi m m i n g sin
gle cells; others form colon ies.
Often cl assed a s p l a nts (p. 36).
SAR C O D I NA move by flowing
cell extensions c a l led pse udo
pod io.
Some
secrete
shells;
others are na ked.
C I L I ATA have n u merous h a i r l i ke
projections of protoplasm (cil ia)
that beat i n u n iso n . They propel
the a n i m a l and create c u rrents
that bring food to the cell. Some
are free-swim m i n g , others l ive
attached to objects.
SUCTO R I A a re mostly parasites:
some ca use d isease. F ree- l iving
suctoria n s hove suckerlike "a rms"
lor g rasping food a n d are ol
!ached by sta l ks.

76

O N E- C E L L E D A N I MALS

(Porifera) a re si m p l e colonial a n i m a ls g row

i n g atta ched a n d subm erged. Sponges a re m a i n ly
marine. Fresh-water sponges, a l l members of o n e fa m i ly
of a bout 1 50 species, live i n the clear sh a l l ow waters
of ponds a n d l a kes. Though usua l ly d u l l crea m y or
brownish, some sponge colonies a re g reen due to a lg a e
livi ng i n th e m . T h e y ra nge i n s i z e f r o m a n i n c h o r l e s s t o
m a ssive e n c rustations cove ri ng m a ny sq u a re yards.
Sponges feed on floati n g o r swi m m i n g microscopic
a n i m a l s and p l a nts that a re trapped i n their pores as
water circu lates t h roug h . A sponge's body is stre ngth
end by rod l i k e spicu les that, i n a l l fresh-water forms, are
com posed of silica. I n a u tu m n some sponges form g e m
m u l es, s m a l l rounded structures t h a t drop to the bottom
when the colony dies i n cold weath er. The fol lowing
spring each ge m m u le deve lops i nto a new sponge.
SPO N G ES

SPONGI LLA of m a n y s pecies are

widely d istr i b u ted i n streams and
sta n d i n g waters. They c o m m o n l y
occ u r i n association with a spe
cies of Meye n i a .

MEYEN I A s p e c i e s a re
wide
s p read a n d tolerate s l i g h t poll u
t i o n . Some l ive o n l y i n acid
waters, others i n a l k a l i n e . S m a l l
a n i m a l s l ive i n si d e t h e sponges.

SPONGES

77

somersa u lti n g of a hydra

H Y DRAS (Coelenterata) have a saclike body consisti ng

of o n ly two layers of cel ls. A si ngle opening r i m m ed
with tenta cles serves both for ta king in food a n d for
elimi nating wastes. Most coe lenterates-the sea a nem
ones, cora ls, and jel lyfishes-a re marine.
Hydras, usua l ly less than 1 i n c h long, live i n u n pol
l uted pond o r lake waters. Their food consists of
one-cel led a n i m a ls, sma l l crustacea ns, worms, i nsects,
a n d oth er tiny a n i m a ls. They capture them by specia l
"ce l l s" (nematocysts) in the tentacles that surround the
body openi n g . Some nematocysts enta n g l e or stic k to
the food organisms; others sti ng the p rey, pa ra lyzi n g it.
Hydras ca n m ove by inching a l ong slowly o n their
"foot" o r may turn end over end i n a somersa u lti n g
movement. They reprod uce either sexua l ly o r b y forming
buds that brea k off and g row i nto new anima ls.
BROWN HYDRA i s s l i mm est to
ward its 11foot/' I ts tentacles a re
t h ree or f o u r times the length of
its body. Widely d istrib uted in
cool ponds a n d l a kes in N.A.
Hydra o ligactis

78

C O E L E N T E R AT E S

Hydra america n a

nematocyst

< '

Chlorohydra
viridissima

AM E R I C A N HY DRA is white or
g rayish and is n ot sta l ke d . I ts
tentacles a re shorter t h a n the
body. C o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t east
ern N.A., it l ives i n sta n d i n g
waters a n d i n s l u g g ish streams.
I t attaches itself to s u bmerged
o b jects by its base.

GREEN HYDRA is g rass-g reen

d e to algae l iving i n cells l i n i n g
i t s b o d y . Some of these a re
passed from parent to offsp r i n g
with the e g g . G reen Hyd ra g ets
some n utrition from the a l g a e b u t
a lso feeds o n o r g a n i c d e b ris.
Common in N.A.

The si ngle species k n ow n in

N .A. is g e n e ra l ly si m i l a r to its m a ri n e relatives. Usua l l y
n o more t h a n 0.5 i n c h i n d i a m eter, it a p pea rs sporad
ica l ly i n la kes, ponds, and even i n a q u a ri u m s. Its life
cyc l e i n c l udes a sma l l atta ched polyp sta ge, when it is
si m i l a r i n a p peara n ce to hydras.
FRES H-WATER J E L LY F I S H .

attached polyp stages

Craspedac usta sowerbyi

floati n g

ROTIFERS (wheel a n i m a l c u l es) a re fo u n d i n a l l types of

q uiet waters. Rotifers a re tiny, many of them m i croscopic
a n d sometimes mista ken for one-ce l led a n i m a ls. Their
name refers to the rotati ng movement of the h a i r l i ke
p rojections (ci lia) on the front of the body. At the rea r
is a base, or foot, that secretes a "g l ue" by w h i c h the
rotifer atta c h es to objects. The 1 ,700 known species are
widely d i stributed . Some l ive i n the shore zone; others
are part of the fl oati n g p l a n kto n . Some feed o n a lgae;
others p i erce plant ste ms and suck out the juices. Many
are predaceous. Rotifers, i n turn, are the food of worms
a n d crusta cea ns. Some rotifers secrete a g e lati n o u s
covering a n d r e m a i n d o r m a n t f o r m o n t h s if the pool i n
which t h e y are l i v i n g d ries up.
O P E N-WATER ROT I F E R S i n c l u d e
Keratella, Polyarthra . a n d As.
p/a n c h n a . In the shore zone are
sess i l e (attached) rotifers, such as
Floscularia, a n d others, s u ch as
Philodina, that crawl a b o u t o n
the b ottom or i n d e n s e m a t s o f
p l a nts. Water chem istry a l s o

ringens
50
80

ROTIFERS

d eterm ines the d istri b ution of

some
species.
Brachio n us
is
found mostly i n a l k a l i n e ponds
of the western states. Mon ostyla
is most com m o n in acid waters.
Rotifers can b e ca ptured by
stra i n i n g pond water t h r o u g h a
p l a n kton net. ( p . 2 8 ) .

( Bryozoa) g row in encrusti n g colonies

o n submerged o bjects. Large colonies may conta i n
tho usa nds o f i n d ividua ls (zooids), best seen w h e n m a g
nified. When feed i n g , their wavi ng te n ta c l es c reate cur
rents that bri n g a l gae, protozoa ns, a n d decayed matter
to the a n i m a ls. If disturbed, tenta c les a re retra cted .
A colony g rows by buddi ng, but sex u a l reprod u ction
a lso occu rs, usua l l y i n summer. Some species produce
thi ck-wa l l ed buds (stato blasts) that resist cold o r
d roug ht. When conditions a re favora ble, t h ese germi
nate a n d beco m e new colon ies. Buds equipped with
hooks may be carried o n oth er aq uatic a n i m a l s from
one locati o n to a n other. Fewer than 50 of the more t h a n
3,500 species l i v e i n fresh water. A b o u t 1 5 occur i n N .A.
MOSS A N IMA LS

COLO N I E S of bryozoa ns a re
common in sti l l waters, rare i n
poll uted
waters.
Fredericella
u s u a l l y i n h a bits s h a l low rocky
bottoms but has been fo u n d i n
water m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 feet deep.
Plum atella lives i n p o n d s a n d
sl ugg ish streams. Pecfin afe//a i s

u n a b l e to tolerate low tempera

l u res a n d d ies i n water c o l d e r
t h an a b o u t 60 F . L a r g e g e l a
t i n o u s masses of Pecfinafe//a
may clog intake p i pes in water
work. Plum afella a n d Frederi
cella are f o u n d the world over;
Pecfinafella o n l y in N.A.

W ORMS a re a n i m a l s be longing to severa l major

u n related g roups that share a genera l ly si m i l a r shape
Th ese i n clude the flatworms (p. 84) a n d a lso s m a l ler
g roups (pp. 1 1 8- 1 1 9) . Segmented worms (A n n elida) a re
the ea rthworms, m a i n ly l a n d dwe l l ers; leeches, fo u n d
p ri m a ri ly i n fresh water; and sandworms, m a i n l y m a ri n e.
A few species of the earthworm g ro u p live i n fresh
water p o n d s and la kes. Some a re a b u n dant in decayi n g
vegetation o r i n fl oati n g m a sses of a lg a e . Others feed
on orga n i c matter a s they bu rrow in the botto m mud .
EARTHWORM GROUP (OLIGOCHAETA)

82

AEOLOSOMAS l ive i n bottom de

bris or i n plant g rowths. Some
species swi m . Most species have
red, yel l ow, o r other pigment
spots. Length to a b o u t 0.5 inch.

C H A ETOGASTERS feed on s m a l l
crustacea n s a n d i n sect la rvae.
Their mouths a re l a rg e . C haeto
g asters are g e n e ra l l y colorless.
Length, 0.5 i n c h .

DEROS a re t u be b u i ld e rs com
mon in debris o r on floating
leaves. From 0.3 to 0.5 i n c h l o n g .
Bristly body e n d s i n fi n ger- l i ke
projection s .

T U B I FEX w o r m s are r e d d i s h bot

tom-dwe l l i n g tube b u i l d ers. The
head is b u ried i n the mud, and
the tail waves a b ove. Length
about 1 i n c h .

leeches are flatte ned, seg me nted worms, often a b u n

dant i n ca l m , sha l low, w a r m waters i n w h i c h t h e bottom
is c l uttered with d e bris. They a re seldom fo u n d i n acid
waters, a n d they su rvive the d rying u p of ponds by
bu rrowi n g i nto the bottom mud. leech es shun light.
They m ove by "loopin g"-a lternately a tta c h i n g the
mouth sucker and ta i l sucker to the surfa ce. Some kinds
are g ra cefu l swi m m ers. B loodsucki ng leeches have
well-deve loped jaws, i n contrast to th ose of scave nger
a n d carnivorous species.
LEECHES ( H I R U D I N EA)

HE LO B D E LLAS a re c o m m o n a n d
w i d e l y d istrib uted i n temperate
waters. Species shown is a para
site of s n a i l s; others of fish,
frogs, a n d t u rtles. To 3 inches.

MACROBDELLAS a re c o m m o n i n
the northern U . S . a n d southern
Canada. Feed o n l y on b l ood of
vertebrates. To 10 inches long,
with red a n d b l a c k spots.

ERPOBDELLAS feed o n inverte

brates, fi s h , a n d frogs; occasion
ally attack h u ma n s . Widely dis
tributed . They reach a length
of a b o u t 4 inches.

HAEMO P S I S leeches often travel

considera b l e d ista nces from wa
ter. Feed o n living o r dead in
verteb rates.
Giant
H a e m opsis
m a y stretch to 1 8 inches l o n g .

83

F LATWORMS (Platyh e l m i nthes), such as fl u kes a n d

ta peworms, a re pa rasites. Turbellaria ns are free- livi n g
flatworms.
Turbe l larians avoid lig ht. During the day they rema i n
o n t h e u n d e rside o f sto nes, leaves, o r oth er submerged
objects. Their mouth, the o n ly opening to the digestive
tra ct, is at the end of an extendible tube a bout midway
o n the u n d e rside. They have light-sensitive eyespots in
the head reg i o n . Turbel la ria ns eat sma l l a n i m a ls, livi ng
or dea d . They g l ide a long rocks or sti cks by usi n g the
hairlike cilia o n th eir undersu rfa ce. W h e n turbe l la ria n s
reprod uce sexua l ly, t h e ferti lized eggs a r e usua l l y
encased i n s h e l l - like cocoons. I n asex u a l reproduction a
crosswise division of the body forms two pa rts, each
beco m i n g a com p l ete a n i m a l .
DUGESIAS a re widespread i n
N .A . D . tigrina may be blotched
with black o r brown or have a
l i g h t strea k l e n g thwise down its
body. It has b l u nt, r o u n d e d ear
lobes ( a u ricles). D. doraloceph
a/a, with pointed e a r lobes, is
1 inch o r m o re long, the l a rgest
free-l iving flatworm in N . A . Com
m o n i n spring-fed m a rshes.

CATE N U LAS a re s m a l l (l ess t h a n

0.5 i n c h ) , s l e n d e r, u s u a l l y whitish
worms of sta g n a n t waters. The
body c o nsists of many sepa rate
u n its in a c h a i n .
P R O COTYLAS, c o m m o n i n east
e r n N .A., have t i n y eyes (27)
and a large s u c k i n g orga n used
i n feed i n g .

M A J O R G R O U P S O F F R E S H-WAT E R A R T H R O P O D S

o r Joi nt- l egged Anima ls, have a seg

m e nted externa l skeleton a n d wel l-deve l o ped circula
tory, d i gestive, reprod u ctive, and n e rvous system s .
Many exhi bit comp lex behavior. Arth ropods i n th ree
classes are a bu ndant in ponds a nd la kes.
The crusta cea n s (Crusta cea) typica l ly have two body
d ivisions-cep h a l othorax (head-thorax) and a bd o m e n .
T h e y h a v e two p a i rs o f a ntennae, one pa i r of a p p e n
d a g e s per body seg ment, a n d g i l ls. I n c l uded in the
group are shrimp like a n i m a ls, crayfish, a n d a lso n u mer
ous m i n ute forms (p. 86) .
I n sects ( I n secta) usua l ly have th ree body divisi ons
head, thorax, a n d a bdomen. They have o n ly one pa i r of
a nten n a e a n d th ree pairs of appendages, p l us wings
atta ched to the thorax. Respi ration i s through tracheae.
I n c l uded a re mayflies, dragonfl ies, beetles, bugs, fl i es,
and others (p. 94) .
Spiders a n d m ites (Ara c h n ida) have two body d ivi
sions-cepha lothorax and a bdomen. T h ey have no
a ntennae, four pairs of a ppenda ges, a nd either tra c h ea e
or b o o k l u ngs. Th ose few t h a t l i v e underwater m u st come
to the surface to breathe (p. 1 1 3) .
ARTHROPODS,

A RTH R O P O DS

85

Seed Shri m p

Clam Shrimp

C R U STACEA N S a re nearly a l l a q uatic, a n d m ost of the

a bo u t 30,000 species a re m a r i n e . They a re l a rgely
scavengers o r feed on p l a n ts, but some a re predators,
oth ers pa rasites. Listed below are the groups that occur
i n o r n e a r fresh water.
S E E D SHRIMPS (Ostracod a ) : fl a t
body i n b i v a l v e d c a ra pace; 2
(sometimes 3) p a i rs af r o u n d e d
a p p e n d a g es
on
thorax.
No
g rowth l i n e s on sh e l l . Page 87.
FA I R Y S H R IMPS (An ostraca) : n o
carapace; e y e s sta l ke d ; 1 1 to 1 7
pairs of leoflike a p pend ages,
used for swi m m i n g a nd respira
tion.
Pages 88-89.
TADPOLE S H R IMPS ( N otostroca ) :
shiel d l ike cara pace over p o r t of
a bd o m e n ; eyes not sta l ke d ; 40
to 60 p a i rs of a p pendages.
Pages 88-89.
C LAM S H R I MPS (Conc hostraca ) :
bivalved cara pace w i t h l i nes o f
g rowth (as i n c l a ms) ; eyes not
sta l ke d ; 10 to 28 pairs of flat
a ppendages.
Pages 8 8 -89.
86

CRUSTACEANS

WATER FLEAS ( C i a d o c e r a ) : a l l
o f body except h e a d i n cera
pace; 4 to 6 p a i rs of fl a t a p
p e n d a ges.
Pages 88-89
COPEPODS (Copepod a ) : cyl i n
d r ical body; 5 or 6 p a i r s of
r o u n d e d a p pend ages. Page 90.
ISOPODS ( l so p o d a ) : body flat
tened lop to botto m ; no cara
Page 9 1 .
pace.
SCUDS
( A m p h i pod a ) :
s l ightly
com presse d ; no cara pace; h o p
when o u t of water.
Page 9 1 .
CR AYFISH A N D S H R IMP S ( Dec
apod a ) : body n e a r l y rou n d e d ;
d istinct cepha lothorax e n c l osed
i n carapace; specia l i zed a p
pendages for feed i n g , w a l k i n g ,
swi m m i ng, reprod uction Page 92.

(Ostra coda), usua l ly less tha n 0. 1 i n c h

l o n g , are biva lved (cla m l i ke) crusta cea n s f o u n d i n fresh
waters of a l l types. They a re especia l ly com m o n i n mats
of a lgae o r other vegetation and a l so in m ud o n pond
botto ms. Ma ny of the some 1 50 N .A. species a re
brightly colored. Some have dark patterns on their
va lves. Their two pairs of a nte n n a e a re protruded from
between the s h e l l s when opened a nd , with other
a ppenda ges, aid i n swi m m i n g . Eggs a re laid en p l a n t
stem s a n d i n debris. The m a l es of m a n y species a re
u n known; the fe m a les lay u n ferti l i zed eggs that deve lop
i nto l a rva e. A l a rva, or n a u p l i us, is q u ite different from
the a d u lt a n d goes through severa l sta ges before
rea c h i n g m a t u rity. Seed shri m ps a re scavengers. T h ey
a re eaten by sma l l fishes. Th ree com m o n pond species
a re shown below.
SEED SHRIMPS

CRUSTACEANS

87

FAIRY SHRIMPS (A nostra ca) appear i rreg u larly i n

sma l l p o n d s or in tem pora ry p o o l s and often become
very n u merous. They are seldom more than 1 inch long.
Fairy s h ri m ps swi m on their back. When mati n g , the
m a l e h o lds the fem a l e with claspers that develop from
his seco nd pair of a nte n nae and from an outg rowth on
the front of his head. The fe male has a n egg sac behind
her g i l l - legs. About 25 species, i n c luding the Brine
Shri m p fa m i liar to aqua ri sts, are found i n N.A. Two
com m o n species a re i l l ustrated on p. 89.
TADPOLE SHRIMPS (Notostraca) have 40 to 60 pairs
of broad swi m i m n g a ppendages beneath their carapace.
They a lso crawl and burrow i n the fine silt o n the bot
to m . Length to a bout 1 i n c h .
C LAM SHRIMPS (Conch ostra ca) a re common i n warm
shal l ow waters of ponds a n d l a kes a n d may a lso a p pea r
in tempora ry pools. Biva lved sh e l l is held shut by a
strong m uscle. Length less than 0.5 i n c h .

(C iadocera), abundant i n a l l kinds o f

fresh water, swi m jerki ly b y m e a n s of the e n l a rged
second pair of a ntennae. Water fl eas eat a lgae, m icro
scopic a n i m a ls, and org a n i c debris swept i nto their
m outh in current of water created by the wavi n g of their
legs. I n turn, they a re eaten i n g reat n u m bers by sma l l
fishes. I n some species the shape o f t h e fema le's head
c h a n g es sea so n a l ly.
WATER F LEAS

C H Y D O R U S is a water flea oc
c u r r i n g i n p l a n kton; Dap h n ia
a n d B osmina, both in open water
and shore zones. Scapholebe ris
l ives on the u n d erside of the
s u rface fi l m , h e l d there by spe88

CRUSTACEANS

cial body bristles. L eptodora, a

transparent c a r n ivore, u s u a l l y
c o m e s to s u rface o n l y at n i g ht.
This l a rgest of the water fleas is
common in the p l a n kton of
n orthern ponds and l a kes.

variati o n s i n head sha pes

summer

___.._ rin g-fa l l

Daphnia p u lex

0.02 i n .

Scaphaleberis kingi

0.2 i n .

CRUSTACEANS

89

C O P E P O DS (Copepoda) are sma l l c rustacea n s (about

0.1 i n ch long) found everywhere i n sha l low waters a n d

i n open-water p l a n kton o f ponds a nd lakes. Some c l i n g
to vegetation a n d a re f o u n d even i n d a m p d e b r i s a bove
the wate r l i n e . A few kinds, such a s Argulus, a re para
sitic o n fishes a n d oth er aq uati c a n i m a l s but seldom
cause m uch harm. During th e breed i n g season , one o r
two e g g sacs deve lop o n e a c h fema le. The y o u n g
pass t h r o u g h fi v e o r s i x nauplius sta ges before matu rity.
Copepods feed o n a lgae, bacteria, and orga n i c d e bris.
They are food themselves for la rger a n i m a ls, t h o u g h
n ot a s i m porta n t as food f o r fi s h e s a s a re water fl e a s
(p. 88). T h e r e a re t h r e e g roups of free- livi n g copepods.
CALA N O I D COPEPODS h ave a n
t e n n a e n e a r l y a s l o n g as t h e i r
b o d y . Diaptomus a n d others l ive
in p l a n kton a n d feed on fi ltered
o r g a n i c matter from wate r .
CYCLO P O I D C O P E P O D S have
a n t e n n a e about as long a s t h e
b r o a d "tr u n k r e g i o n " of b o d y .
Cyclops a n d o t h e r s l ive i n open
water. They seize a n d bite their
small prey.
HARPACTI C D C O P EPODS,
with short a nten nae, l ive i n silt
a n d p l a n t debris. Mora ria (be
low) a n d others feed by scrap
ing algae and d etritus from rocks
and other objects.

90

C R U STA C E A N S

( l sopoda) are primarily l a n d-dwe l l i ng crus

ta cea ns (pi l l bugs, etc . ) . A few, such as A se//us, live in
water. Usua l ly l ess tha n an inch long, th ese flattened,
dark-co l o red a n i m a ls a re mai n ly scaven g e rs, livi n g
on decayi n g p l a nts o n t h e botto m .

ISOPODS

(Am ph i poda), a lso ca l led Side-swi m m e rs, a re

widely distributed i n ponds and are fo u n d eve n in the
deep waters of large la kes. F lattened sidewise like
fl eas, scuds usua l ly live c lose to the botto m o r among
submerged objects; they avoid l i g h t. Some, such a s
Gammarus, g row t o a bout 0 . 5 i n c h l o n g , b u t m ost scuds
are much s m a l ler. They a re scavengers o n plant a n d
a n i m a l debris; a n d i n turn, they a r e eaten b y fi shes that
feed a m o n g p l a nts or off th e botto m . Scuds a re the
i n termediate hosts for ta peworms a nd oth er pa rasites
of frogs, fishes, and birds.

S C U DS

GAMMAR U S resembles Hyale/la

but fo rst a nten n a e a re as long as
second a n d have a sma l l b ra n c h .
Mate s p r i n g t h r o u g h fa l l .

HYALELLA occu rs a b u n d a ntly i n

m o sses
of
woterweeds
and
a l g a e . I t s fo rst a n t e n n a e are
sh o rter t h a n t h e sec o n d .

CRUSTACEANS

91

CRAYFISH A N D FRESH-WATER SHRIMPS ( Decapoda)

a re relatives of marine cra bs, lo bsters, and sh rim ps.
They have a carapace over head and thorax and five
pairs of wa lking legs, the fi rst pair with large p i n cers
used i n h o l d i n g and tea ring food . More than 200 species
of crayfish live i n N .A. Some species are found o n ly in
ponds, others i n streams, and sti l l others in wetlands in
burrows that can be identified by their a bove-ground
"ch i m n eys" made of mud ba l l s from the d i g g i n g .
Crayfish usua l ly h i d e i n burrows o r u n d e r o bjects
P O N D CRAY F I S H live in a l most
all kinds of fresh waters i n cen
tral and southeastern N.A. O u r

SWAMP CR AYF I SH i n h a b it s l u g
g i s h waters of southeastern N.A.;
i ntrod uced to wester n states. In
a u tu m n males mig rate overland
in d roves to new waters.

leniusculus

WESTERN CRAYFISH is one of

five species i n waters west of
Rockies. like other crayfish, it
is an im porta n t food of fishes,
reptil es, a n d other c a r n ivores.
92

CRUSTACEANS

during the day. They a re a ctive at n i g ht. Their food

con sists m a i n l y of p l a nts, though they wi l l eat a n i m a l
food w h e n ava i l a ble. T h e fem a l e carries t h e ferti l i zed
eggs a tta ched to appendages (swi m m e rets) o n h e r
a bd o m e n . You n g crayfish p a s s t h r o u g h t h ree sta ges
(i n sta rs) before beco m i n g a d u lts. Crayfish shed, o r
m o lt, t h e i r h a rd exoskeleton a s they g row.
Fresh-water shrim ps, or prawns, live i n p l a n t g rowth
i n s h a l low water. They look l i ke sa lt-water s h r i m p s a n d
a r e s m a l ler tha n crayfish.
EASTERN CRAY F I S H is genera l l y
common i n s m a l l strea ms a n d oc
casion a l ly i n ponds east of the
Mississi p p i i n centra l N .A. I t
seldom b u r rows.

tory b u r rows constructed i n wet

fields a n d m a rs h y areas. Found
from the Rockies ea stwa rd . May
d a m a g e crops.

FRESH-WATER S H R I MPS are t h i n

a n d a l m ost tran sparent. Prawns
of cave waters a re colorl ess and
b l i n d . Species i l l u strated is com
mon i n eastern N .A.
CRUSTACEANS

93

( I n secta ) . About 5,000 species o f i n sects i n

N.A. spend some or a l l o f their life i n water. Ad u lt i n
sects h a v e th ree body reg ions: h e a d , tho rax, a n d
a b d o m e n . T h e thorax bea rs th ree pai rs o f joi nted legs
and, i n most orders, two pairs of wings. I m mature stages
-nymphs, la rva e, a n d p u pae-are a b undant a n d im
porta nt i n the food webs of ponds a n d la kes.

INSECTS

O R D E R S O F A Q U AT I C

I N S E CT S

MAYFL IES ( E p heme roptera ) : the

a q uatic nym phs, or n a iads, swim
active ly. Twa o r th ree long,
feathery ta i l a p pe n d a g es; fl a p
l i ke g i l l s a l o n g a b d o m e n ; o n e
claw o n each f o o t .
Page 9 6 .
DRAGO N F L I E S A N D
DAMSEL
F L I ES ( O d o n ata) : n y rn p h s, or
n a iads, a re active. Damselfly
nymphs have th ree l e a fl ike struc
tu res exte n d i n g from tail; d rag
onfl y nymphs d o not. In both,
masklike scoop covers chewing
Pages 98-99.
m o ut h p a rts.
ST O N E F L I E S ( P i e c o p t e r a ):
n y m p h s have two, joi nted tail
a p pendages; two claws on each
foot.
Page 1 00.
S P O N G I LLA F L I E S { N e u roptera ) :
s m a l l , active la rvae h a v e m a ny
b ristles over body. Feed in fresh
water sponges. Page 1 00.
A L D E R F L I ES,
DOBSONS,
AND
F I S H F L J E S (Meg a l o pte r a ) : p reda
tory l a rvae with stou t a p pen
dages; single ta i l fi l a m e n t { a l d er
flies) o r pair ( h e l l g r a m m ites) .
Page 1 00.
94

S P R I NGTA I L S ( C o l l e m b o l a ) : less
than 0 . 2 inch l o n g ; forked a p
pendage on u nd e rside used for
s p r i n g i n g on water s u rface or
Page 1 00.
on shore.
T R U E B U G S ( H e m i ptera): bath
n y m p h s a n d a d u lts are active
predators. N y m p h s have either
o n e or n o a p p e n d a g e at end of
abdomen. I n a d u lts rea r half of
front wings is soft and mem
bra nous. Mouth is a beak far
sucking.
Pages 1 02 - 1 04.
BEETLES (Coleoptera ) : the l a rvae
are active pred ators; they d o not
have a p pe n d a g es o n abdomen
b u t some have l o n g tail fila
ments. Both l a rvae a n d a d u lts
have biting m o u t h p a rts. A d u lts
have h a rd o r leathery front
wings. Some l ive only on the
s u rface fi l m of water others be
Pages 1 05-1 06.
low.

Divi ng
Beelle

C A D D I S F L I E S (Tricho ptera) : m ast

l a rvae l ive in a case of leaves,
sa n d g ra ins, twig s, o r ather
debris. Two tail hooks a n c h o r
them i n case.
Page 1 07.
FLIES ( Di piero) : a q u atic l a rvae
a re a ctive, wo r m l i ke, legl ess.
P u pae of most kinds a re i n a c
tive, legs l a c k i n g ( o r inconspicu
o u s) ; short, hard body sometimes
i n a case. A d u lts with one p.air
of wings.
Pages 1 08 - 1 1 2 .
MOTHS (Lepid optera): the l a r
vae, or cate r p i l l a rs, of a few
species a re a q u atic, l iving u n d e r
sheets of silk o r u n d e r rocks. Bit
ing m o u t h p a rts. Ad u lts are d u l l
Page 1 1 2.
i n color.
I NS E CTS

95

H EXAGEN IAS, l a rgest mayflies

i n N .A., a r e c o m m o n i n large
l a kes a n d rivers. N y m p h s b urrow
i n to m u d on bottom.

(Ephemeroptera) have fou r nearly trans

parent wings held vertica l ly when the i n sect is resti n g .
Two or th ree l o n g fi la m e nts project f r o m the end of t h e
a bd o m e n . The a q uatic n y m p h s (naiads) have rows o f
leaflike g i l l s a lo n g the sides of the a bdomen a nd, like
the a d u lts, th ree (som eti mes two) l o n g , usua l ly feathery,
ta i l a p pendages. Mayfly nym phs feed on sma l l p l a nts
a n d a n i m a l s a n d o n o rganic de bris. They live from a few
months to th ree years in the water, depending on the
species. At matu rity they float to the surface, shed their
skin, and tra nsform i nto a flyi n g , d u l l-colored s u bi m a go,
or d u n . This sta g e may lost a day o r more; then the
subimago skin is shed a n d the shi ny, sexua l ly mature
imago, o r spin ner, emerges. The adu lts of some species
a re truly ephemeral, livi ng only a few h o u rs. Ad ult may
fl ies ta ke in n o food ; their nonfunctio na l m o uth p a rts a re
g reatly reduced in size. Adu lts mate in fl i g h t, countless
m i l lions sometimes i nvo lved i n a n u ptia l swa rming that
ofte n takes p l a ce near water. After her eggs a re laid i n
the water, t h e fem a le d i es.
Both nymphs and a d u lts a re an i m porta nt food of
fishes. Mayfl ies a re attra cted to lights a lo n g shore, their
bodies someti m es piling u p a foot o r m ore deep (p. 97,
top). About 500 species occur i n N .A.
MAYF LIES

96

I NS E CTS

ISONYC H I A n y m p h s a re ada pt
ed for l ife in flowing water a n d
s w i m w i t h q u ick, d a rting m ove
me nts. Widely d istri b uted .
CLOEON n y m p h is a c l i m ber,
spending
much
time
among
pla nts. F o u n d m a i n l y i n eastern
and northern N . A .
E P H EM E R ELLA
nymph
is
a
spraw l i n g type. It c l i n g s to ob
jects o n the bottom in ponds a n d
strea ms. G i l l s are a b o u t h a l f t h e
width o f the a b d o m e n . Widely
d istrib u ted i n N.A.
E P H EMERA is common i n s m a l l
ponds.
The
nymphs
b u rrow
t h r o u g h bottom sediments. They
keep their feathery g i l l s i n move
ment. This creates a c u rrent of
water t h ro u g h the b u rrow, re
p l e n is h i n g the oxyg e n for res
p i ration .
BLASTU R U S n y m p h s a re a b u n
dant i n small ponds in early
s p r i n g . T h e i r d eve l o p m e n t i s
rapid so t h a t by A p r i l o r M a y
t h e y h ave m a t u red a n d a r e
g o n e . The n y m p h s a re swift,
d a rting types. F o u n d in waters
t h r o u g h o u t m ost of N .A.

GREEN DARNERS (Anax) a re

a m o n g the larg est, m o st c o m m o n
d ra g o n fl ies i n N .A. Belted Skim........
.
-- mers (Macromia) are a lso widely
distri b u ted i n N .A . , t h e i r m ottled
nymphs c a m o u fl aged i n the m u d .
Green Jacket (Erythemis) n y m p h
has typica l s c o o p that c a n be
rapidly to c a p t u re
extended
prey. Most d ra g o n flies ( a n d d a m
selfl ies, t o o ) are identified o n l y
i n a d u l t stage. N y m p h s o f a l l
species are m u c h a l ike i n a p
pearance.

DRAGO N F LIES A N D DAMS E LF L I E S (Odonata) a re

a l so ca l led Mosq uito Hawks o r Devi l's Da r n i n g Needles.
About 4 0 0 species occur i n N .A. Dragonfl ies h o l d their
wings i n a h orizonta l position when at rest; the s m a l ler,
rather delicate d a m se lfl ies hold their wi n g s u pward a n d
backwa rd. The nym p h s of both a re d u l l - co l o red, awk
ward - looking creatu res with l a rg e ch ewi n g mouthparts
covered by a scooplike lip (la bi u m ) . The s l i m da msel
fly nym p h s h ave th ree leaf-sha ped gills at the tip of the
abdo m e n . Dragonfly nymphs are broad a n d lack these
g i l ls. Both feed o n i n sect larvae, worms, sma l l crusta
cea n s, o r eve n sma l l fishes. In turn, they are an i m porta n t
food of m a ny l a r g e r fi shes.
98

I N S E CTS

1.

2.
body, 1 .8 i n .
w i n gs, 2 . 2 i n .
3.
COMMON B L U ET i s a s l e n d e r ,
wid ely d istrib u ted d a m selfly. The
n y m p h s l ive i n pond vegetati o n .
There a re m a n y o t h e r species i n
t h e g e n u s fnol/o g m o . A l l t h e
n y m p h s look m u c h a l i ke b u t have
less s h a r p l y pai nted g i l l s tha n
da Fa rkta i l s (fsch n u ro ) . Both a re
com mon i n N .A. N y m p h s may be
seen c l i m b i n g a bout a n pla nts or
d e b ris i n sea rch of p rey. N y m p h s
of a t h e r da mselflies h i d e i n m u d
o r sand a n d w a i t for p rey I a
come nea r.

fnol/ogmo exsu/ons

nymph
0.8 i n .

Dragonflies a n d d a m se lfl ies m a t e i n fl i g ht. Females

deposit their eggs i n the water, i n fl oati n g plant ma sses,
i n sa nd, o r in holes cut by the females in p l a n t stems
the place a nd m ethod of layi ng eggs va ryi n g with t h e
species. Some species comp lete their life cyc l e f r o m egg
to a d u lt i n th ree months; others may ta ke u p to five years
a n d pass through m a n y nym p h a l sta g es before be
co m i n g a d u lts. Tra n sformation from n y m p h to a d u lt
(imago) takes p lace on a p i l i n g , on a p l a n t stem stick i n g
o u t from the water, or o n s o m e si m i l a r object. T h e
nymp h's o uter skin splits lengthwise o n t h e u p p e r s u rface
and the a d u lt e m erges. I t m ust wait for its wi n g s to d ry
before it ca n fly.
I N SECTS

99

(Pi ecoptera) have c lear, m e m bra n ous wings

a n d long a nte n nae. There are a bout 300 species
i n N .A. T h e nymphs l ive pri m a r i l y i n fl owi n g waters but
a re fou n d occasiona l ly i n q u iet poo ls, usua l ly under
sto n es, l eaves, or other bottom debris. They a re spraw l
i n g creatu res, up to 2 i n ches long, a n d have tufts of g i l l s
beh i n d each leg . Some species feed o n a n i m a ls, others
o n p l a n ts. Fishes and other water a n i m a l s feed o n the
stonefly nymphs.

STO N E F LIES

(Co l l e m bola), though not truly aq uatic,

are co m m o n ly found on the s u rface of ponds a nd in
damp debris a l ong wate r's edge. Th ese primitive wing
less i n sects, less tha n 0.2 i n ch long, jump by using a
spri n g i n g d evice under their a bd o m e n .

SPRIN GTAILS

DOBSO NS, A N D FISHFLIES (Mega lop

tera) a re a ctive mostly at d u sk or at night. Alderfly
l a rvae a re brownish, thick-ski n n ed, a n d a bout 1 i n c h
long. They a re sec retive, livi n g m a i n l y i n m u d or u n d er
n eath sto nes i n the shore zones. Dobso n s a re brownish
with wh ite-sp l otched wings measuring up to 5 i n c hes in
sprea d . Ma les have l a rge c u rved m a n d i bles u sed in
clasping the fema les i n mati n g . The p redaceous l a rvae,
ca l led h e l l g ra m m ites, may be a s long a s 3 i n ches. Fish
fl ies a re reddish-ta n , often with yel lowish streaks; wings
brown ish . The p redaceous l a rvae rese m b l e h e l lgram
m ites but are not a s l a rge.
A L DE R F LIES,

(Neuroptera ) , g rayish or ye l l owish

brow n , a p pear i n summer and l ive only a few days. The
l a rvae live o n o r in fresh-water sponges and feed on
the sponge tissues. Spo n g i l l a flies (about 6 species in
N.A.) a re not well known.

SPO N GILLA F LIES

1 00

I NSECTS

cornutus

1 .5 i n .

p u pa i n
cocoon

INSECTS

1 01

B U GS (Hemi ptera) have m o uth p a rts fitted for

piercing a n d sucking. Some are wing less, but m ost k i n d s
have four wings. The rea r h a l f of e a c h f r o n t w i n g i s
mem bra n ous, a n d there is a tria n g u l a r p late, the scutel
lum, between the wing bases. Yo u n g bugs a re like
m i niature a d u lts but lack wings. These n y m p h s change
(meta morph ose) g rad u a l ly. Most a q uatic bugs feed o n
i n sects o r on other i n vertebrate a n i m a ls. S o m e ca n fl y ;
others wa l k o n t h e su rfa ce. Most a re ada pted f o r swi m
m i n g , diving, o r clinging to u n derwater vegetatio n .

TRUE

MARSH TREADERS, o r Water

Measu rers, a re slender d a rk
found
usually
bugs
colored
cree p i n g on t h e su rface, espe
c i a l l y i n t h ick p l a n t g rowths.
They s p e a r prey with their s h a r p
b e a k , then suck o u t body j u ices.
Eyes near base of long h e a d .
About 6 s p e c i e s known i n N.A.
BROAD-SH O U L D E R E D
WATER
STR I D E R S a re wid est th roug h the
thorax, dark colored, and often
have l i g h t ma rkings. Microvelia
.. is the common g e n us. Species of
Rhag ovelia use h a i r y tufts on
m i d d l e legs a s a padd le. Broad
s h o u l d ereol Water Striders catch
other i n sects o r sma l l c r u staceans
j u st beneath o r o n t h e su rface.
About 20 N.A. species.
WATER STR I DE R S, o r Pond Skat
e rs, a re s l e n d e r, d a rk, long
legged b u g s that skate o r j u m p
!"-----: a bout on t h e s u rface fi l m . Often
they cong regate i n l a rge n u m
bers. A d u lts are u s u a l l y w i n g l ess.
Like the Broad-sho u l d e red Water
Striders, they a re p redaceous.
A b o u t 30 species i n N .A., nearly
a third i n t h e genus G erris.

WATER TREADERS, s m a l l a n d
c o m m o n l y g re e n i s h , l ive on t h e
s u rface n e a r shore a n d o n de
bris. They feed on a n im a l s f o u n d
on t h e s u rface. Three species
occ u r in N.A.
WATER BOATM E N o r e s l e n d e r
b u g s w i t h l o n g h i n d legs fl at
tened for swi m m i n g . Air token
at the su rface u s u a l l y s u rro u n d s
the i n sect i n a silvery envelope .
Water Boatme n m u st hold o n to
some object in order to remain
s u bmerged. Ad u lts o r e strong
fl i e r s a n d com m o n l y attracted to
l i g hts. They feed on a l g a e o r o n
decoying p l a n t a n d a n i m a l mat
ter s u cked f r o m bottom ooze .
About 1 1 5 species of Water
Boatm en o r e known i n N .A. wof
ers.
Arcfocorixa
( h e re)
and
Corixa ( p . 9 5 ) a re t w o c o m m o n
genera.
WATER S C O R P I O N S h a v e a
b reathing t u b e formed by two
g rooved fi l a m e nts at the e n d of
the a b d o m e n . These b u g s l ive
u n d erwater
but
pro ject
the
breathing tube t h r o u g h the s u r
face from t i m e to time to re
p l e n i s h t h e i r o ir. They o r e c o r
n ivorous, seizing t h e i r prey with
their strong front legs. About
1 2 species occ u r i n N . A .
G I ANT W A T E R BUGS o r e the
l a rg e st of the t r u e b u g s . They
feed on i n sects o r even on tad
poles a n d small fi s h es, k i l l i n g
t h e i r p r e y w i t h o p o i s o n secreted
as they bite. In some species the
m a l e carries t h e e g g s on h i s
b o c k . Attracted to l i g hts. About
24 species i n N . A . ; most o b u n
d o n ! in Southeast .

W a t e r Boat m a n
A rctocorixa i n terrupta

Water
Scorpion
Ranafra
fusca

striola
0.1 i n .

PYGMY
BACKSWIMMERS
a re
c o m m o n l y fo u n d
clinging
in
t a n g l e d m asses of p l a nts. They
swim only short d ista n ces-from
one plant to a n other. Their food
consists m a i n l y of s m a l l crusta
cea ns. O n l y one species, widely
d istrib uted , occu rs i n N.A.
BACKSW IMMERS have a keeled,
or boat-s h a pe d , back and pad
d le-like legs. Their hind l e g s a re
m u c h l o n g e r t h a n the m i d d l e a n d
front l e g s . Backswim m ers h o l d a
s u p p ly of a i r on t h e u n d e rside
of the body and beneath the
wings. They come to the s u rface
periodically to rest and to re
plen ish their air s u p p l y by stick
ing the tip of t h e i r a b d o m e n
above the su rface. T h e i r b i t e is
p a i n fu l . About 20 species i n
N.A.
CREEP I N G W A T E R BU G S carry
air i n a bubble b e neath their
wings. They m ove b y swi m m i n g
a n d crawl i n g , a n d g ra s p prey
with their stro n g legs. Pelocoris
occ u rs i n eastern N . A . ; A mbrysus
is a wester n g e n u s.
TOAD BUGS a re f o u n d in the
m u d a n d s and along s h o res of
q u iet waters over m u c h of N .A.
They have broad g ra s p i n g front
legs. Ochterids are similar to
Toad
Bugs,
but
they
have
slender front legs.
SHORE BU GS, o r S a l d i d s, are
j u m pi n g b u g s that l ive i n t h e
w e t s o i l a l o n g shores t h r o u g h
o u t N.A. They fly q u ickly b u t on
l y short d ista nces. S u c k j u ices
from small dead inverteb rates.

1 04

BEETLES (Coleoptera) have thick, heavy front wings

that cover the membra n ous hind wings. Both the a d u lts
and the la rva e have chewing mouth p a rts. Some feed
on pla nts, others o n a n i m a ls; some a re scavengers. Of
a bout 2 80,000 species of beet les, o n l y a few live i n
water d u ri n g o n e o r a l l o f their four life stages. Beetle
larvae a re a ctive; they have th ree pairs of legs.
PREDACEOUS D I V I N G B EETLES
ore common i n most l a kes a n d
p o n d s . Both t h e l a rvae, ofte n
called Water Tigers, a n d the
ad u its feed o n i n sects o r on other
sma l l water a n i m a ls. Ad u lts com
monly hang head down with the
t i p of t h e i r a b d o m e n a bove the
s u rface. In t h i s positio n they tra p
a i r beneath t h e i r wings. The
s h i ny, brown ish-black a d u lts a re
stro ng fl i e rs, freq uently attract
ed to lig hts. More than 300 spe
cies a r e fou n d i n N . A .
CRAW L I N G W A T E R B EETLES l ive
in s h a l l ow water a m o n g p l a n t
masses, especi a l ly a l g a e . They
a re poor swi m m e rs. The l a rvae
eat only p l a n ts, but the a d u lts
eat both p l a nts and a n i m a ls.
About 50 species i n N .A .
W H I R L I G I G BEETLES use t h e i r
short, fan-sha ped m i d d l e a n d
h i n d l e g s i n s k i m m i n g ove r t h e
su rface a n d i n d iv i n g . Their
front legs a re l o n g a n d slender.
Each eye is d ivided i n to two
pa rts so that the beetl e sees
a bove a n d b e n eath the water at
the same time. The a d u lts a re
scave n g ers; t h e larvae are vora
cious carn ivores. More than 50
species i n N . A . Many g ive off
a stron g odor w h e n ca ug ht.

eyes
I NSECTS

1 05

WATER
SCAVENGER
BEETLES
h ave stub by, c l u b-shaped an
tennae, which they stick a bove
the s u rface when they need to
replenish their air s u p ply. The
a i r is trap ped on t h e a n t e n n a e
a n d u n d e r the w i n g s . A d u lts are
mainly vegetarians; the l a rvae,
carnivoro u s . About 1 60 species
occ u r i n N.A. They ra n g e i n
length from 0 . 3 t o 1 .5 i nches.

triang ularis

DRYOP I DS
are
small
hairy
beetles that feed o n algae. Little
is known about the l a rvae which
c l i n g to the u n d ersides of sticks
and stems. Ad ults a re widely
d istributed i n la kes, p o n d s, and
streams. About 25 species are
f o u n d in N.A.
ELM I DS crawl about over the
bottom or on plants a n which
they feed . A fi l m of a i r s u rro u n d
i n g a d u lt's body serves a s a
reservoir of oxyg e n . About 75
easter n N.A. species.
LEAF BEETLES a re m a i n l y terres
trial, but some species a r e com
m o n on pond s u rfaces and feed
on
pla nts.
Larvae
breathe
thro u g h twa spiny tubes that
t a p a i r c h a m bers of plant stem
on w h i c h they a re feed i n g . F u l l
g rown l a rvae s p i n cocoons.

1 06

Tiger Beetle
Cicinde/a

TIG ER BEETLES of several spe

cies l ive along the wet, s a n d y
shores of ponds, l a kes, a n d
streams. The attractive a d u lts are
active d u ri n g the d a y a n d fl y
q u ickly when a pproached . T h e
u g ly, big-jawed l a rvae l i v e i n
b u rrows a n d wait a t t h e en
trance for p rey to come close
e n o u g h for them to g ra b .

R H YACO P H I LA a d u lts o re sel

dom m are t h an 0.5 inch l o n g .
The l a rvae d o not b u i l d cases.

(T richoptera) rese m b l e moths. Both the

la rvae a n d pupae are aq uatic. The soft- bodied la rva e
have a h a rd , horny covering on the head, a n d each of
the th ree distinct seg me nts of the thorax bears a pair of
legs. La rva e of most live i n tubelike cases of leaves,
sa nd, twi gs, o r bark, so disti n ctive that m ost species
can be identified by the type of case made. A few of
the m a n y kinds a re shown below. La rvae that build
porta b l e cases p u l l them be hind a s they crawl a bout
over the botto m . La rva e feed o n both a n i m a l s and
pla nts. Some strea m species build n ets i n which they
capture food drifti ng i n the wate r. Most of a caddi sfly's
life i s spent a s a la rva . The pupa l sta g e l a sts a bout two
weeks; the a d u l t lives a bout a month . Cadd isfly la rva e
are a n i m p orta nt food of fish es, particula rly trout. More
t h a n 750 species occur in N .A.
CADDIS F LIES

Leptocella albida (sa n d )

1 07

F LIES ( D i ptera) have o n e pair of tra nspare nt, nearly

vei n l ess front wings; the h i n d wings a re red uced to
stu bby ba l a n c i n g org a n s, or ha lteres. F lies h a ve la pping
or pierci ng-sucking mouth p a rts, a nd i n some, such as
mosq uitoes, they form a long proboscis. The l a rvae a n d
p u p a e o f m a n y fl ies a re a q uatic, b u t n o a d u lts live i n
water. T h o u g h usua l ly i n conspicuous, the l a rvae m a y
exist i n l a rge n u m bers i n la kes a n d p o n d s , s o m e at t h e
s u rface a n d others i n bottom debris a n d m u d . T h e y a re
a n i m po rta nt food of fishes a n d other a n i m a ls. The larva l
sta ge of some species la sts for o n l y a few weeks; in
othe rs, for severa l years. Most fl y la rva e, o r maggots,
do not have a d i sti n ct head. They lack eyes.
MOSQU ITO l a rvae, or wrigglers,
range from 0.2 to m o re t h a n 0.5
i n c h l o n g . They d iffer from other
fly l a rvae i n that their head and
thorax a re larger than the re
m a i n d e r of the body. Mosq u ito
l a rvae eat m i croscopic plants
a n d a n i m a l s or organic d e b ris
fi ltered t h r o u g h b r u shes that
surro u n d
their
mouth.
They
breathe t h r o u g h g i l l s at the end
of the abdomen. La rvae u s u a l ly
rest at su rface, but wriggle
downward if d istu rbed.
Mosq u ito pu pae, commonly
called t u m b l ers, a re a lso a q uatic.
U n l ike those of the l a rva e, their
head a n d thorax a re fused into
one u n it, a n d they breathe
t h ro u g h tubes i n their thorax. In
contrast to the p u pae of most
other i n sects, they are active a n d
c a n swim by using their leaflike
tail a ppendages.
Only the female mosq u itoes
are bloodsuckers. Many req u i re
a m e a l of b l ood before they a re
1 08

I NS ECTS

a b l e to lay t h e i r eggs. Some

kinds of m osq u itoes tra nsmit d is
eases, su c h as m a l a ria a n d yel
low feve r. The m a l es feed on
necta r a n d ripe fruit. Mosq u itoes
survive winter and periods of
d r o u g ht in the egg stage, hatch
i n g as soon a s cond itions a re
favora b l e . About 1 20 species of
mosq u itoes occ u r i n N . A .
resem b l e
P H A NTOM
GNATS
mosq u itoes a n d , l i ke them, hove
h a i ry, sca ly w i n g s. B u t a d u lts do
not feed, hence d o not bite. They
ofte n a p pear i n l a rge, bother
some n u m bers and are attracted
to l i g hts. The l a rvae, a b o u t 0 . 5
inch l o n g o n d nearly t r a n s p a r
e n t, live in p o o l s , p o n d s, a n d
la kes. T h e y swi m a n d d a r t rapid
ly, preyi ng on mosq u ito larvae,
sma l l c r u staceans, and
other
sm a l l a n i m a l s . The l a rvae's an
tennae, used in c a p t u r i n g prey
and a lso i n swi m m i n g , project
downward in front of m o uth.

H O U S E M O S QUI TO ad u lts at
rest press their body cl ose to the
surface. Larvae rest at a n a n g l e .

Yellow Fever Mosq u ito

Aedes aegypti

Phantom Gnat
Chaoborus a l bipe s
la rva

COMMON
MA LA R I A
MOSQ U I TOES rest with a b d o m e n u p .
larvae l i e horizonta l ly.

l'
I

Sa l t-Ma rsh Mosq u ito

Aedes sollicita ns

Bog Mosq uito

Culiseto melan uso

C R A N E FLI E S l o o k l i k e g ia n t
mosq u itoes. Widely d istrib uted
i n N .A., they are c o m m o n l y
fo u n d swa r m i n g n e a r ponds a n d
a re a lso attracted to lig hts.
Crone flies mate i n fl i g ht, a n d
the females lay t h e i r e g g s i n
water. The brownish to whitish
a q u atic l a rva e ca n be recog
n ized by the d isk a t the end of
t h e i r ta i l . T his d i sk, w h i c h has
t u b e l ike
s p iracles,
is
t h r ust
t h r o u g h the s u rface far b reath
ing. Some crane fly l a rvae a re
predaceous; others are vege
taria n . Ad u lts of some species
feed on nectar, but the a d u lts
of many species d o not eat.
Cranefl ies d o not bite.
About 30 species of N .A .
cra n e fl i es a re a q uatic. Among
the most widely d istrib u ted are
the species of Tipula. Their l a rge
toug h-ski n n ed la rvae, sometimes
called leather J a ckets, live in
mats of a l g a e o r other vegeta
tion, i n t h e sa n d y or m u ddy bot
toms of la kes, a n d p o n d s, in wet
g rass, o r i n d e b r i s of lowl a n d
shores. S pecies of Hefius l ive i n
r i c h m u d s a n d on floati n g vege
tation i n ma rshes, especially in
waters where e m e r g e n t pla nts
a re a b u n d a nt.

Ptychopfera
rufocincta

1 10

I NSECTS

P H A NTOM CRANE FLIES resem

ble true crane flies. U n l i ke the
l a rvae of t r u e c r a n e fl ies, the
la rvae have a l o n g respi ratory
tube at the rear. P h a ntom c r a n e
fly l a rvae live i n decay i n g pla nts
and in mud at the edge of ponds
a n d lakes. A i r sacs on the feet
of a d u lts of some species aid in
a "balloon i n g 11 o r "kiti n g " fl i g h t
i n even s l i g h t w i n d s . O n ly 6
species in N . A .

Mid g e

TR UE M I DGES rese m b l e m os
q u itoes. M o l e s hove I o rge, feath
ery a n te n n a e . The r o u n d-bod ied
la rvae o re red, yel lowish, g reen
ish, o r whitish c o l o red . Red la rvae
ore called "bl oodworms." The
p u pae of m a n y species ore a c
tive, lik e mosq u ito t u m blers.
Some species l ive i n tubes made
of sa n d , silt, o r d e b ris ceme nted
together with a sticky secreti o n .
larvae ore o n i m porta n t f o o d o f
fi s h e s . Mo st a d u lts d o not bite.
About 200 N .A. species.

Tendipes
otte n u otus

P U N K I ES (Sa n d F l ies o r No-See

U rns) o re biting m i d g es. The l a r
vae live in p l a n t masses a n d i n
m u d . T h e y a re c a r n ivorous, prey
ing o n s m a l l i n sects and crus
taceans. They may be very o b u n
d o n t a n d o re o n i m porta nt food
of small fishes.
D IXA M I DGES o re c o m m o n l y
s e e n at su n d own d a n c i n g u p a n d
d o w n i n fl i g h t over a n d near
bod ies of wate r . These ore mat
i n g swa rm s. The l a rvae feed o n
m ic roscopic food filtered f r o m t h e

a "U."
BLACK F L I ES, o r B u ffa l o G n a ts,
are s m a l l flies more c o m m o n
n e a r strea m s t h a n a r o u n d ponds
a n d la kes. The females o r e ..._
b l oodsucke rs, a n d their bites o re
p a i n fu l . U n l ike m o s q u itoes, b l o c k
Aies o re active d u ri n g the d a y .
The l a rvae h o v e food-gathering
b r ushes o n e a c h side of their1
hea d . Mosses of la rvae attached 1
'
to stones l o o k l i ke m oss. A b o u t
50 species in N .A .

Simulium sp.

1 1 1

H orse
Fly
Taba n us

HORSE FLY a n d Deer F l y l a rvae

(many species) are a q u a tic. Ro
b ust and worm l i ke, horse fly l o r
vae a r e a b o u t 1 i n c h l o n g a n d
tapered at both e n d s . Deer fl y
l a rva e a r e s m a l l e r . Both prey
o n worms, s n a ils, and othe r a n i
m a l s . Females l a y eggs on pla nts
or rocks j u st a b ove water s u r
face. F e m a l e fl ies bite; m a l es
feed on n ectar.
DRONE FLY l a rvae, called rat
tailed m a g gots, l ive in debris o n
t h e bottom in s h allow waters.
They breathe thro u g h a t ube, a s
m uc h a s 1 i n c h l o n g , that sticks
a bove s u rface. Drone F lies a re
members of the flower fly family,
im porta n t p o l l i n ators.
S O L D I E R FLIES i n c l u d e a few spe
cies with a q u atic l a rvae. Some
a re nearly 2 i nches long. Stiff
and covered with a thick skin,
they a p pear l ifeless. Hairlike
setae surro u n d breat h i n g spir-.,acles at e n d of a b d o m e n .

:S:i2:t::::=!)
C
'!!

the la rgest group of Lepidoptera, i n c l ud e a

few aq uatic species. The caterpi l l a rs are a bout 0 . 8 i n ch
l o n g . Some build si lk-li ned cases of leaf fra g me n ts. I n
other species the pupae deve lop i n cases atta ched to
underwater p l a nts; sti l l others atta ch the cases to p l a nts
a bove the water. The sma l l moths of these aq uatic spe
cies a re d u l l brown o r g ray.

MOTHS,

112

have eight l egs, as d o

ticks, scorpions, a n d oth er mem bers o f t h e sa m e a rth
ropod g rou p-Ara c h n i d a .
Among the few kinds of spiders t h a t s p e n d their life
in or near the water is the Fisher Spider, w h i c h ca n dive
and remain subm erged for long periods. Widespread in
N.A., it feeds m a i n l y o n i n sects but has been k n own a lso
to catch sma l l fishes and tad po les. The Sti lt Spider, a n
orb weaver, lives near shores o f ponds a n d strea m s a n d
often skates a cross water. It catches m idges, cra n e
fl ies, a n d oth e r i n sects in i t s snare. Ma ny oth er k i n d s o f
spiders may be found u n d e r l o g s o r rocks or i n the
vegetation a long shores.
Water m ites, usua l ly n o more than 0.2 i n c h long, live
with the floati n g p l a n kton o r i n wet veg etation a long
shores. Each species is usua l l y restricted to a pa rti c u l a r
ha bitat. Water m i tes feed o n worms, sma l l crusta ceans,
and i n sects; some a re pa rasites. A few swi m ; others
crawl a bout o n pla nts or rocks; all surface to get air.

WATER MITES A N D SPIDERS

SPIDERS-MITES

113

a re soft- bodied a n i m a ls, their soft pa rts

surrounded by a she l l . (Exceptions are the land-dwelling
s l u g s a n d the marine sq uids a n d octopuses, i n which the
sh e l l is absent o r sma l l and intern a l .) The two groups
rep resented i n fresh water a re snails a n d clams. In both ,
the shells are composed l a rgely of l i m e secreted by the
fleshy tissue (ma ntle) surro u n d i n g the a ni m a l's body.
Mo l l usks are not a bu n d a nt i n soft or a cid waters (those
with a l ow p H ) , in which thei r limy shells would dissolve.

MO L L U S KS

(Gastropoda) typica l ly have a si n g l e coi l ed

s h e l l that may be rounded, flattened, o r hig h ly spired.
Snails have a disti n ct head with a pair of sen sory tenta
cles that ca n be extended or retracted. A n eye is located
at the base of each tentacle. Beneath the tenta cles is the
mouth, eq uipped with a raspi n g ton g u e, the rad u la ,
that is worked back a n d forth l i k e a fi l e t o sh red food .
F resh-water snails feed mai n ly on p l a nts, though so m e
e a t d e a d a n i m a ls. They are food themselves o f m a n y
different k i n d s of fi s h e s a n d a few k i n d s of birds a n d
a n i m a l s . S o m e a re the hosts of pa rasiti c worms. Snails
crawl o n a thick, m uscu lar "foot" o n the u nderside of
their body.

S N AILS

G I LLED S NAI LS, o r Prosobranchs,

breathe by m e a n s of a g i l l , a set
of leaflike tissues o n the mantle.
A t h i n , horny p late, the oper
c u l u m , is attached to the "foot"
and sea l s the o p e n i n g to the
shell w h e n the foot is retracted .
Nearly a l l g i l l e d s n a i l s lay
their eggs in jelly-like cocoons.
In w i n k les, however, the eggs
are held inside the a d u l t's shell
until they hatc h .

1 14

S N A I LS

P U LMONATE S NA I LS have a sac

like " l u n g ," formed from a por
tion of the m a ntle. They breathe
air at t h e water s u rface, but
some ca n stay u n d e rwater in
defin itely,
respiration
taking
place t h r o u 11 h body s u rface. Pul
mon ate s n a i l s d o not h ave an
opercu l u m to cl ose shell o p e n i n g .
Most species lay t h e i r eggs i n
gelatinous m a sses o n s u bmerged
sto ne s o r pla nts.

GILLED

SNAILS

AT E S N A I L S
shel l s cone- P U L M O N
s h a p e d . Wide
Fresh-water
spread i n N .A.;
Lim pet
only abundant
Ferrissia
locally.
riv ularis

0.3 i n .

Some s h e l l s r o u g h ,
oth e rs smooth .
.,. F o u n d from
C o n n . to Va.
Most N .A . still
waters. H a i r l i ke
shell coveri n g .

Little Pond
Snail
A m n icola
limnosa

...

0.3 i n .

H a i ry Wheel S n a i l

Gyraulus hirsutus

Ponds a n d
streams, most
a b u n d a n t east of
Rockies.
C o m m o n species
of q u iet waters.
Many N.A.
rela tives .

.,.

Snail
Helisoma

F o u n d in m ud
bottomed waters
of easte r n N . A .
I ntrod uced from
E u rope; n ow
sprea d i n g in the
East .

.,.

S h e l l thick. Many
related species,
a l l from eastern
N.A.

Po n d S n a i l
Lymn aea a u ricula ris

S h e l l s usua l ly t h i n . Lymna ea
Q u i e t waters of
stag n alis
m i d d l e N .A., a l so

E u rope a n d Asia.
.., Largest N . A . s n a i l ,
from ponds a n d
d itches o f south
eastern U.S.
2.5 in.

CLAMS (Pe lecypoda) i n c l ud e species that live i n m u d

a n d sa n d of ponds, la kes, a n d strea ms. T h e y are espe
cia l ly a b u ndant i n the waters of the Mississippi Va l
ley, but they a re ra re i n water deeper tha n six feet.
U n like sna i l s, clams do not have a head, rad u la, or
tenta c les. Two openings (si phons) are located at one end
of their biva lved she l l . One si phon ta kes i n water, which
conta i n s food a n d dissolved oxyg e n ; the water p u m ped
out the other siphon ca rries away wastes. The ferti le
eggs of clams a re reta i n ed i n a speci a l c ha m ber of the
adult u nti l th ey hatch. Adu lts of some species may con
ta i n m ore tha n th ree m i l lion d eve loping e m bryos.
Glochidia, l a rvae of fresh-water c l a m s, o r m u ssels, cling
to g i l l s or fi n s of fishes. They live a s pa rasites for a
while before droppi n g off a n d settling to the bottom .
Ma ny kinds o f fishes feed o n sma l l, t h i n-shel led
clams. Mi n k , ra ccoons, and some tu rtles can open those
with thick shells to eat the soft insides.
FRESH -WATER CLAMS
probably evolved from a
sal t-water farm into fresh
water.

g lochidium

Some freshwater b i
va l ves have a l a rva l
sta ge, the g l ochid i u m,
which c l i ngs as a pa ra
site to fi ns of fishes.
Lines, o r rings, o n
t h e o u tside of a clam's
shel l are g rowth m arks.
I n side, the hinge
ca n be seen.
C lams dig i n mud or
sa n d with their wedge
shaped, "hatchet" foot.
Water passes i n a n d
o u t t h e shel l cavity
through the t u belike
siphons.

foot

PEARLY MUSSEL, central

a n d eastern N .A., has a heavy shel l .
M a y b e c u t i n to pearl buttons.

lives i n eastern and central N.A.

Shel l u s u a l l y winged at hinge.
PA P E RSH E L LS

Eupera singleyi
0.5 i n .
BROWN F I NG E R N A I L C LAMS,
with thin shells, a re
fou n d in southern N.A.
S P H E R E C LAMS,
with rather thick shells, a re fou n d
widely i n most of N .A.
P I L L C LAMS
of many species are fou n d
through most o f N.A.

CLAMS

1 17

O T H ER I NV ERTE BRATES from smaller groups are

so metimes a bu n d a n t i n ponds a n d la kes. Most of these
a n i m a l s a re n ot com mon, and little is known a bout
their ha bits or the im porta nce of their roles i n the aq uati c
envi r o n ment. Some kinds may appear i n ponds a nd
la kes o n ly at certa i n seasons.
PROBOSC I S WORMS, or N emer
teens, a re s l e n d e r, u n seg me nted
worms, sometimes called Ribbon
Worms. T h e i r soft, flat body is
seldom m o r e than 1 inch l o n g .
The l o n g , exte n d i b l e proboscis is
sometimes two o r th ree times
l o n g e r t h a n the a n i m al's body.
Nemerte a n s creep
along
on
p l a n t d e b r i s a n d feed on s m a l l
a n i m a l s a n d a lgae. A s i n g l e
fresh-water species is w i d e l y d is
tributed in N . A . a n d is fo u n d
m ost a b u n d a nt l y i n a u t u m n .
M a n y other species are m a r i n e .

N EMATODES o r N e m a s , a r e
r o u ndworms, u s u a l l y a b u nd a n t
i n the bottom m ud a n d sa nd o r
i n masses o f d e b r i s i n ponds
a n d l akes. About 1 ,000 species
a re found i n fresh waters. Usu
a l ly l ess than 0.1 inch long, their
d istinctive feature i s the con
slant w h i p l i k e t h ra s h i n g motion
that th rows the body into the
form of a n "S." Some nema
todes ore para sites, i nfesti n g
crustacea ns o r e v e n other w o r m s .
O t h e r s are pred atory, a n d m a n y
feed o n p l a nts.

GASTROTR I C H S a re m icroscopic
a n i m a l s that l ive i n bottom de
bris attached by a secretion from
their tail a p pe n d a g es. About 60
percent of the a p p roximately 200
species l ive i n fresh wate r. Pri
marily a l g a e eaters. Chaetono
tus is a n exa m pl e .
HORSEHA I R WORMS, common i n
q u iet waters i n s u m mer, are l o n g
( t o a b o u t 40 i n c hes). cyl ind rical
worms with a wiry, h a i rlike body
a n d a b l u n t head. Females lay
strings of e g g s nearly 8 feet
l o n g . The l a rvae a re pa rasitic on
crustacea ns, i nsects, a n d mol
l u sks.
Often
called
Gordian
Worms beca u se the tangled
masses of i n d ivid u a l s suggest the
mythical Go rdi a n Knot. They are
called H o rsehair Worms beca u se
they look l ike h o rsehairs that
have come al ive.

WATER BEARS, o r Tardig rades,

l ive among sand g r a i n s of wet
beaches and o n pla nts in fresh
waters. Less than 0.05 i n c h l o n g ,
the b o d y is com posed of a h e a d
a n d four seg m e n ts. Each of the
four pairs of legs e nds i n several
claws. During d ry seaso ns, wate r
bears sh rivel a n d rem a i n i n ac
tive o r d o r m a n t u ntil moisture re
t u r n s . They eat pla nts a n d are
p rey themselves of o n e-celled
and other small a n imals. About
40 species of water bears occ u r
i n N . A . waters.

H o rsehair Worms

Gordius sp.

M IS C . I N V E RT E B R ATES

1 1 9

VERTE BRATES-fishes, a m p h i bians, repti les, bi rds, a n d

m a m m a ls-are the la rgest a n d best k n o w n a n i m a ls.
N u m erous species a re ada pted to fresh-water and
wetland l ife . No attem pt has been made to cover a l l
orders a n d fa m i l ies of backboned a n i m a ls. A va riety
a re i l l ustrated, for these a n i m a l s a re an i m porta nt part
of the tota l pond l ife picture.
LAM P REYS are primitive fishes with skeletons of carti
lage rath er than of bone. They a re eel- like in shape a n d
i n m a n n e r of swi m m i n g . T h e i r circ u l a r mouth lacks m ov
able jaws. About 1 0 species of l a m p reys live in the
strea m s and la kes of southern Canada and from the
Mississippi ea stwa rd . One species occu rs o n the Pacific
Coast. Most a re sma l l ; some a re parasiti c on l a rger
fishes. The l a rge Sea la m p rey i nvaded the Great lakes
from the sea severa l years ago a n d has d estroyed the
lake Trout commercia l fishing industry.
AMERICAN BROOK LAMPREY is
common in tro u t stre a m s a n d
someti mes i n ponds. The l a rvae
feed o n org anic deb ris. A d u lts,
obout 8 inches long, eat little .
They a re fo u n d in waters of cen
tral and ea stern N.A.
toothed,
rasping
mouth

SEA LAMPREY spends three or

more years a s a
l a rva
in
strea m s feed ing l a kes. Grows to
3 feet

Sea Lamprey
Petromyzon marinus

cycloid-smooth at rea r
cten oid-spiny at
Both types of scales shown here
overlap like s h i n gles. Ctenoids
a re fou n d o n sunfishes and similar
spi ny-rayed fishes; cycloids, o n
tro u t a n d other softrayed fishes.

BONY FIS H ES The typica l bony fish has sca les em

bedded i n its skin, fi n s supported by rays, a n d a
strea m l i ned body. As water pa sses i n the mouth a n d
t h e n out over the g i l ls, oxygen dissolved i n the water
is exchanged for carbon dioxide from the fi sh's blood .
A fish's sca les have concentric ridges. Rapid g rowth
resu lts in widely spaced ridges; red uced g rowth in winte r
causes them t o be close together. Growth ri ngs can be
cou nted to determine a fi sh's age.
Some fi shes feed on a lgae and oth e r pla nts. You n g
fishes a n d som e adu lts e a t la rge q ua ntities of sma l l
i n verteb rates. Others, such as bass a n d pickerel, p rey
on tadpo l es, fishes, and other la rge water a n i m a ls.
C o m m o n fi shes a re shown here. For others, see Golden
Nature G u i de Fishes.
BROOK TROUT, in the salmon
family, h ave w h ite o n front edge
of fo n s. Native to cold waters of
eastern N .A. but now widely
stocked. Ave rage 0.2 pound;
rarely to 1 0.

R A I N BOW TRO U T feed on i n

sects, m o l l usks, c r u stacea ns, a n d
fishes. Native to wester n N . A .
b u t i ntrod uced to cold easter n
waters. Average 2 p o u n d s b u t
may reach 40.

FISHES

121

Bigmouth Buffalo
lctiobus cyprinel/us

B U FFALO b e l o n g to the sucker

fomily, with some 60 species in
N .A. Most are bottom feeders,
eating m o l l usks, i nsects, a n d
p l a n ts. B i g m o u t h Buffalo g rows
to 65 p o u nds, though u s u a l l y
smaller. Mouth d i rected upward,
not down a s i n suckers.

R EDHORSE, a l sa a sucker, i s com

mon
in
lakes and s l u g g ish
strea m s i n central and m ast of
easte r n N.A. U s u a l l y weighs 1
p o u n d ar less b u t sometimes
reaches 8 p o u n d s . In same reg
ions the Redhorse is prized as
a n edible catc h .

LAKE C H U B S U C KER, found in

q u iet waters from the Great
Lakes ta Texas a n d ea stwa rd,
has a red tailfon when y o u n g .
Lake C h u bsuckers g r u b in bot
tom mud for i n sects and other
organisms.
Spawn
in
early
spring, fem a les scattering eggs
over botto m . To 1 p o u n d .

COMMON W H I T E S U C KERS l ive

i n small to large l a kes and i n
streams t h r o u g h o u t c e n t r a l a n d
easter n N .A . Their f o o d con sists
of i n sect la rvae, other sma l l a n i
m a l s, a n d p l a nts that a re sucked
i n as the fish feed a l o n g the
b ottom . W h e n f u l l g rown, 1 to
1 .5 p ou nds.

GOLDEN S H I N ER, a member of

the m i n now family, is f o u n d
t h r o u g h o u t c e n t r a l a n d eastern
N.A. Its food c o n sists l a rgely of
algae and tiny a n imals. S h i n e rs
a re c o m m o n l y u sed as bait a n d
as a food fi s h i n hatcheries.
Length to more than 1 2 inches.

Notemigo n us
crysole ucas

R E D F I N S H I NERS, about 3 inches

l o n g , occ u r i n centra l a n d east
ern N . A . like the m a n y other
s h i n e rs, the Red fi n is a n im por
tant food link between pla n kton
a n d large fishes.
CREEK CHUB is a l a rg e m i n now,
to about 10 i n c h es l o n g . I t is
com mon i n strea m s and in some
lakes and ponds t h r o u g h o u t cen
tral a n d easte r n N.A. Often
c a u g h t o n hook and l i n e. Their
food consists m ostly of i n sects.
REDBELLY DACE is one of the
most c o m m o n m i n nows in acid
waters of bogs
and
ponds
thro u g h o u t central a n d eastern
N.A. I t feed s m a i n l y on a l g a e
a n d p l a n t debris. R e a c h e s a
length of about 3 i n ches.
CARP
A N D GOLDF I S H, a lso
mem bers of the m i n n ow family,
a re not native to N . A . The Carp,
a native of Asia, was i ntrod uced
to N.A. from E u rope about 1 870.
The Goldfish was also a native
of Asia. Both have been widely
d istri buted .
Carp
com m o n l y
wei g h 20 p o u n d s a n d a re o m n iv
orous feeders. Goldfish f o u n d
in the wild a re th ose freed from
fish bowls. They soon lose their
color,
beco m i n g
white
or
blotched .

Redbelly Dace
Chroso m us eos
Gol dfish
Ca rassius
a uratus

G reen Sunfish
G REEN SU NFISH is one of a
dozen or so flat-sided, deep
bodied s u nfish that a re wide
spread i n N _A_ I t feeds on i n
sects a n d s m a l l
c r u stacea ns.
Spawns i n colon ies i n s u m m e r,
the m o les fa n n i n g s a u cer-s h a ped
nests in sand with fi ns. Average
length 4 to 6 inches.
BLUEGILL SUNFISH i s widely d is
trib uted as a result of stocking
i n fa rm ponds and other waters.
Bluegills eat insects, crustacea n s,
a n d other s m a l l a n imals. A large
fem a l e m a y l a y more t h a n 60,000 eggs a t one spawning, b u t
o n ly a f e w of the m a n y y o u n g
s u rvive . Length 8 to 1 2 inches;
occasionally may weigh a s m u c h
as 1 po u n d .

Wa rmouth
Choenobryftus g ulosu s

P U M P K I N S E E D S U N F I S H is sim
i l a r to Bluegill b u t h a s a brig h t
r e d s p o t o n e a c h g i l l cover. I t
i n h a bits weedy waters i n cen
tral a n d southern N _A_ east of
Rockies. Hybrids of P u m pk inseed
with Green and B l u e g i l l s u nfish
a re d ifficult to i d entify.
WARMOUTH is fou n d in q u iet
waters i n central N.A. from the
Mississippi eastwa rd _ I t prefers
m ud-bottomed ponds a n d , l i k e
related s u n fi s h , feeds largely o n
i nsects a n d s m a l l fishes. Length,
8 to 10 i n c hes.
ORANGESPOnED S U N F I S H l ives
i n q u iet waters throughout cen
tral and easTern N.A. Most a b u n
d a n t i n weedy s pots n e a r holes
Feeds on i n sects and c r u stacea n s .
R e a c h e s a l e n g t h of about 4 t o
5 i nches.

LARGEMOUTH

BASS, a large
member of the sunfish fa m ily, is
common i n p o n d s, la kes, and
sluggish stre a m s t h ro u g h o u t cen
tral a n d southern N .A. I t preys
o n smaller fishes. The Large
mouth Bass averages 2 to 4
p o u nd s, b u t in the South g rows
to m o re than 1 B p o u n d s .

CRAPPIES a r e a lso l a r g e s u n
fi s h . Both t h e B l a c k a n d t h e
Wh ite are w i d e l y d istrib u ted i n
N . A . White C r a p p i e h a s d a rk
bars on sides a n d l ives in m u rk
ier waters t h a n Black. Both are
carnivorous.
They
sometimes
g row to 4 p o u n d s, usually 1 to
2 pou nds.

YELLOW P E R C H , of same fam i l y

as Walleye, S a u ger, a n d da rt
ers, l ive in p o n d s a n d la kes i n
cool regions o f N.A. F o u n d i n
d e e p waters d u ri n g day, shal
l ows at night. Feeds o n s m a l l e r
fishes, crustaceans, a n d o t h e r
small a n i m a l s . L e n g t h about 1 2
inc hes, weight 1 p o u n d .

JOHNNY

DARTER i s o n e o f
about 1 00 s pecies of da rters,
m ost of which a re stream dwell
e rs. Some are n o m o re than 1
inch l o n g ; others reach a l e n g t h
of 5 i n c h e s . The male J o h n n y
Darter a n d some o t h e r k i n d s of
d a rters b u i l d n ests and g uard
their eggs u ntil they hatc h .

'''liiJ'ii!!l!!Eisoxa:m

Redfi n Pickerel
e rican us

6 ft.
P I CKERELS a re s l e n d e r fishes of
strea ms a n d q u iet waters. They
have flat, d ucklike jaws and feed
on fishes and other sma l l a n i
mals. Some pickerels, especially
Northern Pike a n d M u s ke l l u nge,
a re popular sport fi s h . A l l be
long to the pike fa mily.

AMERICAN E ELS have tiny sca les

deep i n the skin. They swim
with snakelike move m e n ts and
are m ost a ctive at n igh t . Eels
feed on other fi s hes. May g row
to 6 feet. They spawn at sea,
and the young
m i g rate up
streams to ponds and l a kes.

BANDED K I L L I F I S H, 3 to 4 inches
long, is a topmin now, one of a
l a rge family fou n d in fresh a n d
salt waters. Head is flattened,
m o uth d i rected u pward for s u r
face feed i n g . K i l l ifish feed on
small pla nts a n d a n imals. Band
ed Killifish lives i n n o rthern wat
ers. Ha rdy m i n n ows c a n be kept
for a l o n g time i n aq uariums.

MOSQ U ITOFISH, or G a m b usias,

a re about 2 i n ches l o n g . They
ore top m i n n ows, feed i n g at s u r
face a n d introduced widely for
mosqu ito
control .
G a m b usias
bear their yo u n g a l ive, breed i n g
throughout the s u m m e r . Males
a r e m uc h smal l e r t h a R females.
They a re n ative from southern
N.A. southwa rd .

Yellow B u l l head

Jctalurus nata/is

Jctalurus me/as

B U LLHEADS are fo u n d in p o n d s
a n d s l u g g ish stre a m s throughout
N.A. Like other catfish, b u l l heads
have a smooth, sca leless skin
a n d a sharp s p i n e i n the top
(dorsal) fi n and i n each side
( pectoral) fin. C h i n whiskers, or
barbels, are sensory organs that
aid fish i n fi n d i n g food, primar

i l y s m a l l bottom a n i m a ls. B u l l
heads a n d other catfish feed
m ostly at n i g h t o r i n roiled wat
ers; their eyes are smal l . Most
com m o n is Black B u l l head . Yel
low B u l lhead i n h a bits clearer
water than B rown o r Black. All
a re g ood to eat. Average 0 . 5 to
1 .0 pounds; 12 inches l o n g .

C H A N N E L CATF I S H , a n d m ost
tru e catfish, a re primarily stre a m
dwellers, b u t C h a n n e l Catfish
l ives in lakes and has been
stocked i n ponds. Tail fi n deeply
notched . Spotted yo u n g a re com
monly called "fid d lers." Catfish
are edible and have fi r m flesh,
especially when from cool wa.
ters. U s u a l l y 2 to 4 pounds.

TADPOLE MADTOMS, u s u a l l y 3
to 4 i nches l o n g , a re s m a l l cal
fish of q u iet, weedy waters.
Madtoms have a poison g l a n d at
the base of the s p i n e i n t h e i r
pectoral fi n a n d ca n i n fl ict a
painful wou n d . The s m a l l fatty
( a d i pose) fi n is joined to the
tail fin, rather than free as i n
other ca"tfish.

LAKE STURGEON is one of sev

eral species of sturgeons in N . A .
Sen sitive feelers (barbels) aid i n
d etecting s m a l l bottom-dwe l l i n g
a n i m a l s on w h ic h it l e e d s . Mouth
p rotru d e s a s a tube. To 4 feet,
50 p o u n d s .

BOWFINS, sometimes called Dog

fish, live in s l u g g ish waters
t h r o u g h o u t easte r n N .A. H i g h l y
carnivorous, t h e y g row n e a r l y 3
feet l o n g . Easily recog n ized by
l o n g d o rsal fi n . Y o u n g g u a rded
by o d u lt. To 15 p o u n d s .

G A R S are lang, s l e n d e r , preda

tory fishes of q u iet waters east
af Rockies. They have s h a r p
teeth a n d a n a r m o r af t h i c k
scales. A l l igator Gar a f South
g rows Ia 10 feet long, 1 00
p o u n d s . Lang n ose Gar, with
jaws twice a s l o n g a s head, may
be 5 feet l o n g . F o u n d i n north
ern waters with Shortnose Gar.
Spotted and Florida Gars are
fou n d only i n southern waters.

G I ZZARD SHAD b e l o n g s to her

ring family, which i n c l u d es an
c hovies and ather m a ri n e spe
cies. A p l a n kton feeder, it stra i n s
f o o d from w a t e r that passes
t h r o u g h sievelike mesh of ex
tensions, o r rakers, o n g i l l s .
F o u n d in m i d d l e a n d eastern
N .A., u s u a l ly i n large n u m bers.
Gizzard Shad se rves a s food lor
l a rger species. Average 1 to 3
pounds.

lon g n ose G a r
lepisosteus osseus

a re typica l ly four-legged, though a few

kinds lack one o r both pairs. Frogs and toad s do not
have ta i l s as adu lts; n ewts and sa l a m a nders do. A m
p h i bi a n s l ive mai n ly i n water or i n d a m p p l a ces, a s their
skin provides little p rotecti o n against d ryi n g . I n a typica l
life cycle, as i l l ustrated a bove, there is a g i l led larva l
sta ge that is who l ly aq uati c. Eventua l l y the l a rva (th ose
of frogs a n d toad s a re ca l led tadpoles) d evelops i nto
an a d u lt. Some a d u lt a m p h i bi a n s l ive on l a n d ; others
rem a i n aq uatic.
A m p h i bia n s a re most n oticea b l e i n spring and early
sum mer, when large n u m bers cong regate i n the s h a l lows
of ponds a n d lakes to mate and lay eggs. C h oruses of
frogs set up a te rrific d i n , especia l ly at n i g h t or a fter a
ra i n . Sa l a m a nders a n d n ewts a lso sea rch for m ates i n
spri n g . T h e eggs a re laid i n jel ly- l i ke stri n g s o r ma sses
i n the s h a l lows. Young a m p h i bi a n s, pa rti c u l a rly tad
poles, feed o n a lgae. Ad u l ts eat i n sects, worms, o r oth e r
sma l l i n vertebrates. I n t u r n , they become food for
fishes, sna kes, bird s, a n d some m a m m a ls.
Some of the com m o n a m phibians of ponds a n d la kes
a re shown o n the fo l lowi n g pages. For more i nformation
a bout this g roup, see the Golden Nature Guide Reptiles
AMPHI BIA NS

and Amphibians.
AMPHI BIANS

1 29

SALAMAN D E RS are ta iled a m p h ibians. Some live in

the water; others o n land, returning to water to lay eggs.
T h e la rvae look like d i m i n utive adu lts. Exam pl es of
some of the 85 N.A. species a re i l l ustrated.

a re
eel-li ke,
heavy
bodied s a l a m a n d ers that l a c k
hind l i m b s. T h e y h a v e feathery
g i l l s . Sirens l ive in s h a l l ow
m a rshes a n d ponds of the Mis
sissi p p i Va lley a n d southeastern
coast. Grow to 2 feet l o n g .
E a s i l y provoked to bite.
MUDPUPP I ES, of eastern N .A.,
reach a length of a b o u t 1 2
inches a n d retain their g i l l s in
adult stage . Feed on fishes, cray
fish, i nsects, and m o l l u sks.
H E LLBENDERS a re g i l led, a q uatic
salamand ers fo u n d m a i n l y in
fresh waters of the Ohio Va l l ey.
Eat crayfish and other s m a l l
a n i m a ls. A b o u t 1 8 inches.

1 30

AMPHIBIANS

R ED-SPOTTED N EWT, of eastern

N.A. to Great P l a ins, has a
rough
skin.
S u b a d u l t stage,
called a "red eft," l ives o n l a n d .
L e n g t h 3 to 4 inches.
SPOTTED SALAM A N D E R lives i n
soft, moist h u m us, o r l e a f l itte r
in central a n d eastern N.A.
Breeds i n ponds a n d lays l a rge
m asses of eggs. To 7 inches long.

DUSKY SALAMANDER, from 3 to

5 inches l o n g , is f o u n d i n the
eastern U.S. Its color pattern
varies. D usky S a l a m a n d e r lacks
l u n g s and "breathes" t h r o u g h its
skin and mouth tissues. Lives in
moist places on l a n d , ofte n in ar
ne ar water.

M U D SALAMA N DERS b u rrow i n

the m u d o f spri n g s i n c o o l p o n d s
or s m a l l stre a m s . F o u n d i n c e n
t r a l a n d easte r n N.A. Reaches a
length of 3 to 5 i n ches.
RED-BACKED S ALAMA NDER is
com m o n i n N.A. (western form
sometimes considered a sepa rate
species) . F o u n d i n moist places
u n d e r rocks, l ogs, and l itte r .
L e n g t h t o 4 i n c h es.
TWO-LI N E D SA LAMAN DER , fo u n d
i n w e t a reas i n eastern N .A.,
u s u a l l y hides d u ri n g day. Like
most n ewts, feeds o n worms, i n
sects, a n d l a rvae. About 3 i n c h es.

131

FROGS AN D TOADS a re ta i l l ess a m phibia ns, with hind

legs ada pted for hopping (toads) or for j u m pi n g (frogs},

as well as for swi m m i n g . Mati ng ta kes p l a ce in o r near
water, where the young develop. The a d u lts of m a ny
species a lso spend m uch of their life in or near water.
The fa m i liar tadpole, lacking limbs o r true teeth, is the
tota l ly aq uatic la rva l stage. The change from tadpole
to a d u l t may req uire from a few weeks to a l m ost two
years depending on species. Here are representatives of
the a p p roxi mately 70 N.A. species.
AMERICAN TOAD is short (2 to
4 i n ches), sq u at, and m o re ter
restrial t h a n a q uatic. It l ives in
central a n d eastern N .A. Breeds
i n spring and early s u m mer, l ay
i n g long stri n g s of eggs in wa.
ter. Western Toad more warty.
P u p i l of eye h o rizonta l .

A m erica n Toad
B ufo american us

1 32

AMPHIBIANS

FOWLER'S TOA D, f o u n d from

Massachusetts to I owa and south
ward, is 2 to 3 inches l o n g . Like
all loads, its skin is d ry a n d
wa rty, b u t it d o e s n o t ca use
warts. C o m m o n i n sa n dy a reas
a r o u n d ponds. Woodhouse Toad
in West is a l most identica l .
SPADEFOOT
TOADS
(several
species) a re found across cen
tral N .A. Usually n o more than
3.5 inches long, these toad s l ive
from.
d ista nces
considera b l e
water but a lways move to ponds
o r pools Ia mate a n d lay eggs.
P u p i l of eye vertica l .

B U L LFROG, larg est frog in N .A.,

g rows to a l e n gth of 8 inches.
Eard r u m (ty m p a n u m ) as large as
or l a rg e r t h a n eye. C a l l is a
deep "jug-a-ru m ." F o u n d
in
weedy a reas a lo n g ponds a n d
Ia kes. Breeds f r o m M a y to J u ly
in N o rth, earlier in the South.
Tad poles ta ke 2 years to mature.
GREEN FROG m a l e s have con
spicuous eard r u m s-a bout the
size of the eye. Like other frogs,
feeds on i nsects, worms, and
other small a n imals. Orig i n a l l y
found o n l y i n c e n t r a l a n d east
e r n N.A. but i ntrod uced to west
ern states. Length to 3 inches.
P I CK E R E L FROG, a n ea ste rn spe
cies, has recta n g u l a r spots and
a red d ish cast to legs a n d along
sides. About 3 inches long. Red
legged Frog, slig htly la rger, l ives
on West Coast.
LEOPARD FROG l ives i n ponds
a n d wet a reas but ofte n strays
far from water i n s u m mer. Prob
ably the most c o m m o n frog in
N.A. Dar k s pots r i m med with
wh ite.

TA D P O L E S

AMPHI B IANS

1 33

PAC I F I C TREE FROG, no more

t h a n 2 inches long, is u s u a l l y
fo u n d n e a r b o d i e s of woter.
T h o u g h a tree frog, it is more
c o m m o n o n the g ro u n d than in
trees. R a n g e s throughout west
ern N.A. a n d breeds from J a n
u a ry t o m i d -May.

COMMON T R E E FROG, a b o u t
2.5 inches l o n g , i n h a bits a l l o f
easte rn N .A . e x c e p t p e n i n s u l a r
Florida. C o m m o n a l o n g shores
of strea ms a n d p o n d s, especia l l y
i n wooded a reas. l a y s eggs o n
the s u rface of q u iet, s h al low wat
ers of ponds and l a es.

SPRING
PEEPER,
about
1 .5
inches l o n g , is a well-known tree
frog. In early spring nearly
every eastern wood l a n d pond
teems with Spring Pee pers, ond
reso u n d s with the loud, shril l
mating ca l l s of the m a les. Seldom
seen except i n breed i n g seaso n .

GREEN TREE FROG, a b o u t 2

i nches l o n g , hos a bell-like cal l .
C o m m o n l y f o u n d on t h e leaves
o r stems af p l a nts i n o r near
ponds,
l a kes,
and
strea ms
throughout
southeastern
N.A.
G r e e n T r e e Frog v a r i e s from
bright g reen to nearly y e l l ow.

C R I C KET FROG, a wa rty tree

frog o b o u t 1 inch l o n g , is d is
tributed t h r o u g h o u t central a n d
eastern N . A . Varies i n c o l o r pat
tern t h r o u g h o u t range. Rasping
c a l l is c o m m o n i n weedy margins
of stre a m s a n d ponds. Breed s
Feb r u a ry t h r o u g h October.

SWAMP C H O R U S F R O G breeds
i n ponds and d itches i n the
spring, then m oves to h i g h e r
g ro u n d
rem a i n d e r
of
year.
About 1 i n c h long. I t is fo u n d
t h r o u g h m i d d l e N . A . I n South
west this frog l ives high in
m o u nta i n s w h e re it is cool.

ORNATE
CHORUS FROG, of
southeastern
U.S., breeds in
g rassy d itches and a l o n g the
edges of ponds, usua l l y d u ri n g
late winter. little is known about
the eggs or t h e tadpoles. The
frogs a re seldom m o re than 1
inch l o n g .

STRECKER'S CHORUS FROG h a s

a black mas k like t h e Or nate's,
but is larger (about 1 .5 inches
l o n g ) a n d stouter t h a n are m ost
of the c h o r u s frogs. C o m m o n
n e a r ponds o r la kes, i n south
central N .A. Breeds i n late win
ter o r early spring.

eggs a n d you n g
of P o n d Slider
(p. 1 38 )

R E P T I LES are p rotected b y sca les or h o r n y p lates. Most

repti les lay eggs, covered by a l eathery shel l . In a few
kinds the eggs a re kept i n side the fem a l e's body until
hatc h i n g . Most repti les have two pai rs of legs, though
snakes (a n d a few liza rds) a re leg less. A l l except turtles
have teeth. Th ree of the four major groups-tu rtl es,
crocodilia ns, a n d sna kes-are fo u n d c o m m o n l y in ponds
a n d la kes.
In aq uatic food pyra mids, sna kes and some turtles are
"top" carn ivores, for they feed o n other sma l l aq uatic
a n i m a ls and a re ra rely food themselves. Biologists fee l
that most fi shes eaten b y repti les (a n d a lso b y water
birds) a re wea k o r a i l i n g and that this p redation does
not reduce fish popu lation significantly.
A M E R I C A N A L L I GATOR i n h a b its
ponds, streams, and wetlands in
the So utheast. A l l ig a tors 8 to 1 0
feet l o n g were once c o m m o n b u t

1 36

REPTILES

are rare today. The female

builds a l arge n est of deb ris
close to the water and g u a rds
the eggs a n d you n g .

a re the m ost cha ra cteristic repti les of ponds

a n d la kes. Their lower shell, or p lastron, is joined to a
dome-shaped upper sh e l l , or cara pace. Most turtles can
draw their h ea d a n d legs pa rtly or com pletely i n side
their shell for p rotection. T u rtles have sharp bony jaws
but no teeth . The female digs a hole i n d i rt o r sa n d ,
deposits her e g g s there, a n d covers them before she
leaves. Eggs a re i n c u bated by heat of the sun.

T URTLES

M U S K TURTLES a r e n a med for

the m usky od o r the t u rtles se
crete when d isturbed . The s m a l l
plastron is h i n g ed o n l y a t the
front, and the cara pace is u s u a l
l y a d u l l c o l o r . The Sti n k pot
Musk T u rtle occurs from the At
l a n tic to Wisconsin, south
Gulf. length, 3 to 4 inches.
MUD TURTLES have twa h i n g es
to the plastron so that both
head and limbs c a n be p u l led
inside. They feed o n i n sects and
other small a n i m a l s . Of the five
N .A . species, the Eastern M u d
T u rtle is m ost c o m m o n . l e n g t h
3 to 4 i n c h e s .
SNAPP I N G T U RTLE may weigh
35 pounds b u t is u s u a l l y m uch
smaller. C a ra pace 10 to 1 2
inches l o n g . Has a s m a l l plas
tron, a l a rg e h e a d , and a l o n g
ta i l . Often b u ries i n the bottom
m uds; seldom basks. Eats both
pla nts and a n i mals. Widespread
i n U .S., A l l igator S n a p per of the
South may weig h 1 50 p o u n d s .

REPTILES

1 37

Pond S l ider

Pseudemys scripta

COOlERS A N D SLIDERS are

basking tu rtles f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t
c e n t r a l a n d eastern N .A. They
a re m a i n ly vegetarians. Older i n
d ivid u a l s u s u a l l y h a v e a w r i n
kled carapace ( t o 1 2 inches
l o n g ) , a n d the rear of t h e shell
is notched. Pond Sliders have a
red or yellow spot b e h i n d each
eye, and the lower jaw is flat on
the u nderside. Coolers have
either n a rrow l e n g thwise stripes
or a series of spots o n the hea d .
T h e l ower j a w is r o u n d e d . Red
b e l l ied Turtles have red o r or
a n g e o n the plastron and on l y a
few l i nes on head.
PAINTED T URTLES, fo u n d
in
shal low, weedy waters through
o u t the U . S . a n d southern C a n
ada, have a smooth, flattened
carapace. The single species in
the U .S. is widely d istr i b u ted
and d iffers i n the color a n d
markings o n the p l astron a n d
carapace i n t h e va rious pa rts o f
i t s range. I ts food is d o m i na ntly
plant material, but i t a l so eats
small a n i m a l s, either dead or
a l ive. Length 5 to 6 inches.

western
1 38

REPTILES

eastern

occurs
in
SPOTTED
T URTLE
ponds, m a rshes, and d itches i n
c e n t r a l N . A . W h e n not baskin g ,
it u s u a l l y n o s e s l a z i l y a m o n g
pla nts or w a n d e r s on shore.
Feeds m a i n ly o n i n sects but a l so
eats othe r s m a l l a n im a l s . The
newly hatched have a single yel
low spot o n each cara pace pl ate;
a d u lts have more than one spot.
length 3 to 5 i n ches.
WESTERN POND TURTLE, which
reaches a length of about 6
inches, occu r s from British Co
l u mbia to Baja C a l ifornia. Its
c a ra pace is d a r k with yel low
spots; the p lastron is yel lowish .
Feeds on s m a l l a n i m a l s a n d on
some pla nts.
MAP TURTLES, or Sawbacks (9
species) , are fou n d i n centra l
a n d eastern N . A . These a re shy,
basking tu rtles, some with beau
tiful a n d ornate m a rkings. Their
favorite foods a re m ussels a n d
s n a ils, w h i c h t h e y c r u s h i n their
broad jaws. They feed to a less
er deg ree on c rustaceans a n d o n
o t h e r s m a l l a n i m a l s that l ive i n
p o n d s a n d l a kes. length o f cara
pace 9 to 10 inches.
SOFTS H E L L T URTLES are very
flat. The u p per shell is covered
with soft, leathery skin, leaving
a wide, soft edge. Two species
are widespread i n N .A. east of
Rockies. More common i n strea m s
than in p o n d s a n d la kes. Soft
shells have a l o n g , snakelike
neck and c a n bite viciously.
Spiny Softs h e l l T u rtle h a s b u m ps
along front e d g e of carapace.
length 12 inches o r more.

Trion yx ferox

R E P T I L ES

1 39

live under rocks or debris a long the shore;

others spend m uch of their time in the water. Snakes
feed m a i n ly o n frogs, tadpoles, fishes, crayfish, worms,
and i n sects. Some sna kes lay to ugh-shel led eggs in
decayi ng vegetation or loose soi l along the shore.
Others, i n c l ud i n g the com m o n water sna kes and garter
sna kes, give birth to their you n g .
Most o f the sna kes f o u n d n e a r water are h a rm less,

S N A KES

COMMON WATER SNAKE is a

heavy-bodied,
h a r m l ess,
but
q u ick-tem pered snake of central
a n d eastern N.A. Basks on
branches or rocks. Calor varies.
Length to a b o u t 3 feet.

GREEN WATER SNAKE l ives i n

q u iet waters a n d m a rshes from
South C a r o l i n a to Texas and I n
d i a n a . Like ather water sna kes,
it g ives b i rth Ia its y o u n g .
L e n g t h to a b a u t 3.5 feet.

QUEEN SNAKE, a slender water

sna ke, is f o u n d i n mid-central
N.A. Food c o n sists mainly of
crayfish. Does not bask as com
monly as other water snakes. To
about 3 feet i n l e n gth.

DIAMOND-BAC KED
WATER
SNAKE is m ost a b u n d a n t in Mis
sissi ppi Va l ley. It reaches a
length of 4 feel b u t is us u ally
sm a l l e r . L o o k s l i k e C otton m o uth
( p . 1 42) b u t is more active.

though some are easily provoked to bite. In N .A. the

o n ly truly aq uatic venomous snake is the C otton mouth
(p. 1 42), but the Copperh ead a n d severa l kinds of
rattlesnakes som eti mes sea rch for food along shores. All
of these are pit vipers, identified by the deep pore on
each side of the head between the eye a nd n ostri l .
Vipers a lso h a v e na rrow, verti ca l p u pi ls. T h e y have a
tria n g u l a r head, but so do some harm less sna kes.
B L A C K SWAMP

S N A K E , fou n d
from South C a rol i n a through
Florida, reaches a length of
about 1 foot. It l ives a l o n g the
shore a n d feeds on worms, frogs,
and other s m a l l a n i m als.

SWAMP
SNAKE
is
slig htly longer (to 1 .5 feet) than
the Black Swa m p Snake. It is
found i n the same a rea a n d is
similar i n h ab its. Body stouter;
belly yellow.

R A I N BOW SNAKE is a h eavy

bodied, striped, m a rsh snake
found from Maryland southwa rd.
Stripes m a y be ora n g e to red;
tail sharp a n d horny. A secretive
b u rrowe r. To a b o u t 3.5 feet.

MUD SNAKE is found along the

Atla ntic a n d G u lf coasts and u p
the
Mississippi
Valley.
Back
shiny black; spots o n belly red .
Ta i l e nd s i n a sharp s p i n e . B u r
rows in m u d . Length, 4 feet.

STR I P E D

Ribbon
Snake

GARTERSNAKES of nea rly a

dozen species ( 1 .5 to 3 feet) a re
widespread in eastern a n d cen
tral N.A. Ribbon Snake is slim
easte r n ,
semi a q u atic
species.
Garters n a kes a re common a l o n g
s hores, especia l l y i n dry weath
er. They eat worms, fishes, tad
poles, and other small a n imals.

ROUGH GREEN SNAKE, fo u n d

f r o m southern New J ersey t o
t h e G ul f Coa st, l ives a m o n g
shore p l a nts b u t m a y t a k e t o
water to escape e n e m ies or t o
chase prey. The S m ooth Green
Snake i s less common n e a r
water. B o t h f e e d on i nsects a n d
spiders. L e n g t h to 3 . 5 feet.

COTTONMOUTH, o r Water Moc

casi n , is fou n d thro u g h o u t the
South. A s l u g g ish. thick-bodied,
poison o u s sna ke, avera g i n g 3
feet in length, it feed s on a
variety of s m a l l a q u atic a n i m a l s,
i n c l u d i n g fishes. When d isturbed,
opens mouth and d is p lays cot
tony-wh ite i nterior.

PYGMY RAnLESNAKE (length

to 1 .5 feet) is a poison o u s pit
viper of wet l a n d s a n d pond
shores i n southern and eastern
N.A. The C a n ebra ke Rattlesnake
(to 6 ft.) a lso i n h a b its l o w l a n d s
of the South. The M a ssasa uga, a
bog ratt l e r of centra l N.A.,
reaches a l e n g t h of 2 . 5 feet.

B IRDS of a few groups are semiaquatic. T h ey n est along

ponds, lakes, or strea ms a n d feed on aquatic pla nts o r
on fish, crustaceans, and oth er anima ls. Most notab l e
a r e shore birds (herons, sa ndpi pers-pp. 1 46- 1 50) with
long legs for wading, and the waterfowl (swa ns, g eese,
ducks-pp. 1 43- 1 45), with webbed feet for swi m m i n g .
Waterfowl fl o a t h i g h , buoyed up b y a i r tra pped i n their
feath ers. Oil, secreted by a speci a l g land a n d preened
i n to their feathers, may help prevent soaking up water.
Ma ny birds visit ponds a n d wetla nds for food o r n est
a l o n g shore. T hese i n clude hawks and owls, plus swa l
lows, g rack les, th rush es, warblers, a n d oth e r perch i n g
birds. A few of these a re shown here. Measu rements
given with i l l u strations are le ngth and someti mes wing
spread (w) . See a lso the Go lden Nature Guides Birds
a n d Gamebirds a n d Golden Field Guide Birds of North

America.

SWANS, the

larg est waterfowl,

are long-necked and commonly
feed on p l ants by "tipping u p"
in shal lows. The Wh istling Swan
n ests in Arctic and winters on
centra l
Pacific
and
Atlantic
coasts. T h e Trum peter Swan, only
other n ative N.A. species, is an
in land bird.

GEESE, some only slightly smaller

than swans, a r e sometimes seen
in 11V" formations in mig ration
flights. They feed o n young
plants and o n g ra in s in fields
nearby. Most common is the Can
ada Goose. Othe r less common
N .A. geese a re Sn ow, Bl ue, and
White-fronted .

--.- -.

....-+
.

..,.,. ..&.__
---v ... -.. ,...

36 in., w. 85 in .

1 6-25 in ., w. 50-68 in .
BIRDS

1 43

S U R FAC E-FEED I N G DUCKS h ave

a broad, flat b i l l . Male and fe
m a l e p l u mages a re d i stinctly d if
ferent, but in early s u m r .. r,
males g o into a d u l l p l u m a g e
replaced in the fa l l . These d ucks
take flight d i rectly from the sur
face, some species leaping sev
eral feet i nto the a i r . S u rface
feeders feed m a i n ly on a q u atic
pla nts and may "ti p u p" i n deep
wate r . I ncludes Gadwa l l , Amer
ican Widgeon ( B a l d p late), Shov
ell er, a n d Black D u c k .
W o o d Ducks usually n e s t in
holes i n trees near water. Winter

i n southern U .S. and i n Mexico.

Pintails are speedy, g raceful
d ucks, the m a l es with long, slen
der tail feathers. Breed i n north
western p o n d s, wi nter a l o n g
b o t h coasts. Occasi o n a l l y f e e d o n
m o l l u sks, i n sects, c r u stacea ns.
M a l l a rd s are seaso n a l l y com
mon t h r o u g h o u t N.A. The spe
cies has m a ny d o mestic va rieties.
Tea ls a re fast fliers and com
monly travel i n large flocks. The
Green-winged prefers fresh wa
ter s u m m e r and winter. C i n n a
mon a n d Bl ue-winged tea ls make
g reater winter use of bays.

Common Goldeneye
B ucephala c/a n g u/a
13 i n . , w. 31 i n .

D I V I N G DUCKS feed by d iving

u n d e r the water. The diet af
those that freq u e n t ponds con
sists m a i n ly of w i l d celery, pond
weeds, a n d other a q uatic p l a nts.
They a lso eat more m o l l usks,
crustaceans, and i n sects than do
U n l ike
d ucks.
su rface-feed i n g
s u rface-feede rs, d iv i n g d ucks r u n
ove r s u rface i n t a k i n g flight.
Bufflehead
Duck,
R i n g -necked
a n d Lesser Sca u p a re other d iv
ing d ucks see n a r o u n d fresh
water. Others are m a r i n e .

T h e Redhead breeds f r o m cen

tral a n d wester n U.S. north into
C a n a d a . F e m a l e lays 10 to 1 5
eggs; m a y a lso l a y eggs i n other
p rofile
Head
nests.
d u cks'
ro u n d .
T h e C o m m o n Goldeneye nests
i n holes in trees nea r water. Eats
more a n i m a l s t h a n p l a nts. Mi
g rates i n small h i g h-flying flocks.
Ca nvasbacks fly in a uyu for
mation, l i ke geese, in l o n g m i
g r a t i o n fl i g hts. Nests i n C a n
ada. Head profi le flat.

R U DDY DUCK b e l o n g s to a d is
tinct g r o u p m ost closely related
to tropical masked d ucks. I t fre
q uents p o n d s a n d eats m a i n l y
p l a n ts, w h i c h it gels by d iv i n g .
C a n also s i n k b e l o w s u rface.

MERGANSERS have a "toothe d "

b i l l which t h e y use to c a t c h a n d
hold fish, their p r i n c i p a l food .
Of the th ree N .A. species, t h e
C o m m o n Merganser prefers fresh
water.

Common Merga n ser

Merg us merg anser
1 8 i n ., w. 37 i n .

AN D

OTHER

K I N G R A I L is a shy ma rsh b i rd
found from Midwest to the G u l f
of Mexico a n d eastward . O n
short flig hts i t s feet d a n g l e be
low; on l o n g flig hts its legs a re
tucked u nd e r its body. F ive
other species of rails l ive i n
swa m ps a n d m a rshes i n N . A . All
a re e l u sive a n d hard to see.

Common
Ga l l i n u l e
Gallin ula

COMMON GALL I N U LE, a rail

like marsh b i rd with a short
beak, breeds from t h e G u l f
t h r o u g h central a n d eastern
U .S. It swims wel l o r runs over
l i l y pads and feeds on pla nts.
The P u r p l e G a l l i n u l e, southern
i n range, is fo u n d on l a rger
lakes a n d i n coasta l m arshes.
COOT is a d u cklike bird fo u n d
in
bays,
la kes, a n d
ponds
thro u g h o u t central N .A. I t r u n s
over t h e water before taking
flig ht. Coots swim well a n d d ive
for protectio n . They eat a vari
ety of p l a nts and s m a l l a n imals.
W h ite b i l l is d istinctive.

BIRDS

Great B l u e Heron
A rdea herodias
38 i n ., w. 70 i n .

WATER

BIRDS

G R EAT B L U E H E R O N introduces
a fa m i l y of l o ng-legged waders
with s h a r p bills for feed i n g o n
aq uatic a n i m a l s . N ote i t s l a r g e
size, col ors, a n d m a r k i n g s . H e r
o n s freq u e n t l a kes, p o n d s , a n d
m a rshes, feed i n g
mainly on
fi s h e s a n d f r o g s . Th irteen species
are found i n N . A .
C O M M O N EGRET b r e e d s f r o m
C a l ifornia to Te n n essee a n d
southward, w a n d e r i n g i n to C a n
a d a i n s u m m e r. N ote yellow b i l l ,
black f e e t a n d legs. The s m a l l e r
(20 i n . ) S n owy Eg ret has a black
b i l l a n d l e g s, yel l ow feet. The
sti l l s m a l l e r ( 1 7 i n .) Cattle Eg ret
prefers pastures to wetl a n d s .
GREEN H E R O N is f o u n d w i d e l y
in easte rn U . S . Q n d also a l o n g
the W e s t C o a s t . N ote the orange
legs a n d contrast i n g body col
ors. A l l other d a r k herons ex
cept the Green and the two be
low prefer sa ltwater l a g o o n s a n d
m u d flats.
B LACK-C R O WN ED N I GHT H ER
ON a n d a lso the Yel low-crowned
feed o n a q u atic i n sects, fi s h and
a m p h ibians. They sleep by day.
AMERICAN B ITTER N , found in
wet l a n d s n o rth to central Can
ada, 11freezes11 when i n d a n g e r .
Yo u n g n i g h t herons s i m i l a r in
a ppearance. least Bitter n
is
smal lest hero n .

SAN D P I P E R S of nearly 40 N .A.

sp e ci e s a re birds m o s t l y of o c e an
shores, but a n u m ber o f species
are fo u n d along l a kes, ponds,
a n d rivers. A l l have long slender
bills o n d mottled p l u mag es.
Ye l l owlegs (2 species from
t u n d r a southward) have bright

y e l l o w l e g s . Solitary S a n d p i per,
o lso widespread, has a d a r k
r u m p a n d barred tail feathers.
Spotted S a n d p i per, more south
ern, bobs its tail cont i n u a l ly.
Common Snipe a n d Woodcock
are s n i pes of bogs , m a rshes a n d
a l o n g shores.

R I N G-B I L LED, f ra n k l in's a n d sev

eral other species of g u l l s feed
and nest on i n l a n d ponds a n d
l a k e s . T h e y m a y w i n ter a l o n g
coasts. P l u mages of g u l l s vary
with the seaso n and a lso with
the b i rd's age. feed on fish a n d
i n sects or as scavengers.

A N H I NGA, or Water Tu rkey, is

found i n southeaste rn U.S. I t is
c o m m o n l y seen perched o n l i m bs
with its wings spread wide for
d ryi n g . When swim m i n g , only its
slim snakelike neck m a y be
a bove the water. Spears fish
with its long s h a r p b i l l .

Ri ng-bil led G u l l
Larus delawarensis
1 6 i n ., w. 49 i n .

S potted Sandpiper
Actitis macu/aria

6.3 i n .

COMMON LOONS winter on sa lt

water along both coasts of N.A.,
also o n Great lakes. Spend sum
mer o n inland waters a n d marsh
es from Arctic southward to cen
tral N .A. Feed mainly on fishes.
C a l l is l o u d a n d weird . Of three
other species, o n l y Red-th roated
is l i ke l y to be see n . loons are
good swimm ers, deep d ivers.
P I ED-B I LLED GREBE has lobed
toes and legs set far back ( a n
aid i n swi m m i n g ) . Dives q u ic k l y .
Eats
small
aq uatic
a n im a l s .
Breeds i n n orthern U .S. a n d
Canada, w i n t e r s i n s o u t h e r n U . S.
Five other species may be seen
along la kes and ponds.
W H I T E P E L I C A N l ives on ponds
a n d l a kes i n weste rn U . S . Major
food is fi s h . Usually n ests i n col
on ies, b u i l d i n g n ests on g ro u n d .
Brown P e l i c a n is m a r i n e .

C o m m o n loon

White Pelican
Peleca n us erythrorhynchos
50 i n . , w. 1 1 0 i n .

BIRDS

1 49

HAWKS A N D T H E I R K I N have
hooked b i l l s and strong talons.
The Osprey, widespread i n N . A .,
has c o n s p i c u o u s bend in wings
i n fl i g ht. Dives for fi s h . Marsh
Hawk, with n a rrow wings, h u nts
and nests i n open ma rshes.

Swa l l owta iled Kite is the m ost

c o m m o n wetla n d species. Rare
b u t occ u r r i n g along waterways
is the Ba l d Eagle, n a t i o n a l em
blem of U .S.; its food i s largely
fish. Sho rt-ta i l ed Hawk a l so re
sides i n wetl a n d s .

BELTED K I N GF I SHER , a l a rge

headed bird with a big beak a n d
l o u d rattl i n g c a l l , hovers over
water and p l u n ges i n to catch
fish. Widely d istributed.

K I LLDEER is a p lover. Widely

d istrib uted i n N .A., it l ives i n
o p e n fie l d s a n d mead ows a n d
is commonly seen along the
shores o f l a kes a n d p o n d s .

Chara drius
vociferus
8 in.

Blackbirds a n d g rackles n est i n

catta i l s a n d r u s hes. Swa l l ows a r e
c o m m o n l y seen s k i m m i n g p o n d s
for i n sects. K i n g b i rd s a n d p h oe
bes d a rt out after i n sects. M a rs h
wrens, titmice, a n d scores o f
other species a r e c o m m o n a l o n g
ponds.

P E RC H I NG B I R D S form the larg

est g ro u p af b i rds, i n c l u d i n g 27
fa m i l ies of songbirds i n N.A.
M a n y species come to ponds,
la kes a n d waterways to d r i n k .
I n sect eaters fi n d the h u nt i n g
good i n wetla nds. Some w a r
b l e r s n est i n w i l l ow thickets.

Longbil led
Ma rsh Wren
Telmafodytes pa lusfris
Swa m p Spa
Melospiza
g eorgiana

Tufted

151

a re hairy a n i m a ls that feed their y o u n g o n

m i l k from m a m m a ry g la nds. S o m e feed o n p l a nts that
g row i n the water or along the sh ore. Others a re flesh
eaters, p reyi n g o n fishes, frogs, a n d other a n i m a ls.
Ma m m a ls that live a long ponds, la kes, and waterways
o r in wetlands ra nge in size from tiny sh rews to the
Moose, largest of the deer. For m ore a bout m a m m a ls,
see the Golden Nature Guide Mammals.

MAMMALS

RACCOONS, easily i de ntified by

their b l a.ck mask a n d tail ringed
with black, ra n g e t h r o u g h o u t
m i d d l e N.A. T h e y a re active at
n i g ht, freq uenting
pond
and
l a ke shores to feed o n frogs,
crayfish, and other s m a l l a n i
ma ls. Raccoons reach a l e n g t h o f
a b o u t 30 inches.
R I VER OTTERS a re good swim
mers, and they often make s l ides
in mud on ban ks, using them for
play or for q u ick entry into the
water. They a re widely d istrib
uted i n N.A. but have become
rare i n many a reas where they
were once com m o n . Length to
about 3 feet.

M I N K, large m e m bers of the

weasel family, feed o n crayfish,
fishes, young birds, or a n y other
a n i m a l s they c a n catch. They
travel and h u n t a l o n e . Exce l l ent
swi m m e rs, mink often g o u nder
neath the ice to feed. F o u n d
in a l l m oist a reas o f N .A. A b o u t
20 i n c h e s l o n g .

Muste/a vison
1 52

M AM M ALS

Muskrat
O n datra zibethica

N utria

M U SKRATS l ive i n la kes, strea ms,

a n d m a rshes t h r o u g h o u t most af
N.A. Good swi m m e rs, they feed
on aq uatic pla nts. They either
l ive i n b u rrows dug i n a bank
o r b u i l d a b ove-water h o u ses of
p l a n t stems. About 2 feet l o n g ;
r e a c h a w e i g h t of about 3
p o u n d s . Trapped for their fur.

NUTR IA, a rodent native to S.A.,

escaped from ca ptivity a n d is
now well esta b l i shed i n m a rshes
of southern N.A. Scattered pop
u l ations are found i n M idwest
and West. It feed s o n vegeta
tion i n o r n e a r water and h a s
become a p e s t i n some a reas.
Body length a b o u t 2 feet.

BEAVERS, with webbed h i n d

feet, a re t h e best-known m a m
m a l s o f fresh wate r. Feed on t h e
bark a n d twig s of popla rs,
b i rches, and w i l l ows. Store wi n
ter food in ponds created by
their d a m s . length 3-4 feet; may
weig h 35 p o u n d s . Once found
ove r m ost of N.A.

SWAMP RABBITS are f o u n d from

Texas to I l l i nois and eastwa r d .
On southeastern coast, they a re
replaced by Marsh Rabbit. Both
l ive i n wood s o r g rassl a n d s n e a r
ponds a n d i n swa m p s . F e e d o n
pla nts, bark, a n d leaves. Both
1 2 to 1 5 inches l o n g ; their f u r
i s d a rk, t a i l g rayish.

Castor canadensis

MAMMALS

1 53

R I C E RAT, an excel l e n t swim m e r,

l ives in wet meadows from the
Mississi p p i Va l ley eastward to
New York. Feeds m a i n l y o n
g reen p l a nts. B u i l d s a nest of
p l a n t stems in slu m ps or in shal
l ow b u rrows a b ove t h e water
leve l . length 9 to 1 1 i nches.
MEADOW VOLE, a l so called
Meadow or Field Mouse, occ u rs
widely in the cooler pa rts of
N .A., favoring m o ist meadows.
Eats seeds and lender p l a nts.
About 5 inches l o n g .
SOUTHERN B O G LEMM I N G , o r
B o g Vole, l ives i n w e t meadows,
swa m ps, a n d bogs t h r o u g h o u t
c e n t r a l a n d eastern N .A . except
i n the Deep South. About 4
inches l o n g .

Sorex palustris

WATER SHREW , a n excellent

swimmer, p reys o n s m a l l a q u atic
a n imals. N octu r n a l , it has tiny
eyes and ea rs, like oth er sh rews.
F o u n d i n C a n a d a a n d northern
U.S., southward i n m o u ntains.
Length, 3-4 inches.
STAR-NOSED MOLE lives in wet
meadows a n d m a rshes through
o u t eastern N . A . Eats i n sects and
worms; travels along s u rface
ru nways a n d a lso in u nd e r
g r o u n d b u rrows. length to 5
inches.
L I TTLE BROWN BAT, one of m o re
than a dozen species widesp read
i n N .A . , comes out a t d u sk a n d
h u n ts i nsects ove r water a n d
a l o n g shores. I n winter either
hibernates o r m i g rates south.
About 3 . 5 i n c hes l o n g .

F O R M O R E I N F O R M AT I O N

For p recise identification of the many kinds of p l a nts a n d

a n i m a l s f o u n d in a n d near p o n d s and l a kes, these com pre
hensive, more technical reference books w i l l be hel pfu l .
Also see b i b l iogra p h ies in other Golden Guides.

B l a i r, W. F. , B l a i r, N . P. , Brodkorb, P. , C a g l e , F. R . a n d Moore, G . A . ,
Vertebrates o f the United States, McGraw- H i l l Book C o m pany, N ew Yor k ,
1 957
Coker, R. E . , S treams, Lakes, Ponds, U n iv. N . C . Press, Chapel H i l l , 1 954
Edmondson, W.

T. ( E d . ) , Fresh-Woter Biology, John W i l ey, N ew Yor k , 1 959

Fosse!, N . C . , A Manual of A quatic Plants, U n iv. Wise. Press, Mad i s o n , W i se . ,

1 957
K l o t s , E l sie B . , The New Field Book of Freshwater Life, G. P. Putna m , New
Yor k , 1 966
Macon ,

T. T. , and Worthington, E. B . , Life in Lakes and R ivers, C o l l i n s , london ,

1 95 1
Muenscher, W. C . , A quatic Plants o f the United States, Comstock, Ithaca ,
N . Y. , 1 944
Needham, P. G . and Needha m , P. R . , A Guide to the S tudy of Freshwater
B iology, H o l d e n - Day, San Franc isco, 1 962
Odum, E. P. , Fundamentals of Ecology, W. B. Saunders, P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 97 1
Penna k , R . W. , Fresh-Water Invertebrates o f the U nited States, 2 n d Ed . ,
Ronald Press, N ew Yor k , 1 978
Reid, G . K . , and Wood , R . D . , Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries, Van
Nostrand R e i n h o l d , New Yor k , 1 967
Smith , G . M . , Freshwater A lgoe of the United States, McGraw- H i l l , New York,
1 950

at u niversities and at state con servation,

wi l d l ife, fisheries, a n d agricultu re departments a re usu
a l ly wil l i n g to h e l p identify speci mens, Always write o r
ca l l before sen ding speci mens . Specimens usua l l y cannot
be retu rned.

SCIEN TISTS

155

INDEX
The many p l a n ts a n d a n i m a ls that have n a com m o n n ames are listed i n
this i n d e x b y t h e i r scientific n a me (ge nus). For others, t h e comm o n n ame o r
grou p n a m e i s l i sted . Scientific names a r e g i ven a l so w i t h t h e i l l u strations.

A c i n e t a , 76
Adder' s tongue, 44
Aeolosoma, 8 2
Agmene l l u m , 33
A l d e rfl i e s , 9 4 , 1 00, 1 0 1
A l d e r s , 69
A l g a e , 3 1 37
A l l i g a t o r, 1 36
g a r , 1 28
weed, 62
Amoe b a , 74, 76
A m p h i b i a n s , 1 20,

1 29-1 35

A m p h i b i o u s sma rtweed,

59

A m p h i pods, 86, 9 1
A n a b a e n a , 32
Anacystis, 32
A n o x , 94, 98
A n h i n g o , 1 48
A n i m a l s , 74- 1 54
A n k i strode s m u s , 35
A n n e l i d s, 75, 82
Anostraca, 86, 88
A p p l e s na i l , 1 1 5
Arborvitae, 7 1
Arce l l o , 74
A rg u l u s , 90
Arrow arum, 56
Arrowheads, 5 1
Arthropods, 75, 8 5- 1 1 3
A r u m s , 56
As e l l u s , 9 1
A s h e s , 70
A s p e n s , 68
A s p l o n c h n o , 80
Aste r i o n e l l a , 37
B a c k s w i mmers, 1 04
B a c te r i a , 3 8
B a l d c y p ress, 69
e a g l e , 1 50
8 o l pote, 1 44
B a l s a m cotto n w o o d , 68
B a nded k i l l i f i s h , 1 26
B a n k swa l l ow , 1 5 1
B o s s , 1 9, 1 2 5
B o t , 1 54
B e a k r u s h e s , 54
B e a v e r , 1 53
B e e t l e s , 95, 1 05 - 1 06

1 56

Bel lflower, 66

B e l ted k i n g fi sher, 1 50
s k i mmers, 98

Berchto l d ' s pondweed,

48, 49
Bigmouth buffa l o , 1 22
B i rches, 70
B i rds, 1 20, 1 43-1 5 1
B i ttern, 1 47
B l o ck ash, 70
b u l l head, 1 27
crappie, 1 25
-crowned n i g h t
heron, 1 47
d u c k , 1 44
fl i es, 1 1 1
g u m , 69
swamp snake, 1 4 1
w i l low, 68
B l a ck root rush, 55
B l a dderworts, 64
B l a sturus, 97
B l u e beech, 70
fl a g , 64
goose, 1 43
green a lgae, 3 1 ,
3 2 , 33
B l u eg i l l , 1 24
B l u e j o i n t grass, 53
B l uet, 99
B l ue.wi nged tea l , 1 44
Boat- leaved sphagnum,
40
Bobo l i n k , 1 5 1
Bog l e m m i n g , 1 54
m o s q u i to , 1 09
rosemary, 72, 73
vo l e , 1 54
B o n y fi shes, 1 2 1 -1 28
Bosmina, 89
Bowfin, 1 28
Brachionus, 80
B r i n e shrimp, 88
Brood - l eaved catta i l , 46
Broad-shouldered water
s t r i ders, 1 02
Brook l a mprey, 1 20
trout, 1 2 1
Brown bu l l h ea d , 1 27
fingerna i l c l a m , 1 1 7
hydra . 78

Bryophytes, 30, 39
B r yozoans, 75, 8 1
Buffa l o , 1 22
B u ff a l o gnats, 1 1 1
Bufflehead, 1 45
B u g s , 95, 1 02-1 04
B u l lfrog, 1 33
B u l l heads, 1 27
B u r - reeds, 47
B u s h y pondweed, 50
B u tton b u s h , 72, 73
C a b b a g e p a l metto, 7 1
C a d d i s fl i e s, 9 5 , 1 07
C a n a d a goose, 1 43
C a nary grass, 53
C a nvasbacks, 1 45
C a rbon d i o x i d e , 1 2, 1 3
C a rex, 54
C a rp, 1 23
C a te n u l a s , 8 4
C a t fi s h , 2 0 , 1 27
Catta i l s, 2 1 , 46
Cattle eg ret, 1 47
Cedars, 7 1
Cerotium, 3 1 , 36
C h a etoga sters, 82
C h a i r - m a k e r s ' r u s h , 54
C h a n n e l catfi s h , 1 27
C haoborus, 1 08
C ha r a , 3 6
C h i m ney crayfish, 93
C h lo rel l o , 34
C h u bsuckers, 1 22
C h ydorus, 88, 89
C i l i a t a , 74, 76
C i n namon fern, 45
teal, 1 44
C l adocera, 86, 8 8
C l a dophora, 34
C la m s , 75, 1 1 6- 1 1 7
C l a m s h r imps, 86, 8 8, 89
C l oeon, 97
C loster i u m , 35
C o e l e n terates, 7S, 78, 79
C o l eoptera, 95, 1 05-1 06
C o l lecti n g e q u i pment,
27, 28, 29
C o l lembo l a , 95, 1 00, 1 0 1
Common Water Snake,
1 40

Conchostraca, 86, 8 8
Coonta i l , 63
Coot, 1 46
Cooters, 1 38
Copepods, 86, 90
Copperhead, 1 40
Cord grass, 52
Coryd a l us, 94
Cottonmouth, 1 40, 1 4 1 ,
1 42
C o ttonwood, 68
Cow l i l y , 60
C ro n e flies, 1 1 0
C rappies, 1 25
C r a w l i n g water beetles,
1 05
C rayfish , 75, 85, 86,
92-93
C reek c h u b , 1 23
C reeping water bugs,
1 04
C rested woodfern , 44
C ricket frog, 1 35
C r i s p p o n d weed, 48, 49
C rocod i l i a n s , 1 36
C rustacea ns, 85, 86-93
C u t g rass, 52
Cyclops, 90
C y m b e l l a , 37
C ypress, 69
Cypridopsis, 87
C y p r i n otus, 87
Dace, 1 23
Damsel fl i e s , 94, 98, 99
D a p h n i a , 89
Darters, 1 25
Deca poda , 86, 92
Deer fly, 1 1 2
Dero, 82
Desmids, 35
Oevi l ' s d a r n i n g need l es,
98
D i a m o n d - b a cked water
snake, 1 4 1
D i o ptomus, 90
Diatoms, 3 1 , 3 7
Dichelyma, 4 1
D i fll u g i a , 76
Dinoflage l l a tes, 3 1 , 36
D i pjera, '95, 1 08-1 1 2
Dixa midges, 1 1 1
Dobsons, 1 00, 1 0 1
Dogfish, 1 28
Dogwood, 72
Dragonflies, 94, 98, 99
Drapa r n a l d i a, 34
Drone fl y , 1 1 2
Dryo p i d s , 1 06
Duck potato, 5 1
Ducks, 1 44- 1 45
Duckweed s, 1 7, 57

Dugesias, 84
D u l i ch i u m , 54
D u s k y s a l a ma nder, 1 3 1
Ea red pond sna i l , 1 1 5
E a rthworms, 75, 82
Eastern cottonwood, 68
cra y fi s h , 93
larch, 7 1
E e l , 1 26
Egret, 1 47
E l mids, 1 06
Elodea, 55
E n a l l a g m a , 99
Ephemera, 97
Ephemere l l a , 93, 97
E p h e meroptera, 94, 96
Erpobd e l l a , 83
Eryngo, 64
E u b r a n c h i pus, 89
E u c y p r i s , 87
E u g l e n a , 3 1 , 36, 74
E u g l en o i d s, 3 1 , 36
Fairy s h r i mps, 86, 88, 89
F a l se loo sestrife, 67
map turtle, 1 39
Fa n wort, 60, 6 1 , 63
F a r o n c i a , 1 41
Form pond, 9
Ferns, 42-45
F i e l d mouse 1 54
Fisher spider, 1 1 3
F i shes, 75, 1 2 1 - 1 2 8
F i s h fl i e s , 1 00, 1 0 1
F l a g e l l a tes, 74
F l a tworms, 75, 84
F l ies, 95, 1 08-1 1 2
F l o a t i n g brown l eof,
48, 49
Florida gar, 1 28
F l oscu l a r i a , 80
F l u kes, 84
Fonti n a l i s , 4 1
F o o d w e b s , 22-23
Forkta i l s , 99
Founta i n moss, 4 1
Fowler's toad , 1 32
Fox g ra pe, 73
F ra g i l a r i a , 37
F ra n k l i n ' s g u l l , 1 48
Freder i c e l l a , 8 1
Frogbit, 59
Frogs, 75, 1 29, 1 32-1 35
Fungi, 38
Gadwa l l , 1 44
G a l l i n u l e , 1 46
G a m b u s i a , 1 26
Gammarus, 9 1
Gars, 1 28
Gartersnokes, 1 42

Gastrotrichs, 1 1 9
Geese, 1 43
G e m m u l e s, 77
G i a n t bur- reed , 47
pond s n a i l , 1 1 5
water bugs, 1 03
G i l led s n a i l s , 1 1 4, 1 1 5
Gizzard shad, 1 28
G l a s sworts, 62
Glochidia, 1 1 6
Goldeneye, 1 45
Golden s h i ner, 1 23
G o l d fi s h , 1 23
Gomphosphaeria, 33
Gord i a n worms, 1 1 9
Grape, 73
Grasses, 52, 53
Grassy a rrowhead, 51
Great blue heron, 1 47
d u ckweed, 57
Greater s i ren , 1 30
yel lowlegs, 1 48
Green a l gae, 3 1 , 34, 35
d a rner, 98
frog, 1 33
heron, 1 47
hydra, 79
ja cket, 98
snakes, 1 42
s u n fi s h , 1 24
tree frog, 1 34
water s n a k e , 1 40
- w i nged tea l , 1 44
Gree n b r i e r, 73
G u l l s, 1 48
H a b i ta t s, 1 7-2 1
bottom, 1 9
l i ttora l , 20
open water, 1 8
su rface, 1 7
H o e m o p s i s , 83
H a i ry water beetle, 1 06
wheel sna i l , 1 1 5
H a w k s , 1 50
H e l l bender, 1 30
H e l l g r a m m i tes, 94, 1 00
H e l o b d e l l a , 83
H e m i ptera, 95, 1 02-1 04
Herons, 1 47
H e x a g e n i o s , 93, 96
H i r u d i n eas, 8 3
H o n e y s u c k l e, 73
Hornbeam, 70
Horned p o n d weed, 48,
49
Hornworts, 63
Horse fl y , 1 1 2
Horseha i r worms, 1 1 9
H orseta i l s, 43
H o u s e m o s q u i to, 1 09
Hyalella, 9 1

157

Hydrachna, 1 1 3
H ydras, 75, 78, 79
H y d r o d i ctyan, 3 5
Hydrogen, 1 0
H y g robates, 1 1 2
Hygrohypnum, 4 1
H yssop, 67

long-b i l led m a r s h wren,

151
longnose g a r, 1 2 8
loon, 1 49
loosestrife, 64
lotus, 60, 6 1
l y n g b y a , 33

I n sects, 75, 85, 94-1 1 2

I r i ses, 64
l sonychia, 97
l sopods, 86, 9 1
I v y d u c k w eed, 5 7

Macrobd e l l a , 83
Mad-dog s k u l lcap, 66
Madtom, 1 27
M a l a r i a mosq u i to , 1 09
Ma l l a rds, 1 44
Mam m a l s, 1 20, 1 52-1 54
M a n n a g rass, 52
M a p l e s, 70
Map turtle, 1 39
M a rcha n t i a , 39
Mare's to i l , 65
Marsh cinq uefo i l , 66
fern, 44
hawk, 1 50
rabbit, 1 53
St. J o h n ' s-wort, 66
treaders, 1 02
wren, 1 5 1
Massasa u g a , 1 42
Mastigophora, 76
Mayflies, 85, 94, 96, 97
Meadow mouse, 1 54
v o l e , 1 54
Mego l optera, 94, 1 00
Merganser, 1 45
Merid i a n , 37
Mermaid weed, 64
M e y e n i a , 74, 77
Micrasterios, 35
Midges, 1 1 1
Minerals, 1 4
M i n k , 1 52
M i n nows, 1 23
Mites, 85, 1 1 3
Mitru l a , 38
M o l o n n a , 1 07
M o l e , 1 54
M o l l u sks, 75, 1 1 4-1 1 7
Monostyla , 80
Moonwort, 44
Mora r i a , 90
Mosq u i toes, 1 7,
1 08-1 09
Mosq u i tofish, 1 26
Mos q u i to hawks, 98
Moss a n i m a l s , 75, 8 1
Mosses, 40, 4 1
Moths, 95, 1 1 2
Mougeotia, 34
Mud p l a n t a i n , 58
s a l a m a nder, 1 3 1
snake, 1 4 1
turtle, 1 37
Mudpuppy, 1 30

J e l l yfishes, 7 8 , 7 9
J o h n n y da rter, 1 25
J o i n t- l egged a n i ma l s ,
85--1 1 3
J u ngerma n n i a , 39
Kerate l l a , 80
K i l l deers, 1 50
K i l l ifi s h , 1 26
K i n g b i rd , 1 51
K i ngfisher, 1 50
K i n g ra i l , 1 46
V) Knobbed l a m p s he l l , 1 1 7
"'

"'
.....

-o z
-=:.
w

;(
"'

0:

.,. <

1 58

Lake, 4-29
c h u bsucker, 1 22
sturgeo n , 1 28
trout, 1 20
Lampreys, 1 20
lampshe l l s , 1 1 7
Larch, 71
Largemouth bass, 19,
5
Le
beetles, 1 06
leafy pond weed, 48, 49
leather ja ckets, 1 1 0
lea t h e r l eaf, 72
leeches, 75, 82, 83
l e m m i n g , 1 54
leopard frog, 1 29, 1 33
Lepidoptera, 95, 1 1 2
leptoce l l a , 1 07
Leptodora, 89
leptoth r i x , 38
Lesser d u ckweed, 57
sca u p , 1 45
L i m b e r h o n eysuck l e, 73
l i m n e p h i l u s, 1 07
L i m no c h a res, 1 1 3
limno logy, 5
l i m pets, 1 1 5
liod ytes, 1 4 1
l i t t l e brown bat, 1 54
pond sna i l , 1 1 5
water l i l y, 60, 6 1
Liverworts, 39
L i zards, 1 36

M u s k e l l u nge, 1 26
M u s k r a t, 1 53
Musk turtle, 1 3 7
N a i a d s , 1 9, 50
Narrow-leaved catta i l ,
46
Naupl ius, 8 7
N a v i c u l a , 3 1 , 37
Nemas, 1 1 8
N e matocysts, 78, 79
N e m a todes, 1 1 8
Nemerteans, 1 1 8
Neurecl i p s i s , 1 07
N e u roptera, 94, 1 00
N e wts, 1 29, 1 3 1
N i te l l a , 3 1 , 36
Northern p i k e, 1 8, 1 26
No-see-ums, 1 1 1
N o stoc, 32
Notostraca, 86, 88
N u t r i a , 1 53
Nymphula, 1 1 2
Oaks, 69
Ochte r i d s , 1 04
Odonata, 94, 98, 99
Oeceti s , 1 07
O l igochaetes, 82
One-ce l l ed a n i m a l s , 74,
76
Orange-spotted
s u n f i s h , 1 24
Orb s n a i l , 1 1 5
Ornate chorus frog, 1 35
Osci l l a toria, 3 1 , 33
Osprey, 1 50
O s tracods, 86, 87
Ostrich fern, 45
Otter, 1 52
Overcup o a k , 69
O x y g e n , 1 0, 1 2, 1 3
Pacific tree frog, 1 34
P a i n ted turtle, 1 38
Papers h e l l s, 1 1 7
Paramecium, 74, 76
Pea r l y m u s s e l s , 1 1 7
Peat mosses, 40
Pect i n a te l l a , 8 1
Pediastrum, 3 5
P e l i c a n s , 1 49
Pelocoris, 1 04
Perch i n g b i rd s , 1 5 1
Peri d i n i u m , 3 6 , 76
Perla, 94
pH, 1 3
Phacus, 36
P h a n to m crane f l ies, 1 1 0
gnats, 1 08 , 1 09
P h i l o d i n a , 80

P h i lonotis, 4 1
Photosynthesis, 1 2 , 22,
30
Phyto p l a nk to n , 1 8 , 22
P i ckerel frog, 1 33
Pickerels, 1 26
Pickerel weeds, 2 1 , 58
P i ed - b i l l e d grebe, 1 49
P i k e, 1 8, 1 26
P i l l c l a m, 1 1 7
Pines, 7 1
P i n ta i l , 1 44
P i tcher p l a n t, 65
P l o naria, 75
P l a n kton, 1 8 , 1 9, 22
P l a nts, 30-73
zones, 20, 2 1
P l e coptera, 94, 1 00,
101
P l u mate l l a , 8 1
Podophrya, 76
Pod u r a , 1 0 1
Poi nted w i n k l e , 1 1 5
Poison ivy, 72
sumac, 72, 73
Polyarthra, 80
Pond, 4-29
crayfish, 92
skaters, 1 02
s l i d ers, 1 36, 1 3 8
Pondweeds, 20, 48, 49
Poplars, 68
Porifera, 77
Poteriod e n d r o n , 76
Prawns, 93
Predaceous d i v i n g
beetles, 1 05
P r i m rose w i l l o w , 66
Proboscis worms, 1 1 8
Procoty l o , 8 4
Prosob r a n chs, 1 1 5
Protozoa, 74, 76
Ptychoptera, 1 1 1
P u l m o n a te s n a i l s,
1 1 4, 1 1 5
Pumpk i n seed s u n fi s h ,
1 24
Punkies, 1 1 1
P u r p l e g a l l i n u l e , 1 46
Pygmy bockswimmers,
1 04
ratt l e s n a k e , 1 42
Queen snake, 1 40
Q u i l lworts, 43
Rabbit, 1 53
Raccoons, 1 52
R a i l s , 1 46
Ra i n bow s n a k e, 1 4 1
trout, 1 2 1
Rat, 1 54

Rat-ta i led maggot, 1 1 2

Rattlesnake, 1 40, 1 42
fern , 44
Red a lder, 70
-bel l ied turtle, 1 3 8
b i rch , 7 0
eft, 1 3 1
- l egged fro g , 1 33
m a p l e , 70
o s i e r dogwood, 72
- s potted newt, 1 3 1
-th roated loon, 1 49
- w i n ged b l a c k b i rd ,
151
Redbe l l y dace, 1 23
Redfin p i ckerel , 1 26
s h i ner, 1 23
Redhead, 1 45
Redhorse, 1 22
Reed grass, 53
Repti les, 1 20, 1 36- 1 42
Respiration, 1 2
R h y a co ph i l a , 1 07
R i b b o n snake, 1 42
worms, 1 1 8
Riccio, 39
Ricciocarpus, 39
Rice rat, 1 54
R i n g - b i l led g u l l , 1 48
R i n g - necked duck, 1 45
River b i rc h , 69
otters, 1 52
snail, 1 1 5
R i v u l a r i a , 33
Rotifers, 75, 80
Rough g reen snake, 1 42
Roundwo rms, 1 1 8
Ro y a l fern, 45
Ruddy d uck, 1 45
Rushes, 55
S a b a l p a l metto, 7 1
Sago pondweed, 48, 49
St. J o h n 's-wort, 66
S a l a m a nders, 1 29,
1 30-1 3 1
Said i d s , 1 04
Sa l t - m a r s h m o s q u i to ,
1 09
Sa l v i n i a , 43
Sandpi pers, 1 48
Saprolegnio, 38
Sa rcod i n a , 74, 76
Sawbacks, 1 39
Saw grass, 55
Sca p h o l eberis, 89
Scenedesmus, 35
Scented pond l i l y , 60,
61
Scou r i n g rush, 43
Scuds, 86, 91
Sea l a m prey, 1 20

Sedges, 2 1 , 54, 55
Seed s h r i m p , 86, 87
Segmented worms, 75,
82, 83
S h a rp-fru i ted rush 55
S h a r p - l eaved
sphagnum, 40
S h i ners, 1 9, 1 23
Shore b u g s , 1 04
Short-awn foxta i l , 52
Shortnose g a r, 1 28
Short-tai l ed h a w k , 1 50
Shovel ler, 1 44
Shrew, 1 54,
S h r i m p s, 85, 86, 92, 93
Shrubs, 72, 73
S i d e - s w i m mers, 9 1
S i m u l i u m, 1 1 1
S i r e n , 1 30
S i s y ro , 94
S k u l lcaps, 66
S l i d ers, 1 3 8
Sma l l bedstraw, 66
S m a l lmouth b a s s, 1 25
Sma rtweeds , 59
Sminthurides, 1 0 1
Smoky a lderfly, 1 0 1
Smooth g reen s n a k e ,
1 42
Sna i l s, 75, 1 1 4- 1 1 5
Snakes, 1 36, 1 40-1 42
Snapping turtle, 1 37
S n i pe, 1 48
Snow goose, 1 43
Snowy egret, 1 47
Softshe l l turtle, 1 39
S o l d i e r fl i e s , 1 1 2
S o l i t a r y s a n d p i per, 1 48
Sour g u m , 69
Southern bog l e m m i n g ,
1 54
n a i a d , 50
Sow bugs, 86, 9 1
Spadefoot toad, 1 32
Speckled a l der, 70
Sphaeroti l u s , 3 8
S p h a g n u m s , 40
S p h ere c l a ms, 1 1 7
S p i c u l e s , 77
Spiders, 85, 1 1 3
S p i k e rushes, 55
S p i n u l o s e woodfern, 44
S p i n y n a i a d , 50
softsh e l l turtle, 1 39
S p i ro g y ra , 3 1 , 34
Sponges, 74, 77
Spong i l l a , 77
fl i es, 94, 1 00, 1 0 1
Spotted g a r , 1 28
sa l a ma nder, 1 3 1
s a n d p i per, 1 48
turtle, 1 39

1 59

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S p r i n g peeper, 1 34
Spri n g ta i l s, 95, 1 00,
101
Sta r - nosed m o l e , 1 54
Stato b l asts, 8 1
Stentor, 76
Sti lt spider, 1 1 3
Stinkpot m u s k turtle,
1 37
Sto n e fl i es, 94, 1 00, 1 0 1
Ston eworts, 3 1 , 36
Strecker's chorus frog,
1 35
Str i p ed s w a m p snake,
141
Sturgeon , 1 28
Suckers, 1 22
Suctoria, 76
Sumacs, 72, 73
Sundew, 65
S u n fi s h , 2 1 , 1 24, 1 25
S w a l low-ta i l ed k i te,
1 50
Swampca n d l e
loosestri fe, 67
Swamp cottonwood,
68
crayfish, 92
cricket frog, 1 3 5
maple, 71
o a k , 69
pine, 71
r a b b i t, 1 53
rose, 72, 73
spa rrow, 1 5 1
sumac, 72, 73
Swans, 1 43
Sweet b a y , 73
fl a g , 56
g a l e , 72
Sycamores, 69

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1 60

Tabel l a r i a , 37
Tadpo l e madtom, 1 27
s h r i m p , 86, 88, 89
Tadpo les, 1 33
Tamarack, 69
Tapeworms, 84
Tard i g rades, 1 1 9
Tend i pes, 1 1 1
T h a l loph ytes, 30
T h i o t h r i x , 38
T h readta i led stonefly,
101
Three - s q u a re, 54
T i g e r beetles, 1 06
s a l a m a nder, 1 29
Tipula, 1 1 0
Toad b u g s , 1 04

Toads, 1 29, 1 32
Topminnows, 1 26
Tracheoph ytes, 3 0
Tree frogs, 1 34
Trees, 68, 69, 70, 7 1
Triaenodes, 1 07
Trichoptera, 95, 1 07
Trout, 1 2 1
Trumpeter swan., 1 43
Tube worm (tubifex ) ,
1 9, 75, 82
Tufted titmouse, 1 51
T u m b l ers, 1 08
Tupelos, 69
Turbe l l arians, 84
Turtles, 75, 1 36, 1 371 39
Two - l i ned s a l a ma n d er,
131
V a r i a b l e pondweed,
48, 49
Vascu l a r p l a nts, 30, 42
Vertebra tes, 75,
1 20- 1 54
V i r g i n i a chain fern, 45
Voles, 1 54
Volvox, 35
Warmouth, 1 24
Water, 6, 7, 1 0, 1 1 , 1 4,
1 5, 1 6, 1 7
bears 1 1 9
b i rds, 1 46-1 51
boatmen, 1 03
celery, 20
cress, 62
density, 1 0
fern, 43
fleas, 86, 88, 89
hemlock, 64
hyaci nth, 58
hypnum, 4 1
l ettuce, 56
l i l ies, 20, 60, 61
l o b e l i a , 65
m a r i g o l d , 63, 67
measurers, 1 02
m i l fo i l , 20, 63, 65
m i tes, 1 1 3
mocca s i n, 1 42
m o l d s , 38
moss, 4 1
o a k , 69
parsnip, 67
pen ny wort, 66
p l a n t a i n s, 5 1
scavenger beetle, 1 7,
1 06

Water ( c o n t . )
s c o r p i o n s , 1 7, 1 03
s h a m rock, 4 2
s h i e l d , 60, 6 1
s h rew, 1 54
s m a r tweed, 59
s n a kes, 1 40
starwort, 67
striders, 1 02
t i g e rs, 1 05
treaders, 1 03
t u p e l o , 69
turkey, 1 48
weeds, 50, 59
w i l low, 67
Western b i rch, 70
b u r - reed, 47
c r a y fi s h , 92
po n d turtle, 1 3 9
water l i l y , 60, 6 1
W h i r l i g i g beetles, 1 7,
1 05
W h i s t l i n g swan, 1 43
W h i te cedar, 7 1
cra ppie, 1 25
o a k , 69
p e l i c a n, 1 49
sucker, 1 22
water crowfoot, 63
water l i l y , 60, 6 1
Widgeon, 1 44
W i l d celery, 59
rice, 53
W i l low o a k , 69
W i l lows, 68
W i l so n ' s s n i p e , 1 49
W i n ged l a m p s h e l l , 1 1 7
W i n k l es, 1 1 5
Wi nterberry, 72, 73
Wi nterh i l l , 1 6
W o l ffi a , 57
Woodcock , 1 48
Wood d u c k , 1 44
Worms, 75, 82, 83, 84,
1 1 8, 1 1 9
Wrigg l e rs, 1 08
Y e l l o w b u l l head, 1 27
Y e l l ow-crowned n i g h t
heron, 1 47
Y e l l o w fever mosquito,
1 09
Ye l l ow l e g s , 1 48
Y e l l o w perch, 1 25
w a r b l e r, 1 5 1
water crowfoot, 63
w a ter l i l y , 60, 6 1
Zoop l a n k ton, 1 8

3B 3C 3D 3E 3F

POND LIFE
CEORCE k. REID, P h . D., i s P rofessor of B i o l ogy at
Eckerd Co l l ege in St. Peters b u rg, F l o r i d a . A native
F l o r i d i a n , he rece ived h i s adva n ced degrees at the
U n iversity of Florida and has se rved on the fac u l t i es
of Texas A & M and Rutgers U n iversity. Dr. Reid i s
t h e a u t h o r of a col l ege textbook o f eco l ogy a n d of
n u m e rous tech n ical papers on i n l a n d waters. He is a
past p res i d e n t of t h e F l o r i d a Acad emy of S c i e nces and
past c h a i r m a n of t h e a q u a t i c ecol ogy sect i o n of the
Eco l ogical Soci ety of America.

SALLY D. ICAICHER, who d id most of the i l l ustrat i o n s

f o r t h i s b o o k , h a s b e e n a n i l l ustrator f o r t h e Academy
of N a t u r a l S c i e n c e s of P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d f o r t h e
Sm ithson i a n I n s t i t u t i o n . S h e a l so a u t h o red a n d i l l u s
trated Indo-Pacific Sea Shells. TOM DOLAN, who i l
l u strated t h e f i shes, frogs, a n d t u rtles, i s a l ead i ng
w i l d l ife i l l ustrator for magaz i nes a n d encyclopedias.
He i l l ustrated t h e G o l d e n G u ide Fishing.

HERBERT S. ZIM, P h . D., Sc. D., an o r i g i nator a n d

former e d i t o r of t h e G o l d e n G u i de S e r i e s , w a s a l so
an author for many years. A u t h o r of some n i n ety
books and ed itor of about as ma ny, h e i s now Adju nct
P rofesso r at the U n i ve rsi ty of M i a m i and E d u cat i o n a l
C o n s u l t a n t to t h e A m e r i ca n F r i e n d s Service Co m m it
tee and ot h e r o rga n i z a t i o n s . H e works o n educa
t i o n a l , p o p u l a t i o n a n d envi ron m e n t a l p ro b l e m s .

u . s. $5.95
Can. $8. 95

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