TheLessonsofLucasfilm'sHabitat

ChipMorningstarandF.RandallFarmer
ThispaperwaspresentedatTheFirstInternationalConferenceon
CyberspaceheldinMay1990attheUniversityofTexasatAustin.
ItwaspublishedinCyberspace:FirstSteps,MichaelBenedikt
(ed.),1991,MITPress,Cambridge,Mass.

Introduction
Lucasfilm'sHabitatwascreatedbyLucasfilmGames,adivisionofLucasArts
EntertainmentCompany,inassociationwithQuantumComputerServices,Inc.
Itwasarguablyoneofthefirstattemptstocreateaverylargescalecommercial
multiuservirtualenvironment.Afarcryfrommanylaboratoryresearchefforts
basedonsophisticatedinterfacehardwareandtensofthousandsofdollarsper
userofdedicatedcomputepower,Habitatisbuiltontopofanordinary
commercialonlineserviceandusesaninexpensivesomewouldsay"toy"
homecomputertosupportuserinteraction.Inspiteofthesesomewhatplebeian
underpinnings,Habitatisambitiousinitsscope.Thesystemwedevelopedcan
supportapopulationofthousandsofusersinasinglesharedcyberspace.
Habitatpresentsitsuserswitharealtimeanimatedviewintoanonline
simulatedworldinwhichuserscancommunicate,playgames,goon
adventures,fallinlove,getmarried,getdivorced,startbusinesses,found
religions,wagewars,protestagainstthem,andexperimentwithself
government.
TheHabitatprojectprovedtobearichsourceofinsightsintothenittygritty
realityofactuallyimplementingaserious,commerciallyviablecyberspace
environment.OurexperiencesdevelopingtheHabitatsystem,andmanaging
thevirtualworldthatresulted,offeranumberofinterestingandimportant
lessonsforprospectivecyberspacearchitects.Thepurposeofthispaperisto
discusssomeoftheselessons.Wehopethatthenextgenerationofbuildersof
virtualworldscanbenefitfromourexperiencesand(especially)fromour
mistakes.
Duetospacelimitations,wewon'tbeabletogointoasmuchtechnicaldetailas
wemightlikethiswillhavetobelefttoafuturepublication.Similarly,wewill
onlybeabletotouchbrieflyuponsomeofthehistoryoftheprojectasa
businessventure,whichisafascinatingsubjectofitsown.Althoughwewill
concludewithabriefdiscussionofsomeofthefuturedirectionsforthis
technology,amoredetailedexpositiononthistopicwillalsohavetowaitfora
futurearticle.
TheessentiallessonthatwehaveabstractedfromourexperienceswithHabitat
isthatacyberspaceisdefinedmorebytheinteractionsamongtheactorswithin
itthanbythetechnologywithwhichitisimplemented.Whilewefindmuchof
theworkpresentlybeingdoneonelaborateinterfacetechnologies
DataGloves,headmounteddisplays,specialpurposerenderingengines,andso
onbothexcitingandpromising,thealmostmysticaleuphoriathatcurrently
seemstosurroundallthishardwareis,inouropinion,bothexcessiveand
somewhatmisplaced.Wecan'thelphavinganaggingsensethatit'sallabitofa
distractionfromthereallypressingissues.Atthecoreofourvisionistheidea
thatcyberspaceisnecessarilyamultipleparticipantenvironment.Itseemstous
thatthethingsthatareimportanttotheinhabitantsofsuchanenvironmentare

thecapabilitiesavailabletothem,thecharacteristicsoftheotherpeoplethey
encounterthere,andthewaysthesevariousparticipantscanaffectoneanother.
Beyondafoundationsetofcommunicationscapabilities,thedetailsofthe
technologyusedtopresentthisenvironmenttoitsparticipants,whilesexyand
interesting,areofrelativelyperipheralconcern.

WhatisHabitat?
Habitatisa"multiplayeronlinevirtualenvironment"(itspurposeistobean
entertainmentmediumconsequently,theusersarecalled"players").Each
playeruseshisorherhomecomputerasafrontend,communicatingovera
commercialpacketswitchingdatanetworktoacentralizedbackendsystem.
Thefrontendprovidestheuserinterface,generatingarealtimeanimated
displayofwhatisgoingonandtranslatinginputfromtheplayerintorequests
tothebackend.Thebackendmaintainstheworldmodel,enforcingtherules
andkeepingeachplayer'sfrontendinformedabouttheconstantlychanging
stateoftheuniverse.Thebackendenablestheplayerstointeractnotonlywith
theworldbutwitheachother.
Habitatwasinspiredbyalongtraditionof"computerhackersciencefiction",
notablyVernorVinge'snovel,TrueNames(Vinge,1981),aswellasmanyfond
childhoodmemoriesofgamesofmakebelieve,morerecentmemoriesofrole
playinggamesandthelike,andnumerousotherinfluencestoothoroughly
blendedtopinpoint.Tothisweaddedadashofsilliness,atouchofcyberpunk
(Gibson,1984Sterling,1986),andapredilectionforobjectoriented
programming(SussmanandAbelson,1985).
TheinitialincarnationofHabitatusesaCommodore64forthefrontend(see
note1).Figure1isatypicalscreenfromthisversionofthesystem.Thelargest
partofthescreenisdevotedtothegraphicsdisplay.Thisisananimatedview
oftheplayer'scurrentlocationintheHabitatworld.Thesceneconsistsof
variousobjectsarrayedonthescreen,suchasthehousesandtreeyouseehere.
Theplayersarerepresentbyanimatedfiguresthatwecall"Avatars".Avatars
areusually,thoughnotexclusively,humanoidinappearance.Inthissceneyou
canseetwoofthem,carryingonaconversation.
Avatarscanmovearound,pickup,putdownandmanipulateobjects,talkto
eachother,andgesture,eachunderthecontrolofanindividualplayer.Control
isthroughthejoystick,whichenablestheplayertopointatthingsandissue
commands.Talkingisaccomplishedbytypingonthekeyboard.Thetextthata
playertypesisdisplayedoverhisorherAvatar'sheadinacartoonstyle"word
balloon".

Figure1AtypicalHabitatscene(1986LucasArtsEntertainment
Company).
TheHabitatworldismadeupofalargenumberofdiscretelocationsthatwe
call"regions".Initsprime,theprototypeHabitatworldconsistedofaround
20,000ofthem.Eachregioncanadjoinuptofourotherregions,whichcanbe
reachedsimplybywalkingyourAvatartooneoranotheredgeofthescreen.
Doorwaysandotherpassagescanconnecttoadditionalregions.Eachregion
containsasetofobjectswhichdefinethethingsthatanAvatarcandothereand
thescenethattheplayerseesonthecomputerscreen.
Someoftheobjectsarestructural,suchasthegroundorthesky.Manyarejust
scenic,suchasthetreeorthemailbox.Mostobjects,however,havesome
functionthattheyperform.Forexample,doorstransportAvatarsfromone
regiontoanotherandmaybeopened,closed,lockedandunlocked.ATMs
(AutomaticTokenMachines)enableaccesstoanAvatar'sbankaccount(see
note2).VendingmachinesdispenseusefulgoodsinexchangeforHabitat
money.ManyobjectsareportableandmaybecarriedaroundinanAvatar's
handsorpockets.Theseincludevariouskindsofcontainers,money,weapons,
tools,andexoticmagicalimplements.Table1listssomeofthemostimportant
typesofobjectsandtheirfunctions.Thecompletelistofobjecttypesnumbers
inthehundreds.
ManyobjectsareportableandmaybecarriedaroundinanAvatar'shandsor
pockets.Theseincludevariouskindsofcontainers,money,weapons,tools,and
exoticmagicalimplements.Listedherearesomeofthemostimportanttypesof
objectsandtheirfunctions.Thecompletelistofobjecttypesnumbersinthe
hundreds.
ObjectClass
ATM
Avatar
Bag,Box
Book
Bureaucratina
box
Changeomatic
Chest,Safe
Club,Gun,Knife
Compass
Door
Drugs
Elevator
Flashlight
Fountain
Gamepiece
Garbagecan
Glue
Ground,Sky
Head
Key
Knickknack
Magicwand
Paper
Pawnmachine

Function
AutomaticTokenMachineaccesstoanAvatar'sbank
account
RepresentstheplayerintheHabitatworld
Containersinwhichthingsmaybecarried
DocumentforAvatarstoread(e.g.,thedailynewspaper)
Communicationwithsystemoperators
DevicetochangeAvatargender
Containersinwhichthingscanbestored
Variousweapons
PointsdirectiontoWestPole
Passagefromoneregiontoanothercanbelocked
VarioustypeschangesAvatarbodystate,e.g.,curewounds
Transportationfromonefloorofatallbuildingtoanother
Provideslightindarkplaces
Scenichighlightprovidescommunicationtosystem
designers
Enablesvariousboardgames:backgammon,checkers,
chess,etc.
Disposesofunwantedobjects
Systembuildingtoolattachesobjectstogether
Theunderpinningsoftheworld
AnAvatar'sheadcomesinmanystylesforcustomization
Unlocksdoorsandothercontainers
Genericinertobjectfordecorativepurposes
Varioustypes,candoalmostanything
Forwritingnotes,makingmaps,etc.usedinmailsystem
Buysbackpreviouslypurchasedobjects

Plant,Rock,Tree
Region
Sensor
Sign
Stungun
Teleportbooth
Tokens
Vendroid

Genericscenicobjects
Thefoundationofreality
Varioustypes,detectsotherwiseinvisibleconditionsinthe
world
Allowsattachmentoftexttootherobjects
Nonlethalweapon
Meansofquicklongdistancetransportanalogoustophone
booth
Habitatmoney
Vendingmachinesellsthings
Table1Someimportantobjectclasses

Implementation
Thefollowing,alongwithseveralprogrammeryearsoftediousandexpensive
detailthatwewon'tcoverhere,ishowthesystemworks:
AttheheartoftheHabitatimplementationisanobjectorientedmodelofthe
universe.
Thefrontendconsistsofasystemkernelandacollectionofobjects.Thekernel
handlesmemorymanagement,displaygeneration,diskI/O,
telecommunications,andother"operatingsystem"functions.Theobjects
implementthesemanticsoftheworlditself.EachtypeofHabitatobjecthasa
definitionconsistingofasetofresources,includinganimationcelstodrivethe
display,audiodata,andexecutablecode.Anobject'sexecutablecode
implementsaseriesofstandardbehaviors,eachofwhichisinvokedbya
differentplayercommandorsystemevent.Themodelissimilartothatfound
inanobjectorientedprogrammingsystemsuchasSmalltalk(Goldbergand
Robson,1983),withitsclasses,methodsandmessages.Theseresources
consumesignificantamountsofscarcefrontendmemory,sowecan'tkeepthem
allincoreatthesametime.Fortunately,theirdefinitionsareinvariant,sowe
simplyswaptheminfromdiskasweneedthem,discardinglessrecentlyused
resourcestomakeroom.
Whenanobjectisinstantiated,weallocateablockofmemorytocontainthe
object'sstate.Thefirstseveralbytesofanobject'sstateinformationtakethe
sameforminallobjects,andincludesuchthingsastheobject'sscreenlocation
anddisplayattributes.Thisstandardinformationisinterpretedbythesystem
kernelasitgeneratesthedisplayandmanagestheruntimeenvironment.The
remainderofthestateinformationvarieswiththeobjecttypeandisaccessed
onlybytheobject'sbehaviorcode.
Objectbehaviorsareinvokedbythekernelinresponsetoplayerinput.Each
objectrespondstoasetofstandardverbsthatmapdirectlyontothecommands
availabletotheplayer.Eachbehaviorissimplyasubroutinethatexecutesthe
indicatedactiontodothisitmayinvokethebehaviorsofotherobjectsorsend
requestmessagestothebackend.Besidesthestandardverbbehaviors,objects
mayhaveadditionalbehaviorswhichareinvokedbymessagesthatarrive
asynchronouslyfromthebackend.
Thebackendalsomaintainsanobjectorientedrepresentationoftheworld.As
inthefrontend,objectsonthebackendpossessexecutablebehaviorsandin
memorystateinformation.Inaddition,sincethebackendmaintainsapersistent
globalstatefortheentireHabitatworld,theobjectsarealsorepresentedby
databaserecordsthatmaybestoredondiskwhennot"inuse".Backendobject
behaviorsareinvokedbymessagesfromthefrontend.Eachofthesebackend

behaviorsworksinroughlythesameway:amessageisreceivedfroma
player'sfrontendrequestingsomeactiontheactionistakenandsomestate
changestotheworldresultthebackendbehaviorsendsaresponsemessage
backtothefrontendinformingitoftheresultsofitsrequestandnotification
messagestothefrontendsofanyotherplayerswhoareinthesameregion,
informingthemofwhathastakenplace.

TheLessons
Inordertosayasmuchaswecaninthelimitedspaceavailable,wewill
describewhatthinkwelearnedviaaseriesofprinciplesorassertions
surroundedbysupportingreasoningandillustrativeanecdotes.Amoreformal
andthoroughexpositionwillhavetocomelaterinsomeotherforumwherewe
mighthavethespacetopresentamorecomprehensiveanddetailedmodel.
Wementionedourprimaryprincipleabove:
Amultiuserenvironmentiscentraltotheideaofcyberspace.
Itisourdeepconvictionthatadefinitivecharacteristicofacyberspacesystem
isthatitrepresentsamultiuserenvironment.Thisstemsfromthefactthat
what(inouropinion)peopleseekinsuchasystemisrichness,complexityand
depth.Nobodyknowshowtoproduceanautomatonthatevenapproachesthe
complexityofarealhumanbeing,letaloneasociety.Ourapproach,then,isnot
eventoattemptthis,butinsteadtousethecomputationalmediumtoaugment
thecommunicationschannelsbetweenrealpeople.
Ifwhatweareconstructingisamultiuserenvironment,itnaturallyfollows
thatsomesortofcommunicationscapabilitymustbefundamentaltoour
system.However,wemusttakeintoaccountanobservationthatisthesecond
ofourprinciples:
Communicationsbandwidthisascarceresource.
ThispointwasdrivenhometousbyoneofHabitat'snastier,externally
imposeddesign,constraints,namelythatitprovideasatisfactoryexperienceto
theplayerovera300baudserialtelephoneconnection(onerouted,moreover,
throughcommercialpacketswitchingnetworksthatimposeanadditional,
uncontrollablelatencyof100to5000millisecondsoneachpackettransmitted).
Eveninamoretechnicallyadvancednetwork,however,bandwidthremains
scarceinthesensethateconomistsusetheterm:availablecarryingcapacityis
notunlimited.Thelawofsupplyanddemandsuggeststhatnomatterhow
muchcapacityisavailable,youalwayswantmore.Whencommunications
technologyadvancestothepointwereweallhavemultigigabaudfiberoptic
connectionsintoourhomes,computationaltechnologywillhaveadvancedto
match.Ourprocessors'expandingappetitefordatawillmeanthatthesearchfor
evermoresophisticateddatacompressiontechniqueswillstillbeahotresearch
area(thoughwhatwearecompressingmayatthatpointbehighresolution
volumetrictimeseriesorsomethingevenmoreesoteric)(Drexler,1986).
Computerscientiststendtobereductionistswholiketoorganizesystemsin
termsofprimitiveelementsthatcanbeeasilymanipulatedwithinthecontextof
asimpleformalmodel.Typically,youadoptasmallvarietyofverysimple
primitiveswhicharethenusedinlargenumbers.Foragraphicsoriented
cyberspacesystem,thetemptationistobuilduponbitmappedimagesor
polygonsorsomeothergraphicprimitive.Thesesortsofrepresentations,

however,areinvitationstodisaster.Theyarisefromaninappropriatefixation
ondisplaytechnology,ratherthanontheunderlyingpurposeofthesystem.
However,themostsignificantpartofwhatwewishtobecommunicatingare
humanbehaviors.These,fortunately,canberepresentedquitecompactly,
providedweadoptarelativelyabstract,highleveldescriptionthatdealswith
behavioralconceptsdirectly.Thisleadstoourthirdprinciple:
Anobjectorienteddatarepresentationisessential.
Takenatitsfacevalue,thisassertionisunlikelytobecontroversial,asobject
orientedprogrammingiscurrentlythemethodologyofchoiceamongthe
softwareengineeringcognoscenti.However,whatwemeanhereisnotonly
thatyoushouldadoptanobjectorientedapproach,butthatthebasicobjects
fromwhichyoubuildthesystemshouldcorrespondmoreorlesstotheobjects
intheuser'sconceptualmodelofthevirtualworld,thatis,people,places,and
artifacts.Youcould,ofcourse,useobjectorientedprogrammingtechniquesto
buildasystembasedon,say,polygons,butthatwouldnothelptocopewiththe
fundamentalproblem.
Thegoalistoenablethecommunicationsbetweenmachinestakeplace
primarilyatthebehaviorallevel(whatpeopleandthingsaredoing)ratherthan
atthepresentationlevel(howthesceneischanging).Thedescriptionofaplace
inthevirtualwouldshouldbeintermsofwhatisthereratherthanwhatitlooks
like.Interactionsbetweenobjectsshouldbedescribedbyfunctionalmodels
ratherthanbyphysicalones.Thecomputationnecessarytotranslatebetween
thesehigherlevelrepresentationsandthelowerlevelrepresentationsrequired
fordirectuserinteractionisanessentiallylocalfunction.Atthelocalprocessor,
displayrenderingtechniquesmaybearbitrarilyelaborateandphysicalmodels
arbitrarilysophisticated.Thedatachannelcapacitiesrequiredforsuch
computations,however,neednotandshouldnotbesqueezedintothelimited
bandwidthavailablebetweenthelocalprocessorandremoteones.Attempting
todosojustleadstodisasterssuchasNAPLPS(ANSI,1983Alber,1985)
whichcouplesdreadfulperformancewithadisplaymodelfirmlyanchoredin
thetechnologyofthe1970s.
Oncewebeginworkingattheconceptualratherthanthepresentationlevel,we
arestruckbythefollowingobservation:
Theimplementationplatformisrelativelyunimportant.
Thepresentationlevelandtheconceptuallevelcannot(andshouldnot)be
totallyisolatedfromeachother.However,definingavirtualenvironmentin
termsoftheconfigurationandbehaviorofobjects,ratherthantheir
presentation,enablesustospanavastrangeofcomputationalanddisplay
capabilitiesamongtheparticipantsinasystem.Thisrangeextendsbothupward
anddownward.Asanextremeexample,atypicalscenicobject,suchasatree,
canberepresentedbyahandfulofparametervalues.Atthelowestconceivable
endofthingsmightbeanancientAltair8800witha300baudASCIIdumb
terminal,wheretheinterfaceisreducedtofragmentsoftextandtheusersees
thehumblestringsofamiliartotheplayersoftextadventuregames,"Thereisa
treehere."Atthehighend,youmighthaveapowerfulprocessorthatgenerates
theimageofthetreebygrowingafractalmodelandrenderingitthree
dimensionsathighresolution,thefinestdetailsraytracedinrealtime,
completewithbrancheswavinginthebreezeandthesoundofwindinthe
leavescomingthroughyourheadphonesinhighfidelitydigitalstereo.And
thesetwousersmightbelookingatthesametreeinsametheplaceinthesame
worldandtalkingtoeachotherastheydoso.Bothofthesescenariosare

implausibleatthemoment,thefirstbecausenobodywouldsufferwithsucha
crudeinterfacewhenbetteronesaresoreadilyavailable,thesecondbecause
thecomputationalhardwaredoesnotyetexist.Thepoint,however,isthatthis
approachcoversthegroundbetweensystemsalreadyobsoleteandonesthatare
asyetgleamsintheirdesigners'eyes.Twoconsequencesofthisaresignificant.
Thefirstisthatwecanbuildeffectivecyberspacesystemstoday.Habitatexists
asampleproofofthisprinciple.Thesecondisthatitisconceivablethatwitha
modicumofclevernessandforesightyoucouldstartbuildingasystemwith
today'stechnologythatcouldevolvesmoothlyasthetomorrow'stechnology
develops.Theavailabilityofpathwaysforgrowthisimportantinthereal
world,especiallyifcyberspaceistobecomeasignificantcommunications
medium(asweobviouslythinkitshould).
Giventhatweseecyberspaceasfundamentallyacommunicationsmedium
ratherthansimplyauserinterfacemodel,andgiventhestyleofobjectoriented
approachthatweadvocate,anotherpointbecomesclear:
Datacommunicationsstandardsarevital.
However,ourconcernsaboutcyberspacedatacommunicationsstandardscenter
lessupondatatransportprotocolsthanuponthedefinitionofthedatabeing
transported.ThemechanismsrequiredforreliablygettingbitsfrompointAto
pointBarenotterriblyinterestingtous.Thisisnotbecausethesemechanisms
arenotessential(theyobviouslyare)norbecausetheydonotposesignificant
researchandengineeringchallenges(theyclearlydo).Itisbecauseweare
focusedontheuniquecommunicationsneedsofanobjectbasedcyberspace.
Weareconcernedwiththeprotocolsforsendingmessagesbetweenobjects,
thatis,forcommunicatingbehaviorratherthanpresentation,andfor
communicatingobjectdefinitionsfromonesystemtoanother.
Communicatingobjectdefinitionsseemstoustobeanespeciallyimportant
problem,andonethatwereallydidn'thaveanopportunitytoaddressin
Habitat.Itwillbenecessarytoaddressthisproblemifwearetohaveadynamic
systeminthefuture.Oncethesizeofthesystem'suserbasehasgrown
modestlylarge,itbecomesimpracticaltodistributeanewreleaseofthesystem
softwareeverytimeonewantstoaddanewclassofobject.However,wefeel
theabilitytoaddnewclassesofobjectsovertimeiscrucialifthesystemisto
beabletoevolve.
Whileweareonthesubjectofcommunicationsstandards,wewouldliketo
makesomeremarksabouttheISOReferenceModelofOpenSystem
Interconnection(ISO,1986).This7layermodelhasbecomeacenterpieceof
mostdiscussionsaboutdatacommunicationsstandardstoday.Itissofirmly
establishedinthedatacommunicationsstandardscommunitythatitisvirtually
impossibletofindaseriouscontemporarypublicationonthesubjectthatdoes
notbeginwithsomevariationonFigure2.Unfortunately,whilethebottom4or
5layersofthismodelprovideamoreorlesssoundframeworkforconsidering
datatransportissues,wefeelthatthemodel'sPresentationandApplication
layersarenotsohelpfulwhenconsideringcyberspacedatacommunications.

Figure2The7layerISOReferenceModelofOpenSystemInterconnection
WehavetwomainquarrelswiththeISOmodel:first,itpartitionsthegeneral
datacommunicationsprobleminawaythatisapoormatchfortheneedsofa
cyberspacesystemsecond,andmoreimportantly,wethinkthatthemodel
itselfisanactivesourceofconfusionbecauseitfocusestheattentionofsystem
designersonthewrongsetofissuesandthusleadsthemtospendtheirtime
solvingthewrongsetofproblems.Weknowbecausethishappenedtous.
"Presentation"and"Application"aresimplythewrongabstractionsforthe
higherlevelsofacyberspacecommunicationsprotocol.A"Presentation"
protocolpresumesthatatleastsomecharacteristicsofthedisplayare
embeddedintheprotocol.Thediscussionsaboveshouldgivesomeindication
whywethinkthatsuchapresumptionisbothunnecessaryandunwise.
Certainly,an"Application"protocolpresumesadegreeofforeknowledgeofthe
messageenvironmentthatisincompatiblewiththesortofdynamically
evolvingobjectsystemweenvision.
Abettermodelwouldbetosubstituteadifferentpairoftoplayers(Figure3):a
Messagelayer,whichdefinesthemeansbywhichobjectscanaddressone
anotherandstandardmethodsofencapsulatingstructureddataandencoding
lowleveldatatypes(e.g.,numbers)andaDefinitionlayerbuiltontopofthe
Messagelayer,whichdefinesastandardrepresentationforobjectdefinitionsso
thatobjectclassescanmigratefrommachinetomachine.Onemightarguethat
thesearesimplyPresentationandApplicationwithdifferentlabels.However,
thedifferencesaresoeasilyreconciled.Inparticular,wethinktheISOmodel
has,howeverunintentionally,systematicallydeflectedworkersinthefieldfrom
consideringmanyoftheissuesthatconcernus.

Figure3Apossiblealternativeprotocolmodel

WorldBuilding
ThereweretwosortsofimplementationchallengethatHabitatposed.Thefirst
wastheproblemofcreatingaworkingpieceoftechnologydevelopingthe
animationengine,theobjectorientedvirtualmemory,themessagepassing
pseudooperatingsystem,andsqueezingthemallintotheludicrous
Commodore64(thebackendsystemalsoposedinterestingtechnicalproblems,

butitsconstraintswerenotasvicious).Thesecondchallengewasthecreation
andmanagementoftheHabitatworlditself.Itistheexperiencesfromthelatter
exercisethatwethinkwillbemostrelevanttofuturecyberspacedesigners.
Wewereinitiallyourownworstenemiesinthisundertaking,victimsofaway
ofthinkingtowhichweengineersaredangerouslysusceptible.Thiswayof
thinkingischaracterizedbytheconceitthatallthingsmaybeplannedin
advanceandthendirectlyimplementedaccordingtotheplan'sdetailed
specification.Forpersonsschooledinthedesignandconstructionofsystems
basedonsimple,welldefinedandwellunderstoodfoundationprinciples,this
isanaturalattitudetohave.Moreover,itisentirelyappropriatewhen
undertakingmostengineeringprojects.Itisaframeofmindthatisanessential
partofagoodengineer'sconceptualtoolkit.Alas,inkeepingwithMaslow's
assertionthat,"tothepersonwhohasonlyahammer,alltheworldlookslikea
nail",itisaframeofmindthatiseasytocarrybeyonditsrangeofapplicability.
Thishappenswhenasystemexceedsthethresholdofcomplexityabovewhich
thehumanmindlosesitsabilitytomaintainacompleteandcoherentmodel.
Onegenerallyhearsaboutsystemscrossingthecomplexitythresholdwhen
theybecomeverylarge.Forexample,theSpaceShuttleandtheB2bomberare
bothsystemsabovethisthreshold,necessitatingextraordinarilyinvolved,
cumbersomeandtimeconsumingprocedurestokeepthedesignundercontrol
proceduresthatareatoncevastlyexpensiveandonlypartiallysuccessful.To
adegree,thecomplexityofaproblemcanbedissolvedby"throwingmoney"at
it:fastercomputers,moremanagers,morebureaucraticprocedures,andsoon.
However,suchcapitalintensivemanagementtechniquesarealuxurynot
availabletomostprojects.Furthermore,althoughthese"solutions"tothe
complexityproblemareoutofreachofmostprojects,alasthecomplexity
thresholditselfisnot.Smallersystemscansufferfromthesamesortsof
problems.Itispossibletopushmuchsmallerandlesselaboratesystemsover
thecomplexitythresholdsimplybyintroducingchaoticelementsthatare
outsidethedesigners'sphereofcontrolorunderstanding.Themostsignificant
suchchaoticelementsareautonomouscomputationalagents(e.g.,other
computers).Thisiswhy,forexample,debuggingevenverysimple
communicationsprotocolsoftenprovessurprisinglydifficult.Furthermore,a
specialcircleoflivingHellawaitstheimplementorsofsystemsinvolvingthat
mostimportantcategoryofautonomouscomputationalagentsofall,groupsof
interactinghumanbeings.Thisleadsdirectlytoournext(andpossiblymost
controversial)assertion:
Detailedcentralplanningisimpossibledon'teventry.
Theconstructivistprejudicethatleadsengineersintothekindsofproblemsjust
mentionedhasreceivedmorestudyfromeconomists,philosophersand
sociologists(e.g.,Popper1962,1972Hayek1973,1978,1989Sowell1987)
thanfromresearchersinthesoftwareengineeringcommunity.Gameand
simulationdesignersareexperiencedincreatingclosedvirtualworldsfor
individualsandsmallgroups.However,theyhavehadnoreasontolearnto
dealwithlargepopulationsofsimultaneoususers.Eachuserorsmallgroupis
unrelatedtotheothers,andthesameworldcanbeusedoverandoveragain.If
youareplayinganadventuregame,thefactthatthousandsofotherpeople
elsewhereinthe(real)worldareplayingthesamegamehasnoeffectonyour
experience.Itisreasonableforthecreatorofsuchaworldtospendtensoreven
hundredsofhourscraftingtheenvironmentforeachhourthatauserwillspend
interactingwithit,sincethatuser'shourofexperiencewillbeduplicatedtens
ofthousandsoftimesbytensofthousandsofotherindividualusers.

Buildersoftoday'sonlineservicesandcommunicationsnetworksare
experiencedindealingwithlargeuserpopulations,buttheydonot,ingeneral,
createelaborateenvironments.Furthermore,inasystemdesignedtodeliver
informationorcommunicationsservices,largenumbersofusersaresimplya
loadproblemratherthanacomplexityproblem.Alltheusersgetthesame
informationorservicesthecommentsinthepreviousparagraphregarding
duplicationofexperienceapplyhereaswell.Itisnotnecessarytomatchthe
sizeandcomplexityoftheinformationspacetothesizeoftheuserpopulation.
Whileitmayturnoutthatthequantityofinformationavailableonaserviceis
largelyafunctionofthesizeoftheuserpopulationitself,thisinformationcan
generallybeorganizedintoasystematicstructurethatcanstillbemaintained
byafewpeople.Thebulkofthisinformationisproducedbytheusers
themselves,ratherthanthesystemdesigners.(Thisobservation,infact,isthe
firstcluetothesolutiontoourproblem.)
Ouroriginal,contractualspecificationforHabitatcalledforustocreateaworld
capableofsupportingapopulationof20,000Avatars,withexpansionplansfor
upto50,000.Byanyreckoningthisisalargeundertakingandcomplexity
problemswouldcertainlybeexpected.However,inpracticeweexceededthe
complexitythresholdveryearlyindevelopment.Bythetimethepopulationof
ouronlinecommunityhadreachedaround50wewereinoverourheads(and
these50were"insiders"whowerepreparedtobetolerantofholesandrough
edges).
Moreover,avirtualworldsuchasHabitatneedstoscalewithitspopulation.
For20,000Avatarsweneeded20,000"houses",organizedintotownsandcities
withassociatedtrafficarteriesandshoppingandrecreationalareas.Weneeded
wildernessareasbetweenthetownssothateveryonewouldnotbejammed
togetherintothesameplace.Mostofall,weneededthingsfor20,000peopleto
do.Theyneededinterestingplacestovisitandsincetheycan'tallbeinthe
sameplaceatthesametime,theyneededalotofinterestingplacestovisit
andthingstodointhoseplaces.Eachofthosehouses,towns,roads,shops,
forests,theaters,arenas,andotherplacesisadistinctentitythatsomeoneneeds
todesignandcreate.Attemptingtoplaytheroleofomniscientcentralplanners,
wewereswamped.
Automatedtoolsmaybecreatedtoaidthegenerationofareasthatnaturally
possessahighdegreeofregularityandstructure,suchasapartmentbuildings
androadnetworks.Wecreatedanumberofsuchtools,whosespiritual
descendentswillnodoubtbefoundinthestandardbagoftricksoffuture
cyberspacearchitects.However,theverypropertieswhichmakesomepartsof
theworldamenabletosuchtechniquesalsomakethosesamepartsoftheworld
amongtheleastimportant.Itisreallynotaproblemifeveryapartmentbuilding
looksprettymuchlikeeveryother.Itisabigproblemifeveryenchantedforest
looksthesame.Placeswhosevalueliesintheiruniqueness,oratleastintheir
differentiationfromtheplacesaroundthem,needtobecraftedbyhand.Thisis
anincrediblylaborintensiveandtimeconsumingprocess.Furthermore,even
veryimaginativepeoplearelimitedintherangeofvariationthattheycan
produce,especiallyiftheyareworkinginavirginenvironmentuninfluencedby
theworksandreactionsofotherdesigners.

RunningTheWorld
Theworlddesignproblemmightstillbetractable,however,ifallplayershad
thesamegoals,interests,motivationsandtypesofbehavior.Realpeople,
however,arealldifferent.Forthedesignerofanordinarygameorsimulation,
humandiversityisnotamajorproblem,sinceheorshegetstoestablishthe

goalsandmotivationsontheparticipants'behalf,andtospecifytheactivities
availabletotheminordertochanneleventsinthepreferreddirection.Habitat,
however,wasdeliberatelyopenendedandpluralistic.Theideabehindour
worldwaspreciselythatitdidnotcomewithafixedsetofobjectivesforits
inhabitants,butratherprovidedabroadpaletteofpossibleactivitiesfrom
whichtheplayerscouldchoose,drivenbytheirowninternalinclinations.It
wasourintentiontoprovideavarietyofpossibleexperiences,rangingfrom
eventswithestablishedrulesandgoals(atreasurehunt,forexample)to
activitiespropelledbytheplayers'personalmotivations(startingabusiness,
runningthenewspaper)tocompletelyfreeform,purelyexistentialactivities
(hangingoutwithfriendsandconversing).Mostactivities,however,involved
somedegreeofplanningandsetuponourpart.Weweretobelikethecruise
directoronaoceanvoyage,butitturnedoutwewerestillthinkinglikegame
designers.
ThefirstgoaldirectedeventplannedforHabitatwasaratherinvolvedtreasure
huntcalledthe"D'nalsiIslandAdventure".Ittookushourstodesign,weeksto
build(includinga100regionisland),anddaystocoordinatetheactors
involved.Itwasdesignedmuchlikethepuzzlesinanadventuregame.We
thoughtitwouldoccupyourplayersfordays.Infact,thepuzzlewassolvedin
about8hoursbyapersonwhohadfiguredoutthecriticalclueinthefirst15
minutes.Manyoftheplayershadn'tevenhadachancetogetintothegame.
Theresultwasthatonepersonhadhadawonderfulexperience,dozensof
otherswereleftbewildered,andahugeinvestmentindesignandsetuptime
hadbeenconsumedinaneyeblink.Weexpectedthattherewouldbeawide
rangeof"adventuring"skillsintheHabitataudience.Whatwasn'tsoobvious
untilafterwardwasthatthismeantthatmostpeopledidn'thaveaverygood
time,iffornootherreasonthanthattheyneverreallygottoparticipate.It
wouldclearlybefoolishandimpracticalforustodothingslikethisona
regularbasis.
Againandagainwefoundthatactivitiesbasedonoftenunconscious
assumptionsaboutplayerbehaviorhadcompletelyunexpectedoutcomes(when
theywerenotsimplyoutrightfailures).Itwasclearthatwewerenotincontrol.
Themorepeopleweinvolvedinsomething,thelessincontrolwewere.We
couldinfluencethings,wecouldsetupinterestingsituations,wecouldprovide
opportunitiesforthingstohappen,butwecouldnotpredictnordictatethe
outcome.Socialengineeringis,atbest,aninexactscience,eveninproto
cyberspaces.Or,assomewagoncesaid,"inthemostcarefullyconstructed
experimentunderthemostcarefullycontrolledconditions,theorganismwilldo
whateveritdamnwellpleases."
Propelledbytheseexperiences,weshiftedintoastyleofoperationsinwhich
welettheplayersthemselvesdrivethedirectionofthedesign.Thisprovedfar
moreeffective.Insteadoftryingtopushthecommunityinthedirectionwe
thoughtitshouldgo,anexerciseratherlikeherdingmice,wetriedtoobserve
whatpeopleweredoingandaidtheminit.Webecamefacilitatorsasmuchas
designersandimplementors.Thisoftenmeantaddingnewfeaturesandnew
regionstothesystematafranticpace,butalmostallofwhatweaddedwas
usedandappreciated,sinceitwaswellmatchedtopeople'sneedsanddesires.
Astheexpertsonhowthesystemworked,wecouldoftensuggestnew
activitiesforpeopletotryorwaysofdoingthingsthatpeoplemightnothave
thoughtof.Inthiswaywewereabletohaveconsiderableinfluenceonthe
system'sdevelopmentinspiteofthefactthatwedidn'treallyholdthesteering
wheelmoreinfluence,infact,thanwehadhadwhenwewereoperating
underthedelusionthatwecontrolledeverything.

Indeed,thechallengesposedbylargesystemsingeneralarepromptingsome
researcherstoquestionthecentralized,planningdominatedattitudethatwe
havecriticizedhere,andtoproposealternativeapproachesbasedon
evolutionaryandmarketprinciples(MillerandDrexler,1988a,1988bDrexler
andMiller1988).Theseprinciplesappearapplicabletocomplexsystemsofall
types,notmerelythoseinvolvinginteractinghumanbeings.

TheGreatDebate
AmongtheobjectswemadeavailabletoAvatarsinHabitatweregunsand
variousothersortsofweapons.Weincludedthesebecausewefeltthatplayers
shouldbeabletomateriallyeffecteachotherinwaysthatwentbeyondsimply
talking,waysthatrequiredrealmoralchoicestobemadebytheparticipants.
Werecognizedtheageoldstoryteller'sdictumthatconflictistheessenceof
drama.DeathinHabitatwas,ofcourse,notlikedeathintherealworld!When
anAvatariskilled,heorsheisteleportedbackhome,headinhands(literally),
pocketsempty,andanyobjectinhandatthetimedroppedonthegroundatthe
sceneofthecrime.Anypossessionscarriedatthetimearelost.Itwasmore
likeasetbackinagameof"ChutesandLadders"thanrealmortality.
Nevertheless,thedeathmetaphorhadaprofoundeffectonpeople'sperceptions.
Thispotentialformurder,assaultandothermayheminHabitatwas,toputit
mildly,controversial.Thecontroversywasfurtherfueledbythepotentialfor
lessercrimes.Forinstance,oneAvatarcouldstealsomethingfromanother
Avatarsimplybysnatchingtheobjectoutitsowner'shandsandrunningoff
withit.
Wehadimposedveryfewrulesontheworldatthestart.Therewasmuch
debateamongtheplayersastotheformthatHabitatsocietyshouldtake.Atthe
coreofmuchofthedebatewasanunresolvedphilosophicalquestion:isan
Avataranextensionofahumanbeing(thusentitledtobetreatedasyouwould
treatarealperson)oraPacManlikecritterdestinedtodieathousanddeaths
orsomethingelseentirely?IsHabitatmurderacrime?Shouldallweaponsbe
banned?Orisitall"justagame"?Tomakeapoint,oneoftheplayerstookto
randomlyshootingpeopleastheyroamedaround.Thedebatewassufficiently
vigorousthatwetookasystematicpolloftheplayers.Theresultwas
ambiguous:50%saidthatHabitatmurderwasacrimeandshouldn'tbeapart
oftheworld,whiletheother50%saiditwasanimportantpartofthefun.
Wecompromisedbychangingthesystemtoallowthieveryandgunplayonly
outsidethecitylimits.Thewildernesswouldbewildanddangerouswhile
civilizationwouldbeorderlyandsafe.Thisdidnotresolvethedebate,
however.Oneoftheoutstandingproponentsoftheantiviolencepointofview
wasmotivatedtoopenthefirstHabitatchurch,theOrderoftheHolyWalnut
(inreallifehewasaGreekOrthodoxpriest).Hiscanonsforbidhisdisciplesto
carryweapons,steal,orparticipateinviolenceofanykind.Hischurchbecame
quitepopularandhebecameaveryhighlyrespectedmemberoftheHabitat
community.
Furthermore,whilewehadmadedirecttheftimpossible,onecouldstillengage
inindirecttheftbystealingthingssetonthegroundmomentarilyorotherwise
leftunattended.Andtheviolencestillpossibleintheoutlandscontinuedto
bothersomeplayers.Manypeoplethoughtthatsuchcrimesoughttobe
preventedoratleastpunishedsomehow,buttheyhadnoideahowtodoso.
Theywereusedtoaworldinwhichlawandjusticewerealwaysthings
providedbysomebodyelse.Somebodyeventuallymadethesuggestionthat
thereoughttobeaSheriff.Wequicklyfiguredouthowtocreateavoting
mechanismandroundedupsomevolunteerstoholdanelection.Apublic

debateinthetownmeetinghallwasheavilyattended,withthethreeAvatars
whohadchosentorunmakingstatementsandfieldingquestions.Theelection
washeld,andthetownofPopulopolisacquiredaSheriff.
ForweekstheSheriffwasnothingbutafigurehead,thoughhewasarespected
figureandcommandedacertainamountofmoralauthority.Wewerestumped
aboutwhatpowerstogivehim.Shouldhehavetherighttoshootanyone
anywhere?Givehimamorepowerfulgun?Amagicwandtozappeopleoffto
jail?Whataboutcourts?Laws?Lawyers?Againwesurveyedtheplayers,
eventuallysettlingonasetofquestionsthatcouldbeansweredviaa
referendum.Unfortunately,wewereunabletoactontheresultsbeforethepilot
operationsendedandtheversionofthesysteminwhichtheseeventstookplace
wasshutdown.Itwasclear,however,thattherearetwobasiccamps:
anarchistsandstatists.Thisdivisionofcharactersandworldviewsisanissue
thatwillneedtobeaddressedbyfuturecyberspacearchitects.However,our
viewremainsthatavirtualworldneednotbesetupwitha"default"
government,butcaninsteadevolveoneasneeded.

AWarning
Giventheaboveexhortationthatcontrolshouldbereleasedtotheusers,we
needtoinjectanoteofcautionandpresentournextassertion:
Youcan'ttrustanyone.
Thismayseemlikeacontradictionofmuchofthepreceding,butitreallyis
not.Designersandoperatorsofacyberspacesystemmustinhabittwolevelsof
"virtuality"atonce.Thefirstwecallthe"infrastructurelevel,"thelevelof
implementation,wherethelawsthatgovern"reality"havetheirgenesis.The
secondwecallthe"experientiallevel,"whichiswhattheusersseeandinteract
with.Itisimportantthattherenotbe"leakage"betweenthesetwolevels.The
firstleveldefinesthephysicsoftheworld.Ifitsintegrityisbreached,the
consequencescanrangefromaestheticunpleasantness(theaudiencecatchesa
glimpseofthescaffoldingbehindthefalsefront)topsychologicaldisruption
(somebodydoessomething"impossible",therebyviolatingusers'expectations
anddamagingtheirfantasy)tocatastrophicfailure(somebodycrashesthe
system).Whenweexhortcyberspacesystemdesignerstogivecontroltothe
users,wemeancontrolattheexperientiallevel.Whenwesaythatyoucan't
trustanyone,wemeanthatyoucan'ttrustthemwithaccesstotheinfrastructure
level.SomestoriesfromHabitatwillillustratethis.
Whendesigningpieceofsoftware,yougenerallyassumethatthesoftwareis
thesoleintermediarybetweentheuserandtheunderlyingdatabeing
manipulated(possiblymultipleapplicationswillworkwiththesamedata,but
theprincipleremainsthesame).Ingeneral,theuserneednotbeawareofhow
dataareencodedandstructuredinsidetheapplication.Indeed,theverypurpose
ofagoodapplicationistoshieldtheuserfromtheuglytechnicaldetails.While
itisconceivablethatatechnicallyastutepersonwhoiswillingtoinvestthe
timeandeffortcoulddeciphertheinternalstructureofthings,thiswouldbean
unusualthingtodoasthereisrarelymuchadvantagetobegained.Thepurpose
oftheapplicationitselfis,afterall,tomakeaccesstoandmanipulationofthe
dataeasierthandiggingaroundatthelevelofbitsandbytes.Thereare
exceptionstothis,however.Forexample,mostgameprogramsdeliberately
imposeobstaclesontheirplayersinorderforplaytobechallenging.By
tinkeringaroundwiththeinsidesofsuchaprogramdumpingthedatafiles
andstudyingthem,disassemblingtheprogramitselfandpossiblymodifyingit
itmaybepossibleto"cheat".However,thissortofcheatinghastheflavorof

cheatingatsolitaire:theconsequencesadheretothecheateralone.Thereisa
difference,inthatdisassemblingagameprogramisapuzzlesolvingexercise
initsownright,whereascheatingatsolitaireispointless,butthesatisfactions
tobegainedfromeither,ifany,areentirelypersonal.
If,however,acomputergameinvolvesmultipleplayers,thendelvingintothe
program'sinternalscanenableonetotrulycheat,inthesensethatonegainsan
unfairadvantageovertheotherplayers,anadvantagemoreoverofwhichthey
maybeunaware.Habitatissuchamultiplayergame.Whenweweredesigning
thesoftware,our"primedirective"was,"Thebackendshallnotassumethe
validityofanythingaplayercomputertellsit."Thisisbecauseweneededto
protectourselvesagainstthepossibilitythatacleveruserhadhackedaround
withhiscopyofthefrontendprogramtoadd"customfeatures".Forexample,
wecouldnotimplementanyofthesortof"skillandaction"elementsfoundin
traditionalvideogameswhereindexteritywiththejoystickdeterminesthe
outcomeof,say,armedcombat,becauseyoucouldn'tguardagainstsomeone
modifyingtheircopyoftheprogramtotellthebackendthattheyhad"hit",
whethertheyactuallyhadornot.Indeed,ourpartnersatQuantumLinkwarned
usofthisveryeventualitybeforeweevenstartedtheyalreadyhaduserswho
didthissortofthingwiththeirregularsystem.Wouldanyoneactuallygotothe
troubleofdisassemblingandstudying100Korsoofincrediblytightand
bizarrelythreaded6502machinecodejusttotinker?Asitturnsout,theanswer
isyes.Peopledid.Wewerenot100%rigorousinfollowingourownrule.It
turnedoutthattherewereafewfeatureswhoseimplementationwasgreatly
easedbybreakingtheruleinsituationswhere,inourjudgment,the
consequenceswouldnotbematerialifsomepeople"cheated"byhackingtheir
ownsystems.Darnedifsomepeopledidn'thacktheirsystemstocheatin
exactlytheseways.
Caremustbetakeninthedesignoftheworldaswell.Oneincidentthat
occurredduringourpilottestinvolvedasmallgroupofplayersexploitinga
buginourworlddatabasewhichtheyinterpretedasafeature.First,some
background.Avatarswerehatchedwith2000Tokensintheirbankaccount,and
eachdaythattheyloggedinthereceivedanother100T.Avatarscouldacquire
additionalfundsbyengaginginbusiness,winningcontests,findingburied
treasure,andsoon.TheycouldspendtheirTokenson,amongotherthings,
variousitemsforsaleinvendingmachinescalledVendroids.Therewerealso
PawnMachines,whichwouldbuyobjectsback(atadiscount,ofcourse).
Inordertomakethisautomatedeconomyalittlemoreinteresting,each
Vendroidhaditsownpricesfortheitemsinit.Thiswassothatwecouldhave
localpricevariation(i.e.,awidgetwouldcostalittlelessifyouboughtitat
Jack'sPlaceinsteadofTheEmporium).ItturnedoutthatintwoVendroids
acrosstownfromeachotherweretwoitemsforsalewhosepriceswehad
inadvertentlysetlowerthanwhataPawnMachinewouldbuythembackfor:
Dolls(forsaleat75T,hockfor100T)andCrystalBalls(forsaleat18,000T,
hockat30,000T!).Naturally,acoupleofpeoplediscoveredthis.Onenightthey
tookalltheirmoney,walkedtotheDollVendroid,boughtasmanyDollsas
theycould,thentookthemacrosstownandpawnedthem.Byshuttlingback
andforthbetweentheDollVendroidandthePawnShopforhours,they
amassedsufficientfundstobuyaCrystalBall,whereupontheycontinuedthe
processwithCrystalBallsandacoupleordersofmagnitudehighercashflow.
ThefinalresultwasatleastthreeAvatarswithhundredsofthousandsofTokens
each.Weonlydiscoveredthisthenextmorningwhenourdailydatabasestatus
reportsaidthatthemoneysupplyhadquintupledovernight.
Weassumedthattheprecipitousincreasein"T1"wasduetosomesortofbug
inthesoftware.Wewerepuzzledthatnobugreporthadbeensubmitted.By

pokingaroundabitwediscoveredthatafewpeoplehadsuddenlyacquired
enormousbankbalances.WesentHabitatmailtothetworichest,inquiringas
towheretheyhadgottenallthatmoneyovernight.Theirreplywas,"Wegotit
fairandsquare!Andwe'renotgoingtotellyouhow!"Aftermuchabject
pleadingonourparttheyeventuallydidtellus,andwefixedtheerroneous
pricing.Fortunately,thewholescamturnedoutwell,asthenouveauriche
Avatarsusedtheirbulgingbankrollstounderwriteaseriesoftreasurehunt
gameswhichtheyconductedontheirowninitiative,muchtotheenjoymentof
manyotherplayersonthesystem.

Keeping"Reality"Consistent
Theurgetobreachtheboundarybetweentheinfrastructurelevelandthe
experientiallevelisnotconfinedtotheplayers.Thesystemoperatorsarealso
subjecttothistemptation,thoughtheirmotivationisexpediencyin
accomplishingtheirlegitimatepurposesratherthanthegainingofillegitimate
advantage.However,tothedegreetowhichitispossible,wevigorously
endorsethefollowingprinciple:
Workwithinthesystem.
Whereverpossible,thingsthatcanbedonewithintheframeworkofthe
experientiallevelshouldbe.Theresultwillbesmootheroperationandgreater
harmonyamongtheusercommunity.Thisadmonitionappliestoboththe
technicalandthesociologicalaspectsofthesystem.
Forexample,withtheplayersincontrol,theHabitatworldwouldhavegrown
muchlargerandmorediversethanitdidhadweourselvesnotbeenatechnical
bottleneck.Allnewregiongenerationandfeatureimplementationhadtogo
throughus,sincetherewerenomeansforplayerstocreatenewpartsofthe
worldontheirown.Regioncreationwasanesoterictechnicalspecialty,
requiringaplethoraofobscuretoolsandagoodworkingknowledgeofthe
treacherousminefieldoflimitationsimposedbytheCommodore64.Italso
requiredmuchbehindthescenesactivityofthesortthatwouldprobablyspoil
theillusionformany.OneofthegoalsofanextgenerationHabitatlikesystem
oughttobetopermitfargreatercreativeinvolvementbytheparticipants
withoutrequiringthemtoascendtofullfledgedguruhoodtodoso.
Afurtherexampleofworkingwithinthesystem,thistimeinasocialsense,is
illustratedbythefollowingexperience.
OneofthemorepopulareventsinHabitattookplacelateinthetest,the
brainchildofoneofthemoreactiveplayerswhohadrecentlybecomea
QuantumLinkemployee.Itwascalledthe"DungeonofDeath".Forweeks,ads
appearedinHabitat'snewspaper,TheRant,announcingthatthatDuoofDread,
DEATHandTHESHADOW,werechallengingallcomerstoentertheirlair.
Soon,ontheoutskirtsoftown,theentrancetoadungeonappeared.Outfront
wasasignreading,"Danger!Enteratyourownrisk!"Twosystemoperators
wereloggedinasDEATHandTHESHADOW,armedwithspecially
concoctedgunsthatcouldkillinoneshot,ratherthantheusualtwelve.These
twocharactersroamedthedungeonblastingawayatanyonetheyencountered.
Theywerealsoequippedwithspecialmagicwandsthatcuredanydamage
donetothembyotherAvatars,sothattheywouldn'tthemselvesbekilled.To
makethingsworse,theplacewaslitteredwithculdesacs,pathological
connectionsbetweenregions,andvariousothernastyandusuallyfatalfeatures.
Itwasclearthatanyexplorerhadbetterbepreparedto"die"severaltimes
beforemasteringthedungeon.Therewardswereprettygood:1000Tokens

minimumandaccesstoaspecialVendroidthatsoldmagicteleportationwands.
Furthermore,givenclearnotice,playerstooktheprecautionofemptyingtheir
pocketsbeforeentering,sothattheactualcostofgetting"killed"wasminimal.
Oneevening,oneofuswasgiventhechancetoplaytheroleofDEATH.When
weloggedin,wefoundhiminoneofthedeadendswithfourotherAvatars
whoweretrappedthere.Westartedshooting,asdidthey.However,thelast
operatortorunDEATHhadnotbotheredtousehisspecialwandtohealany
accumulateddamage,sothecharacterofDEATHwassuddenlyand
unexpectedly"killed"intheencounter.Aswementionedearlier,whenan
Avatariskilled,anyobjectinhishandsisdroppedontheground.Inthiscase,
saidobjectwasthespecialkillinoneshotgun,whichwasimmediatelypicked
upbyoneoftheregularplayerswhothenmadeoffwithit.Thisgunwasnot
somethingthatregularplayersweresupposedtohave.Whatshouldwedo?
Itturnedoutthatthiswasnotthefirsttimethishadhappened.Duringthe
previousnight'smayhemthespecialgunwassimilarlyabscondedwith.Inthis
case,thepersonplayingDEATHwasoneoftheregularsystemoperators,who,
accustomedtooperatingtheregularQLinkservice,hadsimplyorderedthe
playertogivethegunback.Theplayerconsideredthathehadobtainedthe
weaponaspartofthenormalcourseofthegameandbalkedatthis,whereupon
theoperatorthreatenedtocanceltheplayer'saccountandkickhimoffthe
systemifhedidnotcomply.Theplayergavethegunback,butwasquiteupset
aboutthewholeaffair,asweremanyofhisfriendsandassociatesonthe
system.Theirworldmodelhadbeenpainfullyviolated.
Whenithappenedtous,weplayedthewholeincidentwithintheroleof
DEATH.WesentamessagetotheAvatarwhohadthegun,threateningtocome
andkillherifshedidn'tgiveitback.Sherepliedthatallshehadtodowasstay
intownandDEATHcouldn'ttouchher(whichwastrue,ifwestayedwithinthe
system).OK,wefigured,she'ssmart.WenegotiatedadealwherebyDEATH
wouldransomthegunfor10,000Tokens.Anelaboratearrangementwasmade
tomeetinthecenteroftowntomaketheexchange,withaneutralthirdAvatar
actingasanintermediarytoensurethatneitherpartycheated.Ofcourse,word
gotaroundandbythetimeoftheexchangetherewerenumerousspectators.We
playedtheroleofDEATHtothehilt,withlotsofhokeymelodramaticshtick.
Theeventwasasensation.Itwaswrittenupinthenewspaperthenextmorning
andwasthetalkofthetownfordays.TheAvatarinvolvedwasleftwitha
wonderfulstoryabouthavingcheatedDEATH,wegotthegunback,and
everybodywentawayhappy.
Thesetwoverydifferentresponsestoanordinaryoperationalproblemillustrate
ourpoint.Operatingwithintheparticipants'worldmodelproducedavery
satisfactoryresult.Ontheotherhand,takingwhatseemedliketheexpedient
course,whichinvolvedviolatingtheworldmodel,provokedupsetanddismay.
Workingwithinthesystemwasclearlythepreferredcourseinthiscase.

CurrentStatus
Asofthiswriting,theNorthAmericanincarnationofLucasfilm'sHabitat,
QuantumLink's"ClubCaribe",hasbeenoperatingforalmosttwoyears.Ituses
ouroriginalCommodore64frontendandasomewhatstrippeddownversionof
ouroriginalStratusbackendsoftware.ClubCaribenowsustainsapopulation
ofsome15,000participants.
Atechnicallymoreadvancedversion,calledFujitsuHabitat,hasbeenoperating
foroverayearinJapan,availableonNIFtyServe.Theinitialfrontendforthis

versionisthenewFujitsuFMTownspersonalcomputer,thoughportsto
severalotherpopularJapanesemachinesareplanned.Thisversionofthe
systembenefitsfromtheadditionalcomputationalpowerandgraphics
capabilitiesofanewerplatform,aswellastheTowns'builtinCDROMfor
objectimageryandsounds.However,thevirtualityofthesystemisessentially
unchangedandFujitsuhasnotmadesignificantalterationstotheuserinterface
ortoanyoftheunderlyingconcepts.

FutureDirections
Thereareseveraldirectionsinwhichthisworkcanbeextended.Mostobvious
istoimplementthesystemonmoreadvancedhardware,enablingamore
sophisticateddisplay.Anumberofextensionstotheuserinterfacealsosuggest
themselves.However,thelineofdevelopmentmostinterestingtousisto
expandontheideaofmakingthedevelopmentandexpansionoftheworld
itselfpartoftheusers'sphereofcontrol.Therearetwomajorresearchareasin
this.Unfortunately,wecanonlytouchonthembrieflyhere.
Thefirstareatoinvestigateinvolvestheeliminationofthecentralizedbackend.
Thebackendisacommunicationsandprocessingbottleneckthatwillnot
withstandgrowthabovetoolargeasize.Whilewecansupporttensof
thousandsofuserswiththismodel,itisnotreallyfeasibletosupportmillions.
Makingthesystemfullydistributed,however,requiressolvinganumberof
difficultproblems.Themostsignificantoftheseisthepreventionofcheating.
Obviously,theownerofthenetworknodethatimplementssomepartofthe
worldhasanincentivetotiltthingsinhisfavor.Wethinkthatthisproblemcan
beaddressedbysecureoperatingsystemtechnologiesbasedonpublickey
cryptographictechniques(Rivest,ShamirandAdelman,1978Milleretal,
1987).
Thesecondfertileareaofinvestigationinvolvesuserconfigurationoftheworld
itself.Thisrequiresfindingwaystorepresentthedesignandcreationofregions
andobjectsaspartoftheunderlyingfantasy.Doingthiswillrequirechangesto
ourconceptionoftheworld.Inparticular,wedon'tthinkitwillbepossibleto
concealalloftheunderpinningstothosewhoworkwiththem.However,allwe
reallyneedtodoisfindabstractionsforthoseunderpinningsthatfitintothe
fantasyitself.Thoughchallenging,thisis,inouropinion,eminentlyfeasible.

Conclusions
Wefeelthatthedefiningcharacteristicofcyberspaceisthesharednessofthe
virtualenvironment,andnotthedisplaytechnologyusedtotransportusersinto
thatenvironment.Suchacyberspaceisfeasibletoday,ifyoucanlivewithout
headmounteddisplaysandotherexpensivegraphicshardware.Habitatserves
asanexistenceproofofthiscontention.
Itseemscleartousthatanobjectorientedworldmodelisakeyingredientin
anycyberspaceimplementation.Wefeelwehavegainedsomeinsightintothe
datarepresentationandcommunicationsneedsofsuchasystem.Whilewe
thinkthatitmaybeprematuretostartestablishingdetailedtechnicalstandards
forthesethings,itistimetobeginthediscussionsthatwillleadtosuch
standardsinthefuture.
Finally,wehavecometobelievethatthemostsignificantchallengefor
cyberspacedevelopersistocometogripswiththeproblemsofworldcreation
andmanagement.Whilewehaveonlymadethefirstinroadsontothese
problems,afewthingshavebecomeclear.Themostimportantoftheseisthat

managingacyberspaceworldisnotlikemanagingtheworldinsideasingle
userapplicationorevenaconventionalonlineservice.Instead,itismorelike
governinganactualnation.Cyberspacearchitectswillbenefitfromstudyofthe
principlesofsociologyandeconomicsasmuchasfromtheprinciplesof
computerscience.Weadvocateanagoric,evolutionaryapproachtoworld
buildingratherthanacentralized,socialisticone.
Wewouldliketoconcludewithafinal,ifironical,admonition,onethatwe
hopewillnotbeseenasoverlycontentious:
Getreal.
InadiscussionofcyberspaceonUsenet,oneworkerinthefielddismissedClub
Caribe(Habitat'scurrentincarnation)asuninteresting,withacommenttothe
effectthatmostoftheactivityconsistedofinaneandtrivialconversation.
Indeed,theobservationwaslargelycorrect.However,wehopesomeofthe
anecdotesrecountedabovewillgivesomeindicationthatmoreisgoingonthan
thoseinaneandtrivialconversationsmightindicate.Further,todismissthe
systemonthisbasisistodismisstheusersthemselves.Theyarepayingmoney
forthisservice.Theydon'tviewwhattheydoasinaneandtrivial,orthey
wouldn'tdoit.Toinsistthispresumesthatoneknowsbetterthantheywhat
theyshouldbedoing.Suchpresumptionisanothermanifestationofthe
omniscientcentralplannerwhodictatesallthathappens,arolethatthisentire
articleistryingtodeflectyoufromseeking.Inarealsystemthatisgoingtobe
usedbyrealpeople,itisamistaketoassumethattheuserswillallundertake
thesortsofnobleandsublimeactivitieswhichyoucreatedthesystemto
enable.Mostofthemwillnot.Cyberspacemayindeedchangehumanity,but
onlyifitbeginswithhumanityasitreallyis.

Notes
Note1:Oneofthequestionsweareaskedmostfrequentlyis,"Whythe
Commodore64?"Manypeoplesomehowgettheimpressionthatthiswasa
technicaldecision,buttherealexplanationhastodowithbusiness,not
technology.HabitatwasinitiallydevelopedbyLucasfilmascommercial
productforQuantumLink,anonlineservice(then)exclusivelyforownersof
theCommodore64.Atthetimewestarted(1985),theCommodore64wasthe
mainstayoftherecreationalcomputingmarket.Sincethenithasdeclined
dramaticallyinbothitscommercialandtechnicalsignificance.However,when
webegantheproject,wedidn'tgetachoiceofplatforms.Thenatureofthedeal
wassuchthatboththeCommodore64forthefrontendandtheexisting
QuantumLinkhostsystem(abraceofStratusfaulttolerantminicomputers)for
thebackendweregivens.
Note2:Habitatcontainsitsownfullyfledgedeconomy,withmoney,banks,
andsoon.Habitat'sunitofcurrencyistheToken,reflectingthefactthatitisa
tokeneconomyandtoacknowledgethelongandhonorableassociation
betweentokensandvideogames.Incidently,theHabitatTokenisa23sided
plasticcoinslightlylargerthananAmericanquarter,withaportraitofVernor
Vingeandthemotto"FiatLucre"onitsface,andthetext"Goodforonefare"
onthebackthesedetailsaredifficulttomakeoutontheCommodore64
screen.

Acknowledgements
Wewouldliketoacknowledgethecontributionsofsomeofthemanypeople
whohelpedmakeHabitatpossible.AtLucasfilm,AricWilmunderwrotemuch

oftheCommodore64frontendsoftwareRonGilbert,CharlieKelner,and
NoahFalsteinalsoprovidedinvaluableprogramminganddesignsupportGary
WinnickandKenMacklinwereresponsibleforalltheartworkChrisGriggdid
thesoundsSteveArnoldprovidedoutstandingmanagementsupportand
GeorgeLucasgaveusthefreedomtoundertakeaprojectthatforallheknew
wasbothimpossibleandinsane.AtQuantum,JanetHunterwrotethegutsof
thebackendKenHuntsmanandMikeFiccoprovidedvaluableassistancewith
communicationsprotocols.KazuoFukudaandhiscrewatFujitsuhavecarried
ourvisionofHabitattoJapanandmadeittheirown.PhilSalin,ourbossat
AMiX,letusstealthetimetowritethispaperandevenpaidforustoattendthe
FirstConferenceonCyberspace,eventhoughitsimmediaterelevancetoour
presentbusinessmayhaveseemedabitobscureatthetime.We'dalsoliketo
thankMichaelBenedikt,DonFussellandtheircohortsfororganizingthe
Conferenceandtherebypromptingustostartputtingourthoughtsand
experiencesinwriting.

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