CHEM 400 - L1 - Chapters 1 & 2

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What Do You Think?

Lecture Presentation
What do you think is the most important
idea in all of human knowledge?
Chapter 1
Matter, If we limit ourselves only to scientific

Measurement, answers, it would be this:
and Problem
Solving The properties of matter are
determined by the properties of
molecules and atoms.
2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
What Do You Think? Atoms and Molecules
Atoms and molecules determine how matter

behaves; if they were different, matter would
be different.
The properties of water molecules determine how The air contains carbon monoxide pollutant.
water behaves; the properties of sugar molecules
determine how sugar behaves. Carbon monoxide gas is composed of carbon
monoxide molecules.
The understanding of matter at the molecular
level gives us unprecedented control over Each molecule contains a carbon atom and an
that matter. oxygen atom held together by a chemical bond.
Atoms and Molecules Atoms and Molecules
If we want to understand the substances

Atoms are the submicroscopic particles
around us, we must understand the atoms
that constitute the fundamental building
and molecules that compose themthis is
blocks of ordinary matter.
the central goal of chemistry.
Free atoms are rare in nature; instead they Chemistry is the science that seeks to
bind together in specific geometrical understand the behavior of matter by
arrangements to form molecules. studying the behavior of atoms and
molecules.
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The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Observations
The approach to scientific knowledge is empiricalit

is based on observation and experiment. Observations are also known as data.
They are the descriptions about the
The scientific method is a process for understanding characteristics or behavior of nature.
nature by observing nature and its behavior, and by
conducting experiments to test our ideas. Antoine Lavoisier (17431794) noticed that there
was no change in the total mass of material within
Key characteristics of the scientific method include the container during combustion.
observation, formulation of hypotheses,
experimentation, and formulation of laws and Observations often lead scientists to
theories. formulate a hypothesis.
Hypothesis A Scientific Law
A hypothesis is a tentative interpretation or A brief statement that summarizes past

explanation of the observations. observations and predicts future ones
Law of conservation of mass In a chemical
For example, Lavoisier explained his observations on reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed.
combustion by hypothesizing that when a substance burns, it
combines with a component of air.
Allows you to predict future observations
A good hypothesis is falsifiable. So you can test the law with experiments
The results of an experiment may support a hypothesis or

prove it wrongin which case the scientist must modify or Unlike state laws, you cannot choose to
discard the hypothesis. violate a scientific law.
Theory Theory
One or more well-established hypotheses may
form the basis for a scientific theory. General explanation for the characteristics
and behavior of nature
A scientific theory is a model for the way
nature is and tries to explain not merely what Models of nature
nature does, but why.
Daltons atomic theory
Theories are validated by experiments.
Can be used to predict future observations
Theories can never be conclusively proven
because some new observation or experiment So they can be tested by experiments
always has the potential to reveal a flaw.
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The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Conceptual Connection 1.1

Which statement best explains the difference
between a law and a theory?
(a) A law is truth whereas a theory is a mere

speculation.
(b) A law summarizes a series of related

observations, while a theory gives the
underlying reasons for them.
(c) A theory describes what nature does; a

law describes why nature does it.
Conceptual Connection 1.1 The Classification of Matter

Which statement best explains the difference
between a law and a theory?
Matter is anything that occupies space and
has mass.
(a) A law is truth whereas a theory is a mere
speculation. Your textbook, your desk, your chair, and even
your body are all composed of matter.
(b) A law summarizes a series of related
observations, while a theory gives the We can classify matter according to its state
underlying reasons for them. (its physical form) and its composition (the
basic components that make it up).
(c) A theory describes what nature does; a
law describes why nature does it.
The States of Matter Structure Determines Properties
The atoms or molecules have different structures

in solids, liquids, and gasesleading to different
Matter can be classified as solid, liquid, or
properties.
gas based on what properties it exhibits.
The state of matter changes from solid to

liquid to gas with increasing temperature.
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Solid Matter Solid Matter

Solid matter may be
In solid matter, atoms or molecules pack crystallinein which case its
close to each other in fixed locations. atoms or molecules are in
patterns with long-range,
Although the atoms and molecules in a solid repeating order.
Table salt and diamond are
vibrate, they do not move around or past examples of solid matter.
each other.
Others may be amorphous, in
Consequently, a solid has a fixed volume and which case its atoms or
rigid shape. molecules do not have any
long-range order.
Ice, aluminum, and diamond are good examples
Examples of amorphous solids
of solids. include glass and plastic.
Liquid Matter Gaseous Matter

In liquid matter, atoms or molecules pack
about as closely as they do in solid matter, In gaseous matter, atoms
but they are free to move relative to or molecules have a lot of
each other. space between them.
Liquids have fixed volume but not a They are free to move
fixed shape. relative to one another.
Liquids ability to flow makes them assume These qualities make

the shape of their container. gases compressible.
Water, alcohol, and gasoline are all substances
that are liquids at room temperature.
The Classification of Matter by Components Classification of Matter by Components

Matter can also be classified according to its
composition: elements, compounds, and mixtures.
The first division in the classification of matter
is between a pure substance and a mixture.
A pure substance is made up of only one

component and its composition is invariant.
A mixture, by contrast, is a substance

composed of two or more components in
proportions that can vary from one sample to
another.
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Classification of Pure Substances Classification of Pure Substances

An element is a substance that cannot be
Pure substances categorize into two types: chemically broken down into simpler
substances.
Elements
Basic building blocks of matter
Composed of single type of atom, like helium
Compounds
A compound is a substance composed of two

This categorization depends on whether or not or more elements in fixed definite proportions.
they can be broken down (or decomposed)
into simpler substances. Most elements are chemically reactive and
combine with other elements to form compounds
like water, sugar, etc.
Classification of Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixture
Mixtures can be categorized into two types: A heterogeneous mixture is one in which
the composition varies from one region of the
Heterogeneous mixtures mixture to another.
Homogeneous mixtures Made of multiple substances, whose presence can

be seen (Example: a salt and sand mixture)
This categorization of mixture depends on how

Portions of a sample of heterogeneous mixture
uniformly the substances within them mix. have different composition and properties.
Homogeneous Mixture Separating Mixtures
A homogeneous mixture is one made of

Mixtures are separable because the different
multiple substances, but appears to be one
components have different physical or
substance.
chemical properties.
All portions of a sample have the same
Various techniques that exploit these
composition and properties (like
differences are used to achieve separation.
sweetened tea).
A mixture of sand and water can be
Homogeneous mixtures have uniform
separated by decantingcarefully pouring
compositions because the atoms or
off the water into another container.
molecules that compose them mix uniformly.
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Separating Mixtures Separating Mixtures

A homogeneous mixture
of liquids can usually be A mixture of an insoluble
separated by distillation, solid and a liquid can be
a process in which the separated by filtration
mixture is heated to boil process in which the
off the more volatile mixture is poured through
(easily vaporizable) liquid. filter paper in a funnel.
The volatile liquid is then
re-condensed in a
condenser and collected
in a separate flask.
Physical and Chemical Changes Physical Change
Physical Change: When water boils, it

changes its state from
a liquid to a gas.
Changes that alter only the state or
appearance, but not composition, are
physical changes. The gas remains
composed of water
molecules, so this is
The atoms or molecules that compose a a physical change.
substance do not change their identity during
a physical change.
Chemical Change Physical and Chemical Changes

Changes that alter the
composition of matter are
chemical changes.
During a chemical
change, atoms rearrange,
transforming the original
substances into different
substances.
Rusting of iron is a
chemical change.
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Physical and Chemical Properties Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and

Chemical Change
A physical property A chemical property
is a property that a is a property that a
substance displays substance displays Energy is the capacity
without changing its only by changing its to do work.
composition. composition via a
chemical change (or Work is defined as the
The smell of gasoline is a chemical reaction). action of a force through
physical property. a distance.
The flammability of
Odor, taste, color, gasoline, in contrast, is a
appearance, melting chemical property.
Chemical properties
When you push a box across the floor or pedal your
point, boiling point, and
density are all physical include corrosiveness, bicycle across the street, you have done work.
properties. acidity, and toxicity.
Energy Summarizing Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy
associated with the motion of
an object.
Potential energy is the energy

associated with the position or
composition of an object. Energy is always conserved in a physical or
chemical change; it is neither created nor
Thermal energy is the energy destroyed (law of conservation of energy).
associated with the temperature
of an object.
Systems with high potential energy tend to
Thermal energy is actually a type of
kinetic energy because it arises from change in a direction that lowers their potential
the motion of the individual atoms or
molecules that make up an object.
energy, releasing energy into the surroundings.
The Units of Measurement The Standard Units
In chemistry, unitsstandard quantities used to

specify measurementsare critical.
The two most common unit systems are as

follows:
Metric system, used in most of the world

English system, used in the United States
Scientists use the International System of

Units (SI), which is based on the metric system.
The abbreviation SI comes from the French, phrase Systme
International dUnits.
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The Meter: A Measure of Length The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass

The meter (m) is slightly longer than a yard (1 yard
is 36 inches, while 1 meter is 39.37 inches). The mass of an object is a
measure of the quantity of matter
within it.
The SI unit of mass = kilogram (kg).

1 kg = 2 lb 3 oz
A second common unit of mass is

1 meter = 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the
the gram (g).
equator to the North Pole (through Paris). One gram is 1/1000 kg.
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures now defines it

more precisely as the distance light travels through a vacuum in a
Weight of an object is a measure of
certain period of time, 1/299,792,458 second. the gravitational pull on its matter.
The Second: A Measure of Time The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature
The Kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature.

Measure of the duration of an event
The temperature is a measure of the average
amount of kinetic energy of the atoms or
SI units = second (s)
molecules that compose the matter.
1 s is defined as the period of time it takes Temperature also determines the direction of
for a specific number of radiation events of thermal energy transfer, or what we commonly
a specific transition from cesium-133. call heat.
Thermal energy transfers from hot to cold

objects.
The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature A Measure of Temperature
Kelvin scale (absolute

scale) assigns 0 K The Fahrenheit Temperature scale
(absolute zero) to the degree is five-ninths conversion is done
coldest temperature the size of a Celsius with these formulas:
possible. degree.
Absolute zero (273 C or

The Celsius degree
459 F) is the temperature
at which molecular motion and the Kelvin degree
virtually stops. Lower are the same size.
temperatures do not exist.
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Prefix Multipliers Counting Significant Figures
The International System of Units uses the Significant figures deal with writing
prefix multipliers shown in Table 1.2 with the numbers to reflect precision.
standard units.
The precision of a measurement depends
These multipliers change the value of the unit by
the powers of 10 (just like an exponent does in on the instrument used to make the
scientific notation). measurement.
For example, the kilometer has the prefix kilo The preservation of this precision during
meaning 1000 or 103. calculations can be accomplished by using
significant figures.
Counting Significant Figures Counting Significant Figures

Significant Figure Rules Examples
3. Leading zeroes (zeroes to the left of the first
The greater the number of significant figures, the nonzero digit) are not significant. They only
serve to locate the decimal point.
greater the certainty of the measurement.
4. Trailing zeroes (zeroes at the end of a 45.000 3.5600
number) are categorized as follows:
To determine the number of significant figures in a Trailing zeroes after a decimal point are
always significant.
number, follow these rules (examples are on the right).
Trailing zeroes before a decimal point (and 140.00 2500.55
after a nonzero number) are always
significant.
Trailing zeroes before an implied decimal 1200 Ambiguous
Significant Figure Rules Examples
point are ambiguous and should be avoided 1.2 103 2 significant figures
1. All nonzero digits are significant 28.03 0.0540 by using scientific notation. 1.20 103 3 significant figures
1.200 103 4 significant figures
2. Interior zeroes (zeroes between two nonzero 408 7.0301
Decimal points are placed after one or more 1200. 4 significant figures
digits) are significant.
trailing zeroes if the zeroes are to be
considered significant.
Exact Numbers Significant Figures in Calculations
Exact numbers have an unlimited number of

significant figures. In calculations using measured quantities,
the results of the calculation must reflect
Exact counting of discrete objects the precision of the measured quantities.
Integral numbers that are part of an equation
Defined quantities We should not lose or gain precision
during mathematical operations.
Some conversion factors are defined quantities,
while others are not.
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Significant Figure: Rules for Calculations Rules for Calculations
Multiplication and Division Rule: Addition and Subtraction Rule:

In addition or subtraction the result carries the
In multiplication or division, the result carries the
same number of decimal places as the quantity
same number of significant figures as the factor
with the fewest decimal places.
with the fewest significant figures.
It is helpful to draw a line next to the number with the fewest decimal
places. This line determines the number of decimal places in the answer.
Rules for Calculations Rules for Rounding
Round to two significant figures:

Rules for Rounding:
5.37 rounds to 5.4
When rounding to the correct number of
5.34 rounds to 5.3
significant figures,
5.35 rounds to 5.4
round down if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is 5.349 rounds to 5.3
four or less;
Notice in the last example that only the last (or
round up if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is leftmost) digit being dropped determines in
five or more.
which direction to roundignore all digits to the
right of it.
Rounding in Multistep Calculations Precision and Accuracy

To avoid rounding errors in multistep calculations
round only the final answer.
Accuracy refers to how close the
Do not round intermediate steps. If you write down measured value is to the actual value.
intermediate answers, keep track of significant
figures by underlining the least significant digit.
Precision refers to how close a series of
measurements are to one another or how
reproducible they are.
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Precision and Accuracy Precision and Accuracy
Consider the results of three students who repeatedly

weighed a lead block known to have a true mass of
10.00 g (indicated by the solid horizontal blue line on the
graphs).
Student A Student B Student C

Trial 1 10.49 g 9.78 g 10.03 g
Trial 2 9.79 g 9.82 g 9.99 g
Trial 3 9.92 g 9.75 g 10.03 g
Trial 4 10.31 g 9.80 g 9.98 g
Average 10.13 g 9.79 g 10.01 g
Measurements are said to be
precise if they are consistent with one another.
accurate only if they are close to the actual value.
Precision and Accuracy Solving Chemical Problems

The results of student A are both inaccurate (not
close to the true value) and imprecise (not Most chemistry problems you will solve in this
consistent with one another). course are unit conversion problems.
Random error is an error that has the equal probability of
being too high or too low.
Using units as a guide to solving problems is
The results of student B are precise (close to one called dimensional analysis.
another in value), but inaccurate.
Systematic error is an error that tends toward being either too
high or too low. Units should always be included in calculations;
they are multiplied, divided, and canceled like any
The results of student C display little systematic other algebraic quantity.
error or random errorthey are both accurate
and precise.
Dimensional Analysis Dimensional Analysis
Most unit conversion problems take the

A unit equation is a statement of two equivalent
quantities, such as following form:
2.54 cm = 1 in.
A conversion factor is a fractional quantity of a

unit equation with the units we are converting
from on the bottom and the units we are
converting to on the top.
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Dimensional Analysis
Units Raised to a Power:
When building conversion factors for units raised
to a power, remember to raise both the number
and the unit to the power. For example, to convert
from in2 to cm2, we construct the conversion factor
as follows:
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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If You Cut a Piece of Graphite

Lecture Presentation
If you cut a piece of graphite from the tip of
a pencil into smaller and smaller pieces,
how far could you go? Could you divide it
Chapter 2 forever?
Atoms and Cutting the graphite from a pencil tip into

Elements smaller and smaller pieces (far smaller
than the eye could see), would eventually
end up with individual carbon atoms.
If You Cut a Piece of Graphite Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms
The word atom comes from the Greek On March 16, 1981, Gerd Binnig and
atomos, meaning indivisible. Heinrich Rohrer worked late into the night
in their laboratory.
You cannot divide a carbon atom into
smaller pieces and still have carbon. Their work led to the development of
scanning tunneling microscopy (STM).
Atoms compose all ordinary matterif you
want to understand matter, you must begin STM is a technique that can image, and
by understanding atoms. even move, individual atoms and molecules.
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms
In spite of their small size, atoms are the

key to connecting the macroscopic and
microscopic worlds.
An atom is the smallest identifiable unit of

an element.
There are about

91 different naturally occurring elements, and
Binnig and Rohrer developed a type of over 20 synthetic elements (elements not found in
microscope that could see atoms. nature).
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Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Early Building Blocks of Matter Ideas
Matter
Leucippus (fifth century B.C.) and his student Plato and Aristotle did not embrace the
Democritus (460370 B.C.) were first to atomic ideas of Leucippus and Democritus.
propose that matter was composed of small,
indestructible particles. They held that
Democritus wrote, Nothing exists except atoms and empty
space; everything else is opinion.
matter had no smallest parts.
different substances were composed of various
They proposed that many different kinds of proportions of fire, air, earth, and water.
atoms existed, each different in shape and
size, and that they moved randomly through
empty space.
Early Building Blocks of Matter Ideas Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That
Led to It
Later scientific approach became the The theory that all matter is composed of
established way to learn about the atoms grew out of observations and laws.
physical world.
The three most important laws that led to

An English chemist, John Dalton (1766 the development and acceptance of the
1844) offered convincing evidence that atomic theory are as follows:
supported the early atomic ideas of The law of conservation of mass
Leucippus and Democritus.
The law of definite proportions
The law of multiple proportions
The Law of Conservation of Mass The Law of Conservation of Mass
Antoine Lavoisier formulated the law of

conservation of mass, which states the
following:
In a chemical reaction, matter is neither
created nor destroyed.
Hence, when a chemical reaction occurs,

the total mass of the substances involved This law is consistent with the idea that
in the reaction does not change. matter is composed of small, indestructible
particles.
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The Law of Definite Proportions The Law of Definite Proportions
In 1797, a French chemist, Joseph Proust The law of definite proportions is

made observations on the composition of sometimes called the law of constant
compounds. composition.
He summarized his observations in the law of
For example, the decomposition of 18.0 g of water
definite proportions: results in 16.0 g of oxygen and 2.0 g of hydrogen,
or an oxygen-to-hydrogen mass ratio of:
All samples of a given compound, regardless
of their source or how they were prepared,
have the same proportions of their constituent
elements.
The Law of Multiple Proportions The Law of Multiple Proportions
In 1804, John Dalton published his law of Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are
multiple proportions. two compounds composed of the same
two elements: carbon and oxygen.
When two elements (call them A and B)
form two different compounds, the masses
The mass ratio of oxygen to carbon in carbon
of element B that combine with 1 g of
dioxide is 2.67:1; therefore, 2.67 g of oxygen
element A can be expressed as a ratio of
reacts with 1 g of carbon.
small whole numbers.
An atom of A combines with either one,
In carbon monoxide, however, the mass ratio
two, three, or more atoms of B (AB1, AB2, of oxygen to carbon is 1.33:1, or 1.33 g of
AB3, etc.). oxygen to every 1 g of carbon.
John Dalton and the Atomic Theory

Daltons atomic theory explained the laws as
follows:
1. Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible
particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element have the same mass
and other properties that distinguish them from the
atoms of other elements.
3. Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to
The ratio of these two masses is itself a form compounds.
small whole number. 4. Atoms of one element cannot change into atoms
of another element. In a chemical reaction, atoms
only change the way that they are bound together
with other atoms.
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The Discovery of the Electron The Discovery of the Electron
J. J. Thomson (18561940 ) cathode rays

experiments
Thomson constructed a partially evacuated

glass tube called a cathode ray tube.
He found that a beam of particles, called

cathode rays, traveled from the negatively
charged electrode (called the cathode) to the
positively charged one (called the anode).
The Discovery of the Electron The Discovery of the Electron

J. J. Thomson measured the charge-to-mass
Thomson found that the particles that ratio of the cathode ray particles by deflecting
compose the cathode ray have the following them using electric and magnetic fields, as
properties: shown in the figure.
The value he measured was 1.76 103
They travel in straight lines. coulombs (C) per gram.
They are independent of the composition of the
material from which they originate (the cathode).
They carry a negative electrical charge.
Millikans Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge Millikans Oil Drop Experiment
of the Electron
American physicist By measuring the The measured charge
Robert Millikan strength of the electric on any drop was
(18681953), field required to halt always a whole-
performed his now the free fall of the number multiple of
famous oil drop drops, and by figuring 1.96 1019, the
experiment in which out the masses of the fundamental charge
he deduced the drops themselves of a single electron.
charge of a single (determined from their
electron. radii and density),
Millikan calculated the
charge of each drop.
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The Discovery of the Electron Millikans Oil Drop Experiment
J. J. Thomson had With this number in hand, and knowing

discovered the Thomsons mass-to-charge ratio for
electron, a negatively electrons, we can deduce the mass of an
charged, low mass
particle present within
electron:
all atoms.
The Structure of the Atom Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment
J. J. Thomson proposed that the negatively In 1909, Ernest Rutherford (18711937),

charged electrons were small particles held who had worked under Thomson and
within a positively charged sphere. subscribed to his plum-pudding model,
performed an experiment in an attempt to
confirm Thomsons model.
In the experiment, Rutherford directed the
positively charged particles at an ultra thin
sheet of gold foil.
This model, the most popular of the time,
became known as the plum-pudding model.
Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment
The Rutherford experiment gave an

unexpected result. A majority of the
particles did pass directly through the foil,
but some particles were deflected, and
some (approximately 1 in 20,000) even
bounced back.
Rutherford created a new modela modern

version of which is shown in Figure 2.7
alongside the plum-pudding modelto
explain his results.
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Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

Building on this idea, he proposed the
nuclear theory of the atom, with three
basic parts:
1. Most of the atoms mass and all of its positive
charge are contained in a small core called a
nucleus.
2. Most of the volume of the atom is empty
space, throughout which tiny, negatively
charged electrons are dispersed.
He concluded that matter must not be as 3. There are as many negatively charged
uniform as it appears. It must contain large electrons outside the nucleus as there are
regions of empty space dotted with small positively charged particles (named protons)
within the nucleus, so that the atom is
regions of very dense matter. electrically neutral.
The Neutrons The Neutrons
Although Rutherfords model was highly

The mass of a neutron is similar to that of
successful, scientists realized that it was
a proton.
incomplete.
However, a neutron has no electrical
charge.
Later work by Rutherford and one of his The helium atom is four times as massive as
students, British scientist James Chadwick the hydrogen atom because
(18911974), demonstrated that the it contains two protons
previously unaccounted for mass was due and two neutrons.
to neutrons, neutral particles within the Hydrogen, on the other hand, contains
nucleus. only one proton and no neutrons.
Subatomic Particles Subatomic Particles
All atoms are composed of the same

subatomic particles:
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
Protons and neutrons, as we saw earlier,
have nearly identical masses. The charge of the proton and the electron
The mass of the proton is 1.67262 1027 kg. are equal in magnitude but opposite in
The mass of the neutron is 1.67493 1027 kg. sign. The neutron has no charge.
The mass of the electron is 9.1 1031 kg.
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Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of

Protons Protons
The most important number to the identity

of an atom is the number of protons in its
nucleus.
The number of protons defines the
element.
The number of protons in an atoms
nucleus is its atomic number and is given
the symbol Z.
Periodic Table Periodic Table
Each element is identified by a unique

atomic number and with a unique
chemical symbol.
The chemical symbol is either a one- or

two-letter abbreviation listed directly below
its atomic number on the periodic table.
The chemical symbol for helium is He.
The chemical symbol for carbon is C.
The chemical symbol for Nitrogen is N.
Isotopes: Varied Number of Neutrons Isotopes: Varied Number of Neutrons
All atoms of a given element have the The relative amount of each different
same number of protons; however, they isotope in a naturally occurring sample of
do not necessarily have the same number a given element is roughly constant.
of neutrons. These percentages are called the natural
For example, all neon atoms contain 10 protons,
but they may contain 10, 11, or 12 neutrons. All abundance of the isotopes.
three types of neon atoms exist, and each has a
slightly different mass. Advances in mass spectrometry have allowed
accurate measurements that reveal small but
Atoms with the same number of protons significant variations in the natural abundance
but a different number of neutrons are of isotopes for many elements.
called isotopes.
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Isotopes: Varied Number of Neutrons Isotopes: Varied Number of Neutrons
The sum of the number of neutrons and

A second common notation for isotopes is
protons in an atom is its mass number and
the chemical symbol (or chemical name)
is represented by the symbol A
followed by a dash and the mass number
A = number of protons (p) + number of neutrons (n)
of the isotope.
where X is the chemical symbol, A is the

mass number, and Z is the atomic number.
Isotopes: Varied Number of Neutrons Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons
The number of electrons in a neutral atom is

equal to the number of protons in its nucleus
(designated by its atomic number Z).
In a chemical changes, however, atoms can
lose or gain electrons and become charged
particles called ions.
Positively charged ions, such as Na+, are called
cations.
Negatively charged ions, such as F, are called
anions.
Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the The Periodic Law
Periodic Table
In 1869, Mendeleev noticed that certain

groups of elements had similar properties.
He found that when elements are listed in
Mendeleev summarized these observations
order of increasing mass, these similar
in the periodic law:
properties recurred in a periodic pattern.
To be periodic means to exhibit a repeating When the elements are arranged in order of
pattern. increasing mass, certain sets of properties
recur periodically.
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Mendeleev organized the known elements

in a table. Mendeleevs table contained some gaps,
which allowed him to predict the existence
He arranged the rows so that elements
(and even the properties) of yet undiscovered
with similar properties fall in the same
elements.
vertical columns.
Mendeleev predicted the existence of an element
he called eka-silicon.
In 1886, eka-silicon was discovered by German
chemist Clemens Winkler (18381904), who
named it germanium.
Modern Periodic Table Modern Periodic Table
In the modern table, elements are listed in

order of increasing atomic number rather
than increasing relative mass.
The modern periodic table also contains
more elements than Mendeleevs original
table because more have been discovered
since his time.
Classification of Elements Metals
Elements in the periodic table are classified Metals lie on the lower left side and
as the following: middle of the periodic table and share
some common properties:
Metals They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Nonmetals They can be pounded into flat sheets (malleability).
Metalloids They can be drawn into wires (ductility).
They are often shiny.
They tend to lose electrons when they undergo
chemical changes.
Chromium, copper, strontium, and lead are
typical metals.
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Nonmetals Nonmetals
Nonmetals lie on the upper right side of the Nonmetals as a whole tend to
periodic table.
be poor conductors of heat and electricity.
There are a total of 17 nonmetals: be not ductile and not malleable.
Five are solids at room temperature (C, P, S, gain electrons when they undergo chemical
Se, and I ) changes.
One is a liquid at room temperature (Br)
Eleven are gases at room temperature (H, He, Oxygen, carbon, sulfur, bromine, and
N, O, F, Ne, Cl, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) iodine are nonmetals.
Metalloids Periodic Table
Metalloids are sometimes called semimetals. The periodic table can also be divided into
They are elements that lie along the zigzag main-group elements, whose properties
diagonal line that divides metals and tend to be largely predictable based on their
position in the periodic table.
nonmetals.
transition elements or transition metals,
They exhibit mixed properties. whose properties tend to be less predictable
Several metalloids are also classified as based simply on their position in the
semiconductors because of their periodic table.
intermediate (and highly temperature-
dependent) electrical conductivity.
The periodic table is divided into vertical

columns and horizontal rows.
Each vertical column is called a group (or
family).
Each horizontal row is called a period.
There are a total of 18 groups and 7 periods.
The groups are numbered 118 (or the A
and B grouping).
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Periodic Table Noble Gas
The elements within a group usually have

Main-group elements are in columns similar properties.
labeled with a number and the letter A The group 8A elements, called the noble
(1A8A or groups 1, 2, and 1318). gases, are mostly unreactive.
The most familiar noble gas is probably helium,
used to fill buoyant balloons. Helium is chemically
Transition elements are in columns stableit does not combine with other elements to
labeled with a number and the letter B (or form compoundsand is therefore safe to put into
balloons.
groups 312). Other noble gases are neon (often used in
electronic signs), argon (a small component of
our atmosphere), krypton, and xenon.
Alkali Alkaline Earth Metals
The group 1A elements, The group 2A elements are called the

called the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals.
are all reactive metals.
They are fairly reactive, but not quite as
A marble-sized piece of
sodium explodes violently
reactive as the alkali metals.
when dropped into water. Calcium, for example, reacts fairly vigorously
Lithium, potassium, with water.
and rubidium are also Other alkaline earth metals include magnesium
alkali metals. (a common low-density structural metal),
strontium, and barium.
Halogens Ions and the Periodic Table

The group 7A elements, the
halogens, are very reactive A main-group metal tends to lose
nonmetals. electrons, forming a cation with the
They are always found in same number of electrons as the
nature as a salt. nearest noble gas.
Chlorine, a greenish-yellow
gas with a pungent odor A main-group nonmetal tends to gain
Bromine, a red-brown liquid electrons, forming an anion with the
that easily evaporates into
same number of electrons as the
a gas
Iodine, a purple solid
nearest noble gas.
Fluorine, a pale-yellow gas
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Ions and the Periodic Table Ions and the Periodic Table
In general, the alkali metals (group 1A) For the main-group elements that form
have a tendency to lose one electron and cations with predictable charge, the
form 1+ ions. charge is equal to the group number.
The alkaline earth metals (group 2A) tend to
lose two electrons and form 2+ ions. For main-group elements that form anions
with predictable charge, the charge is
The halogens (group 7A) tend to gain one
equal to the group number minus eight.
electron and form 1 ions.
The oxygen family nonmetals (group 6A) Transition elements may form various
tend to gain two electrons and form 2 ions. different ions with different charges.
Ions and the Periodic Table Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an
Elements Atoms
Atomic mass is sometimes called atomic
weight or standard atomic weight.
The atomic mass of each element is
directly beneath the elements symbol in
the periodic table.
It represents the average mass of the
isotopes that compose that element,
weighted according to the natural
abundance of each isotope.
Atomic Mass Atomic Mass

Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 75.77%
chlorine-35 atoms (mass 34.97 amu) and
24.23% chlorine-37 atoms (mass 36.97 amu).
We can calculate its atomic mass:
In general, we calculate the atomic mass
with the equation:
Solution:
Convert the percent abundance to decimal
form and multiply it with its isotopic mass:
Cl-37 = 0.2423(36.97 amu) = 8.9578 amu
Cl-35 = 0.7577(34.97 amu) = 26.4968 amu
Atomic Mass Cl = 8.9578 + 26.4968 = 35.45 amu
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Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Mass Spectrometry

Atoms and Molecules
The masses of atoms and the percent

abundances of isotopes of elements are
measured using mass spectrometrya
technique that separates particles
according to their mass.
Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing The Mole: A Chemists Dozen

Them
When we count large numbers of objects,
As chemists, we often need to know the we often use units such as
number of atoms in a sample of a given 1 dozen objects = 12 objects.
mass. Why? Because chemical 1 gross objects = 144 objects.
processes happen between particles. The chemists dozen is the mole
(abbreviated mol). A mole is the measure of
Therefore, if we want to know the number material containing 6.02214 1023 particles:
of atoms in anything of ordinary size, we 1 mole = 6.02214 1023 particles
count them by weighing. This number is Avogadros number.
The Mole The Mole
First thing to understand about the mole is The second, and more fundamental, thing
that it can specify Avogadros number of to understand about the mole is how it
anything. gets its specific value.
For example, 1 mol of marbles corresponds The value of the mole is equal to the
to 6.02214 1023 marbles. number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of
1 mol of sand grains corresponds to pure C-12.
6.02214 1023 sand grains.
12 g C = 1 mol C atoms = 6.022 1023 C
One mole of anything is 6.02214 1023 units atoms
of that thing.
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Converting between Number of Moles and Converting between Mass and Amount
Number of Atoms (Number of Moles)
Converting between number of moles and To count atoms by weighing them, we need
number of atoms is similar to converting one other conversion factorthe mass of
between dozens of eggs and number 1 mol of atoms.
of eggs. The mass of 1 mol of atoms of an element is
For atoms, you use the conversion factor the molar mass.
1 mol atoms = 6.022 1023 atoms. An elements molar mass in grams per
The conversion factors take the following mole is numerically equal to the elements
forms: atomic mass in atomic mass units (amu).
Converting between Mass and Moles Converting between Mass and Moles
The molar mass of any element is the

conversion factor between the mass (in
grams) of that element and the amount (in
moles) of that element. For carbon,
The lighter the atom, the less mass in 1 mol

of atoms.
Conceptual Plan
We now have all the tools to count the
number of atoms in a sample of an element
by weighing it.
First, we obtain the mass of the sample.
Then, we convert it to the amount in moles using the
elements molar mass.
Finally, we convert it to the number of atoms using
Avogadros number.
The conceptual plan for these kinds of
calculations takes the following form:
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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CHEM 400 - L1 - Chapters 1 & 2

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What Do You Think?

Matter, If we limit ourselves only to scientific

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What Do You Think? Atoms and Molecules

Atoms and molecules determine how matter

Atoms and Molecules Atoms and Molecules

If we want to understand the substances

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The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Observations

The approach to scientific knowledge is empiricalit

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Hypothesis A Scientific Law

A hypothesis is a tentative interpretation or A brief statement that summarizes past

The results of an experiment may support a hypothesis or

2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Conceptual Connection 1.1

(a) A law is truth whereas a theory is a mere

(b) A law summarizes a series of related

(c) A theory describes what nature does; a

Conceptual Connection 1.1 The Classification of Matter

The States of Matter Structure Determines Properties

The atoms or molecules have different structures

The state of matter changes from solid to

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Solid Matter Solid Matter

Liquid Matter Gaseous Matter

Liquids ability to flow makes them assume These qualities make

The Classification of Matter by Components Classification of Matter by Components

A pure substance is made up of only one

A mixture, by contrast, is a substance

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Classification of Pure Substances Classification of Pure Substances

A compound is a substance composed of two

Classification of Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixture

Homogeneous mixtures Made of multiple substances, whose presence can

This categorization of mixture depends on how

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Homogeneous Mixture Separating Mixtures

A homogeneous mixture is one made of

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Separating Mixtures Separating Mixtures

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Physical and Chemical Changes Physical Change

Physical Change: When water boils, it

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Chemical Change Physical and Chemical Changes

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Physical and Chemical Properties Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and

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Energy Summarizing Energy

Potential energy is the energy

The Units of Measurement The Standard Units

In chemistry, unitsstandard quantities used to

The two most common unit systems are as

Metric system, used in most of the world

Scientists use the International System of

The Meter: A Measure of Length The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass

The SI unit of mass = kilogram (kg).

A second common unit of mass is

The International Bureau of Weights and Measures now defines it

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The Second: A Measure of Time The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature