C. Previous Exams (2009) Quiz 1 Quiz 2 Quiz 3 Quiz 4 Quiz 5 Answers to 2009 quizzes D. Previous Exams (2010) Quiz 1 Quiz 2 Quiz 3 Quiz 4 Quiz 5 Answers to 2010 quizzes C1 C4 ae C10 C13 C16 D-L D-5 D-8 D-i1 D-14 D-17Chapter 1 Introduction to Momentum and Heat Transfer 1.1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Fluids mechanics is a branch of physics that seeks to describe the physical phenomena that involve the flow of liquids and gases. The fundamental principles that apply to the analysis of sluid flows are the conservation laws and the transport laws. We will learn to understand the physical meaning and mathematical representation of such quantities as velocity, stress, pressure, momentum, and energy. We will approach the study of fluid mechanics in the engineering point of views. Although science and math are important tools for engineers we often need to use our experience and judgment to obtain a quick estimate to obtain a working solution. Approximation based on sound physical principles and good engineering judgments are invaluable to the engineer. This requires a thorough understanding of any studied system so that an engineer can organize and apply the obtained information to analyze and/or design similar systems on a different scale, We first review some of the basic definitions necessary when applying the conservation laws to study a system. © Rate’ ‘Rate’ implies an element of speed, how fast an event happens, and time, © ‘System! A system is any designated region of a continuum of fixed mass, The boundaries of a system may be deformable but they always enclose the same mass. In thermodynamics, the universe can be divided into two parts. One part is the system and the other partis the rest of the universe called the surroundings. Surroundings Boundary SY ma iN Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of the "universe", showing a system and the surroundings. © ‘Control volume! A ‘control volume' is also any designated region of a continuum except that it may permit matter to cross its boundaries. If the boundaries of a control volume are such that matter may not enter or leave the control volume, the control volume is identical to a system. In these respects, a ‘system! is a subset of a ‘control volume’. 1‘Equilibrium’ means that there are no spatial differences in the variables that describe the condition of the system, also called the ‘state’ of a system, such as its pressure, temperature, volume, and mass (P, 7, V, m), and that any changes which occur do so infinitesimally slowly. © ‘Stress’ In fluid mechanics, stress is force per unit area, There are two types of stresses: normal and shear stresses. As the names imply, normal stress results when a force acts normal to a surface and shear stress occurs when a force acts tangentially to the surface. 1.2 Transport Laws Transport laws govern the rate at which conserved quantities (such as mass, energy, momentum, ete.,) ate transported from one region to another in a continuous medium. These are called phenomenological laws because they are based upon observable phenomena and logic but they cannot be derived from more fundamental principles. The transport laws can be expressed in the general form as Driving force Rate of transport = ig Resistance = Conductance x Driving force The rate of transport of any conserved quantity Q per unit area normal to the direction of transport is called the fluc of Q. The driving force for the transport is the negative of the gradient (wwith respect to the direction of transport) of the concentration of Q denoted by Qe as shown in Figure 2.2-1. % Figure 2.2-1 The concentration gradient atx Figure 2.2-1 shows the concentration gradient of Q, we, which is the slope of the curve of Q, versus x. Since Q is transported from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, the slope is negative. The driving force is defined as the negative of the concentration gradient, -&, so that the flux is in the positive direction. 1-2Flux of Q in the x direction = —Kr- @. .2-D In this expression, Kr is the transport coefficient for the quantity Q. For molecular transport, Kris a property only of the medium. Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction Fourier's law (1822), developed from observed phenomena, states that the rate of heat transfer in the 'n' direction is proportional to the temperature gradient & hares where 1 is the direction of heat transfer and Onis the change of distance in the direction 1. Direction 'n’ nis the unit normal vector, and tis the unit tangential vector with the following properties, =a; K= a= cf, where C=~ Ak, or n= by q nd 13thermal conductivity in in’ direction, [W/m-K] area of surface perpendicular to n through which qy flows ‘The minus is a sign convention so that q,, is positive in the direction it transfers. In this text, we will usually consider the isotropic materials where the thermal conductivity k is independent of direction. For one dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction only, the heat transfer rate is then (1.2-2) or in terms of the heat flux g: a di (12-3) For system with constant density p and constant heat capacity Cp, equation (1.2-3) ean be written as bk 06,T)__ 4(00,) 12-4 , =~ a (12-4) Equation (1.2-4) has the form of equation (1.2-1) Flux of @ in the x direction = —Ky we (24) Qin this case is just the energy or heat so that q° = flux of Q in the x direction. Ky = cris called the thermal diffusivity in m’/s (ST). Q. = pC) 7’= concentration of energy. Example 1.2-1 - AA large slab with thermal conductivity & and thickness Z is maintained at temperatures and T, at the two surfaces. Determine the heat flux through this material at steady-state condition, 1-4Solution ~ ‘The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction normal to the slab with x = 0 at the left surface where the temperature is T). Since the temperature varies across the slab or the x-direction, a differential control volume with the same cross-sectional area A as that of the slab and a thickness dx will be considered. An energy balance (first law) is then applied to this differential control volume ee gee Ge 18 Fo * Den For steady state with no heat generation te yg = = constant de If the thermal conductivity & is a constant, === constant Example 1.2-2 —~ a ‘The inner and outer surface temperatures of a glass window 5 mm thick are 15 and 5°C. What is the heat loss through a window that is 1 m by 3 m on a side? The thermal conductivity of glass is 1.4 Wim-K. (1.5!) Solution - a : ws m7 IAG a= (LAyax oD 3 8,400 W " Fundamentals of Heat Transfer by Incropera and DeWitt 1sNewton’s Law of Viscosity Figure 2.2-2 Transport of momentum from lower plate to upper plate Figure 2.2-2 illustrates two horizontal parallel plates with a fluid between them. If the top plate is fixed while the bottom plate is moving with velocity Vo, there will be a transport of ‘momentum from the lower plate to the upper plate. Newton's equation for momentum transfer for constant density can be written as follows in a manner similar to equation (1.2-1): ms is the kinetic viscosity in m’/s (SI). If F; is the foree acting in the x-direction on the lower plate to make it move, it nmust also be the driving force for the transport of x-momentum, which flows from the faster to the slower fluid. The force F, is then given by Fa tnd 2-6) In this equation zy is the shear stress acting on the y-surface in the x-direction and A is the surface area of the plate. The shear stress is the negative of the momentum flux in the y direction = ae whe (12-7) Fyn a Example 1.2-3 —~ A slider bearing consists of a sleeve surrounding a cylindrical shaft that is Bee to move axially within the sleeve, Grease is in the gap between the sleeve and the shaft to isolate the metal surfaces and support the stress resulting from the shaft motion. The diameter of the shaft is 2.0 em and the sleeve have an inside diameter of 2.04 cm and a length of 20 em, 1-61) If you want to limit the total force on the sleeve to less than 2.0x10° dyne, when the shaft is moving at a velocity of 10 m/s, what should the viscosity of the grease be? 2) If the grease viscosity is 200 cP, what is the force exerted on the sleeve when the shaft is moving at 10 m/s? 3) The sleeve is cooled to a temperature of 35°C, and it is desired to keep the shaft temperature below 90°C. What is the cooling rate in W? Thermal conductivity of grease is 0.40 Wim’, Solutic roneneencee- 1) Determine the viscosity of the grease Since the gap is small compared to the diameter of the shaft, we can approximate the flow within the gap by a flow between two parallel plates. Let h = the gap, then A = (2.04 — 2.00)/2 = 0.02 om. The magnitude of the shear stress is given as (0.02.2 x10°) (2.04(20(1000) 2) If the grease viscosity is 200 P, what is the force exerted on the sleeve when the shaft is moving at 10 m/s? 1.2810" dyne ee wthadee = 7 (1000)(2.04)(20) _ 0.02 3) The sleeve is cooled to a temperature of 35°C, and it is desired to keep the shaft temperature below 90°C. What is the cooling rate in W? Thermal conductivity of grease is 0.40 Wime°K., The heat flux is given as, 9 29-35, = 110,000 W/m?-s 0.02/100 ‘The cooling rate Qis then @ = q"(DL) = (110,000)()(0.0204(0.2) = 1.4110 W 17Example 1.2-4- The velocity distribution for laminar flow between the two parallel plates is given by where c = 4000 s'm’”. The distance between the plates is 5 mm, and the origin is placed at the lower plate. Consider the flow of water with a viscosity of 0.0012 N-s/m?. Determine the ‘maximum magnitude of the shear stress and its location. Solution ~ Plotting out the velocity profile we obtain the following graph, which indicates that the highest change in velocity occurs at the top plate. This is the location of the maximum shear stress. We can confirm this result by using equation (1.2-7) to determine the shear stress (12-7) ‘The only variable in this equation is y. ‘The shear stress will have the maximum value when y is at its highest allowable value, which is 5 mm, Therefore (2)(0.0012)(4000)(0.005) = 0.048 Pa Example 1.2-5 aoceneeeeee Which of the quantities fisted below are flow properties and which are fluid properties? Pressure ‘Temperature Velocity Densit Stress Speed of sound Specific heat Pressure gradient Solution ~ — - Flow properties (exist only if the fluid is moving): Velocity, Stress, Pressure gradient, Fluid properties (exist independent of fluid motion): Pressure, Temperature, Density, Speed of sound, Specific heat,Chapter 1 1.3 Compressibility of Fluids ‘The bulk modulus (or bulk modulus of elasticity) is a property used to determine the change in volume of fluid when there is a change in pressure. The bulk modulus is defined as ___@ "ETE In this expression dP is the differential change in pressure required to create a differential change in volume d¥ of a volume #. For a given mass m of fluid where the volume and density can change, we have m= p 3 0=pdk + dp ‘Therefore d¥ I =-dplp ‘The bulk modulus can then be written as pas Ey dpip From the definition, the bulk modulus has the dimension of pressure. For an ideal gas we have R P=pter ar In this equation, Mw is the gas molecular weight and Ry is the universal gas constant, You should notice that some texts use the gas constant R in the ideal gas law where P= pkT R, Im this equation, the gas constant R = #- is equal to the universal gas constant divided by the gas molecular weight. In this text we always use the universal gas constant even though it might not have the subscript g. For an isothermal process with ideal gas, R, FX po constant p Mw ‘The bulk modulus for an isothermal process is then 1-9ge dplp For isentropic compression, the system is adiabatic and reversible. The change in internal energy is equal to the work supplied to the system dU = dW = Cdl =-PdV In this equation 7 = = volume. We now use ideal gas law to obtain an expression for Pd in terms of p, dg, T, and dT PV = R,I'=>- Pa¥ =~ RyTaviV = RT dip Therefore In terms of k, we have The bulk modulus for an isentropic with ideal gas is then B= —_= (constant)kg"!p = (constant)kp* = kP dplpExample 13-1 os In water the bulk modulus is nearly constant and has a value of 300,000 psi. Determine the percentage volume change in water due to a pressure change of 3000 psi Solution - ap _, dP dp doip E, p Since m= pV >0= pdV'+ Vdp ‘Therefore =-0.01 v 300,000 The percentage volume change is ~ 1%. Due to the compressibility of the fluid, disturbances generated at some point in the fluid will propagate at a finite velocity. The velocity at which these small disturbances propagate is called the acoustic velocity or the speed of sound. It can be shown from mass and ‘momentum balances that the speed of sound c is given by the following equatios In terms of the bullc modulus E, = “ the speed of sound is written as of For ideal gases undergoing an isentropic process, Ey = kP, we have ow - JRE Pp \ Mw1.4 Surface Tension Surface fension is caused by a net attractive force in the interior of the liquid. It can be defined with reference to Figure 1.4-1. A molecule I, located in the interior of the liquid, is attracted equally in all directions by its neighbors. However, a molecule S, located in the surface, is drawn toward the bulk of the liquid because there are no liquid molecules in the other direction to pull them outward, Therefore energy is required to bring an interior molecule to the surface to overcome the net attractive force into the bulk of the liquid. Molecule S Free surface Molecule | x W] gf] Newly crested surface tbh tt Liquid 7 — Figure 1.4-1 (a) Surface tension is caused by the attractive force between molecules; (b) newly created surface caused by moving the tension orthrough a distance L. Consider the surface tension oper unit distance IY of a line drawn in the surface as shown in Figure 1.4-1 (b). An amount of work or energy oWVZ is required to create an area WL of fresh surface due to the movement of the surface tension o over a distance Z. Therefore surface tension has units of energy per unit area or force per unit length. We now want to find the pressure difference p; ~ po between the pressure p; inside a liquid Groplet of radius r, shown in Figure 1.4-2, and the pressure p, of the surrounding vapor. Po Figure 1.4-2 Pressure difference across a curved surface. ‘The force duc to the pressure difference between the pressure inside the droplet and the vapor outside is given by (ipo)? ‘The force due to surface tension, which acts on the circumference of length 2nr, is equal to 1-12nro At equilibrium, these two forces are equal, giving, :~p_)n? = Inve p.~py = 72 . In general, the increase in pressure is given by ee aad ee In this equation, r; and r2 are the principle radii of curvature. By convention, the radius of curvature is positive on the concave side and negative on the convex side, The surface tension can be measured with the device shown in Figure 1.4-3. Sliding part » of frame Figure 1.4-1 Surface tension from liquid film’. A wire frame with one movable side is dipped into a liquid and carefully removed so that a film of liquid is formed in the space of the frame. The film tends to draw the movable part of the frame inward. The force required to resist this motion is measured by a weight. It has been observed that the ratio of the force to the length of the sliding part of the wire is always the same for a given liquid at a given temperature independent of the size of the frame. The liquid film in the frame has two surfaces (front and back), therefore the surface tension is given by mg on me. 2b In this equation, m is the mass of the weight and L the length of the sliding part of the frame, ‘The principle of the device shown in Figure 1.4-1 is easy to understand. However it is difficult to find the right weight to balance the liquid frame. One of the simplest method to ‘measure surface tension is the measurement of capillary rise as shown in Figure 1.4-4, A narrow capillary tube of inside diameter D, is dipped into a liquid that wets the tube. If the contact angle (the angle between the free surface and the wall) is @, the meniscus will be " Noel de Nevers, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineering, McGraw Hill, 9" Edition, 2005, pg. 15. 1-13approximated by part of the surface of a sphere with radius D_/(2cos 0). The surface tension is then given by pahD, ox PEND. 40030 Figure 1.4-4 Rise of a liquid in a capillary. Example 1.4-1 We observe that the liquid rises in the tube, above the level of the free surface with a contact, angle @ = 60°. We want to derive a mathematical model that relates the height of capillary rise h to the surface tension o and the inner capillary diameter De. This model (Fig. 1.4-4) ‘will suggest another method for measuring the surface tension”, Determine the height of capillary rise ifthe liquid is water with surface tension 6 = 0.072 Nim and capillary diameter Deis 107 m. Solution ---- If we approximate the meniscus as a part of a sphere surface with diameter D., then the two principal radii of curvature r; and r2 are equal to each other, and are given by ‘The pressure difference across the meniscus is then 4ocos() D, Pam —Ps= Ap= ‘Where p, is the pressure at the meniscus in the liquid phase. Since the system is in static equilibrium, the pressure p; must equal Pam, for these two pressures occur at points that lie in the same horizontal plane in the same fluid, Pst pah=py ‘Therefore ? Middleman, Stenley, An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, 1998, pg. 43. 114_ 4e-cos() PRA= Pam —Ps = Ap D. or pa 42.9080) pad, f= MOON Lm)e 0145 m= 1.45 om 0°kg/m? }9.8m. Capillary rise h= 1.45 em Example 1.4-2 - ‘A 10-mm diameter water jet discharges into the atmosphere. Determine the difference in pressure inside and outside the jet. Solution ~ Assuming a long jet with Z >> 2R, we have (P,~ Po)QRL) = o2L Therefore Pi-Po= oR From TK. ‘s program (Prop4), the surface tension of water at 25°C is 72.2 dynelom or 0.0722 N/m. Therefore Pi ~P, = 0.0722/.005 = 14.4 PaExample 1.4-3 —— A small steel rod with diameter D and length Z is placed on a surface of water. What is the maximum diamter that the rod can have before it will sink? The specific weight of steel is 490 Ibe Solution — rod length ob ot In order for the rod to float, the surface tension force must be greater or equal to the weight of the rod: ob > FD Ly In this equation, the surface tension force along the ends of the cylinder is neglected (02D << @2L). Thus the maximum diameter the rod could have for it to float is For water at 25°C, o = 0.0722 N/m = 4.95x10" Ibfift (T-K. ‘s Prop program) 2 4.95107)" _ ie setaene") = 0.0051 f= 0.061 in A standard paper clip has a diameter of 0.036 in, which is less than 0.061 in, which is less than 0.061 in. It should float, Partially unfold a paper clip and see if you can get it to float on water. 1-16Example 1.4-4 - ‘A diagnostic device makes use of a thin rectangular channel to draw in a sample of blood. The length of the channel is {and its width is 7. The separation of the channel is 2/1. The volumetric flowrate through the channel is given by 9 Q 2WH is Px) al, In this equation, po is the inlet and p, the outlet pressure. The blood sample has a viscosity of 3 eP and the plates forming the channel are separated by a distance of 1 mm, estimate the time for the sample of blood to travel a distance of 15 mm in the channel. Assume the blood has a surface tension of 0.06 N/m and that the contact angle is 70°.” Solution - For a rectangle channel with 2/7 separation distance, the two principal radii of curvature r1 and r2 are given by n=0 cos(9) ‘The pressure difference across the meniscus is then = ap = 28058) Pasn — Pu = Ap 77 Where py is the pressure at the meniscus in the liquid phase. The pressure po is equal peta, for these ‘to pressures occur at points that lie in the same horizontal plane in the same fluid. Therefore = Ap = 708), Po-pi= Ap Hf Substituting the above expression for p1 ~ p; into the equation for the volumetric flowrate we have 7 Fouricr R., Basic Transport Phenomena in Biomedical Engineering, Taylor & Francis, 2007, p. 157. 1-17= Waco) =a 3a Separating the variables and integrating of the above equation with the initial condition L(t = 0) = Owe obtain 1 2 4 pay = 3 Haeos(0) * 2He-cos(0) (3)(0.003)(0.015)" 0.0005)0.06)eosc70 P87 * 1-18Chapter 2 Fluid Statics 2.1 Variation of pressure with elevation Fluid at rest cannot support shearing stress. It can only support normal stress or pressure that can result from gravity or various other forces acting on the fluid. Pressure is an isotropic stress since the force acts uniformly in all directions normal to any local surface at a given point in the fluid, An isotropic stress is then a scalar since it has magnitude only and no direction, By convention, pressure is considered a negative stress because it is compressive, whereas tensile stresses are positive. The direction of pressure force is always pointing inward the control volume. We now investigate how the pressure in a stationary fluid varies with elevation z as shown in Figure 2.1-1, Figure 2.1-1 Forces acting on control volume AAz Applying a momentum or force balance in the z-direction on the control volume AAz we obtain BF, = ma, AP|x— AP zstz— pg Adz = 0 Dividing the equation by the control volume 4Az and letting Az approach zero we obtain lim Plouse —Pl, _ AP Az>0 Az a e414) ‘Equation (2.1-1) is the basic equation of fluid statics. It can be integrated if the density and the acceleration of gravity are known functions of elevation. We will assume g a constant sinoe the change in elevation is usually not significant enough for g to vary. The integration will depend on the variation of density. If the density is not a constant, a relation between and z or P must be obtained. For constant density fluids, equation (2.1-1) can be easily integrated 24