_ WH cos(8) _ . Bul aL wa dt Separating the variables and integrating of the above equation with the initial condition L(¢= 0) = 0 we obtain = 3a 2Hacos(0) 1-18,Chapter 2 Fluid Statics 2.1 Variation of pressure with elevation Fluid at rest cannot support shearing stress. It ean only support normal stress or pressure that can result from gravity or various other forces acting on the fluid. Pressure is an isotropic stress since the force acts uniformly in all directions normal to any local surface at a given point in the fluid. An isotropic stress is then a scalar since it has magnitude only and no direction, By convention, pressure is considered a negative stress because it is compressive, whereas tensile stresses are positive. The direction of pressure force is always pointing inward the control volume, We now investigate how the pressure in a stationary fluid varies with elevation z as shown in Figure 2.1-1. Figure 2.1-1 Forces acting on control volume AAz Applying a momentum or force balance in the z-direction on the control volume AAz we obtain BF, = ma; = AP|, ~ APloaas— pg Adz = 0 Dividing the equation by the control volume AAz and letting Az approach zero we obtain lim Phi “Pl. _ dP _ Az>0 0 Az iagicie: on Equation (2.1-1) is the basic equation of fluid statics. It can be integrated if the density and the acceleration of gravity are known functions of elevation. We will assume g a constant since the change in elevation is usually not significant enough for g to vary. The integration will depend on the variation of density. If the density is not a constant, a relation between p and z or P must be obtained. For constant density fluids, equation (2.1-1) can be easily integrated 21fap =~ pe [de = Pa Pi=- peter 21) This equation can also be written as Px + pgzz = Py + paz, = © = constant The sum of the local pressure P and static head pgz is called the potential ® that is constant at all points within a given incompressible fluid. Example 2.1-1.! ‘The manometer system shown in Figure 2.1-2 contains oil and water, between which there is a long trapped air bubble. For the indicated heights of the liquids, find the specific gravity of the oil. The two sides of the U-tube are open to the atmosphere. Figure 2.1-2 A manometer system with oil, air, and water Solution -. a boon ‘The pressure P; at the water air interface on the left side of the U-tube has the same value as the pressure P, in the water at the same elevation on the right side of the U-tube. Pi=Pam + poghy + paghe P2= Pam + Pag (ha ~ hs) If the pressure due to the weight of air is neglected compared to that of oil and water, we can determine the specific weight s, of oil as follow Posh = Pug (ha~ hs) = 80 = e = * Wilkes, J,, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engincers, Prentice Hall, 1999, p. 28 22If the fluid can be described by the ideal gas law then p = ou and equation (2.1-1) becomes (1-2) If the temperature is constant for all z, equation (2.1-2) can be integrated. fe ieee Hence @.1-3) For an isentropic process (adiabatic and reversible), the temperature and pressure are not constants, Therefore an expression for temperature as a function of pressure is required to integrate equation (2.1-2). We can accomplish this by applying an energy balance (First Law of Thermodynamics) to the system and then use ideal gas law to substitute volume Vin terms of pressure P and temperature 7. For an adiabatic system, the change in intemal energy is equal to the work supplied to the system dU = dW = CaT =~ Pav We now use ideal gas law to obtain an expression for PdV’ in terms of P, dP, T, and dT PV =RT => PdV + VdP = RdT => ~ PdV = VP ~ RAT ar ‘Therefore Cyd’ = VP — Ra dP —RaT P We can separate the variables to obtain ar RT 7 ae (Cyt Roa = $F dP Cy = (C—O 2.3Integrating the equation we obtain are RT, Separating the variables yields rear. Integrating over the limits we obtain k Mg. pienie nee Ma p 1 in ay ea) pe Kal Mg pucvng, kK RT, 0 1 k=l Mg pierre a parity RaL Me ay laren ta kt 1 MgAz Pro pi[i tot Mate From equation (2.1-4) A ede 7 OR PRM Mg pear pie “ar (4) = MEP. porn pore (2.1-4) (2.12) Me pur powve RT, i (2.1-5a) (2.1-5b) ‘The pressures in equation (2.1-5) can be replaced with the temperatures to give k=1 MgAz T, = Ty 1-8 : | k al 24.Example 2.1-2. Consider the manometer system shown on the 7 right, Sis the specific gravity. se0ee a) If the pressure of water at the left sphere (15 +5.0m cm above A) is 4 kPa, determine the pressure hee 200m at A. a on som] A s=096 b) If the pressure at A is 20 kPa, determine the fig pressure at C, te A Solution - a) The pressure at A is Pp =4498100,15 = 5.471 kPa b) The pressure at C is Pe =20- (13.6)(9.81)(0.1) — (0.68)(9.81)(0.2) = 5.324 kPa Example 2.1-3. If the gage pressure at C (interface between Hg and liquid with S = 0.8) is 3 kPa, determine the gage pressure in water at A. S08 Sa 59 Solution -— The gage pressure in water at A is Px =3000 + (1000)(9.81)(0.10.8 ~ 0.07x1.59 — 0.05) = 2202.4 Pa 25Example 2.1-4. ‘The U-tube shown below has legs of unequal internal diameters dy = 10 mm and dy = 5 mm, whieh are partly filled with immiscible liquids of density 1,800 kg/m’ and 1,200 kg/m’, respectively, and are open to the atmosphere at the top. a If an additional 1.0 cm? of the second liquid is added to the right-hand leg, determine the change in hi De Ifthe level hp falls by 0.5 cm, determine the rise in level hc. 3.em and 4 = 2m, determine the gauge pressure at the bottom of the manometer. 3 om and ha = 2.em, determine hy. Solution ~ a. ha will change by an amount A given by 1 (O25) = 5.093 em b. Level ie will rise by a distance 6. 3-05(5) -0.125em 5 a5] =o €. The gauge pressure Pyq, at the bottom of the manometer is Prox = (1.8)(0.03)(9.81) = 0.53 kPa = 530 Pa If ic =3 em and ha = 2 om, we have 530 = (1800)( 4p)(9.81) + (1200)(.02)(9.81) p= 22458 9.0167 m = 1.67 em ~ (1800)(9.81) 2-6Chapter 2 2.2 Buoyaney forces. Archimedes’s law states that the buoyant force exerted on a submerged body is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid and acts in direction opposite to the gravity force. Consider the buoyant force on a submerged circular cylinder of height jt and cross- sectional area 4, shown in Figure 2.2-1 Figure 2.2-1 Buoyant force on a submerged cylinder. Making a force balance in the vertical (2) direction, the net upward force due to the difference between the opposing pressures on the bottom and top surfaces is Fy=(P + pgh— PA = pgha This net upward force is the buoyant force (F) that is the weight of the displaced liquid. Thus the effective net weight of a submerged body is its actual weight less the weight of an equal volume of the fluid. This result also applies to a body submerged in a fluid that is subject to any acceleration. For example, a solid particle of volume 7, submerged in a fluid within a centrifuge at a point r where the angular velocity is @ is subjected to a net radial force equal to (p.— prarrP,. Example 2.2-1 a so a Consider the situation shown in Figure 2.2-1, in which a person and a rock rest on a boat that floats in a lake. The rook is then pushed off the boat. If the rock sinks to the bottom, determine whether the water level in the lake will rise, fall, or remain constant, relative to the initial level in (a). Figure 2.2-1 A person with (a) and without (b) a rock in a boat floais in a lake. 27Solution — Let the mass of the boat and the person be My and the mass of the rock be M,. Let V; be the initial volume of water displaced then (My + Mg = Vipg 1) ‘When the boat does not contain the rock, the volume of water displaced by the boat is given by Meg = Vops (2) Since the rock sinks, the weight of the water displaced by the rock no longer suffices to support the weight of the rock. Therefore Mg>Vipg 3) Adding (E-2) and (E-3) we have (My + Mg > (Vs + Vide G4) Comparison (E-1) with (E~4) shows that Vi>Vo+¥, Since the volume of water in the lake is constant, and the total displaced volume is reduced, the level of the surface falls. Example 2.2-2. A rowboat is in a circular swimming pool with diameter 10 ft. The person in the rowboat throws overboard a 100 Ibm, block of wood, SG = 0.8. Determine The change in the water level in the pool. Water density is 62.3 Ib/f’, Solution - In the boat, the part of the boat's displacement due to the block is m 1001bm v ba Prag 62.3 bm / f° 605 ft? In the water, the displacement due to the block is 1001bm Prue 2.3 1bm/ 80 So the water level stays the same, 2-82.3 Pressure in Response to External Forces ‘The only stress that can exist in a fluid at rest is pressure. This also applies to fiuids in motion provided there is no relative motion within the fluid since the shear stresses are determined by the velocity gradients or relative motion within the fluid. However the fluid will experience additional normal force if the motion involves acceleration. Vertical Acceleration Consider the cylinder of fluid illustrated in Figure 2.3-1. The fluid is accelerating upward with an acceleration of a,. Applying a momentum or force balance in the z-direction on the control volume AAz we obtain EF, = ma, AP|_ ~ AP assa.~ pgAdz = pa,Adz Dividing the equation by the control volume AAz and letting Az approach zero we obtain, lim Pj, aP aa =— + ay) (2.3-1 Ac>0 a ate oa af Plows ‘AZ z Pl, Figure 2.3-1 Vertical accelerating fluid. The effect of a superimposed vertical acceleration (a,) is equivalent to an increase in the gravitational acceleration by a. In general, an acceleration (a;) in the i direction will result in a pressure gradient within the fluid in the ~ direction, of magnitude — a; oP (23-2) 29Horizontally Accelerating Free Surface y Figure 2.3-2 Horizontally accelerating car. Suppose we have a liquid in the bed of a pickup truck that accelerates in the x-direction with constant acceleration a,. The pressure within the fluid is now a function of both x and y since it experiences both the acceleration of gravity in the y-direction and the car acceleration in the x-direction. ap. , ap P=Ptr,y) 3 aP = Dae + S Py) => ox a” dP = — paxdk ~ pady The slope of the water surface can be determined since dP|, = 0 along the surface. — paxds|s — pady|s=0 Therefore ‘The slope of the surface is independent of fluid properties. 2-10Surface of a Rotating Liquid ‘Consider a liquid in a cylindrical container, as shown in Figure 2.3-3. The system is at steady state with an angular velocity « (radian/s), and the axis is vertical. The pressure within the fluid is a function of 2 and r, therefore Py aP P= P(r, 2) => aP = oa 2-12Example 2.3-27, —— ueeeenseote ‘A vertical U-tube manometer is open to the atmosphere and contains a liquid that has an SG of 0.87 and a vapor pressure of 450 mmiig at the operating temperature. The vertical tubes are 4 in, apart, and the level of the liquid in the tubes is 6 in, above the bottom of the manometer. The manometer is then rotated about a vertical axis through its centerline. Determine the required rotation rate (in rpm) for the liquid to start to boil. Figure £2.3-1 A rotating U-tube manometer. Solution ‘The pressure P(r, 2) within the manometer fluid is a function of both r and z. Therefore Lark oP ae = profdr — pede For a rotating fluid, the pressure P) at r= 0 is the minimum. Therefore P; = vapor pressure of liquid for it to boil “5 a * f dP = pb [rar — pg” dz R Pa Pi = pai" ~ paler —21) Solving for the rotation speed @, we have a + 8G -21)] 2 [a 450) x 1.013 10° aaa +980 x6 x 2.54 | = 3.39710" rad/s © @x2.549 760 x0.87 nae | pageaees @= 195 rad/s = 1861 rpm Darby, R., Chemical Engincering Fiuid Mechanics, Marcel Dekker, 2001, p. 103, 243The pressure gradient required for water flowing through a straight horizontal %4 in. ID tube at a rate of 5 gpm is 1.4 psi/ft. Consider this same tube coiled in an expanding helix with a vertical axis. Water enters the bottoms of the coil and flows upward at a rate of 5 gpm. A mercury manometer is connected between two pressure taps on the coil, one near the bottom where the coil radius is 8 in., and the other near the top where the coil radius is 14 in, The taps are 1.6 ft apart in the vertical direction, and there is a total of 6 ft of tubing between the ‘two taps. (1 ft = 7.48 gal). Note: pressure must be in unit of lb/ft”, ¢ = 32.2 ft/s’, Ibe = 32.2 Ibm-ft/s*. a) Determine the pressure difference between the two taps due to gravity force only. b) Determine the pressure difference between the two taps due to centrifugal force only. ©) Determine the pressure difference between the two taps due to frictional loss only. Solution — a) The pressure difference between the two taps due to gravity force only is APs = (62.4)(32.2)(1.6)/32.2 = 99.84 Ibp/ft? b) The pressure difference between the two taps due to centrifugal force only is AP, = pin(rriri) fp prodr = pf. ar —__ OY __ 39.68 tus (7.48)(60)(1r)(0.25712) AP, = (62.4)(32.68) In(14/8)/32.2 = 1,158.3 Iby/ft ©) The pressure difference between the two taps due to frictional loss only is APs = (1.4)(6)(144) = 1,209.6 lb/ft 214Chapter 3 Fluid Properties 3.1 Introduction ‘A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when a shear stress is applied to it, Figure 3.1-1 shows the fluid motion when a force F is applied to a plate on top of the fluid causing the plate to move. As long as there is movement of the plate, the fluid continues to flow or deform since the fluid next to the plate is under the action of a shear stress equal to the force F divided by the surface area of the plate. When a fluid is at rest (no relative motion between the fluid elements), there can be no shear stress. Plate F Figure 3.1-1 Fluid moves with the plate. Both liquids and gases are fluids even though they are quite different at the molecular level. In liquids the molecules are held close together by significant attraction forces; in gases molecules are relatively far apart and have very weak attraction forces. Figure 3.1-2 shows a PY diagram for water where the isotherms are plotted with the isotherm of highest temperature on the top. An isotherm is a curve that relates pressure to volume at a constant temperature. As temperature and pressure increase, the differences between liquid and gas become less and less, until the liquid and gas become identical at the critical point. For water the critical point occurs at 374.14°C. and 22.09 MPa. Because of their closer molecular spacing, liquids normally have higher densities, viscosities, and other physical properties than gases. ae 2 a io ee ‘iho aaa lt ecg mace Volume (mika) re 3.1-2 PY diagram for water. 31