Example 8,3-3 ~ Hydrogen at a temperature of 20°C and an absolute pressure of 1380 kPa enters a compressor where the absolute pressure is increased to 4140 kPa. If the mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 55 percent on the basis of an isothermal and reversible operation, calculate the pounds of hydrogen that can be handled per minutes when the power supplied to the pump is, 224 kW. You can use ideal gas law and neglect kinetic energy effects. Solution For isothermal compression, the work required to compress the gas is Bh RDB MiP OM R Using R = 1545 (Ibfft)ft'/Ibmol’R yields 5)(293 x1.8) |, 4140 2.016 1380 = 444,040 felbfflbm ‘The actual power received by the gas in English unit is given by (224)(0.55)(550)(60) Pe om 0.746 445,000 ft-lbfimin Note: We have use the conversion 1 hp = 0.746 kW = 550 ft-lb Since Power = ri'w, the pounds of hydrogen that can be handled per minute is Power _ 5,445,000 w 444,040 = 12.2 Ib/min 8.20Chapter 9 Flow Measurement and Control Valves 9.1 Introduction We will study some of the more common devices for measuring flow rate in conduits, including the pitot tube, venturi meter, nozzle, orifice meter, and rotameter. These devices can be analyzed using the mass, energy, and momentum balances. We also study briefly control valves since they are frequently employed in conjunction with the measurement of flow rate to provide a means of controlling flow. More details treatment of control valves will be presented in the process control course CHE426. 9.2 The Pitot Tube Air h | Movable ation point Figure 9.2-1 Pitot static tube. ‘The pitot-static tube is a device for measuring v7), the local velocity at a given position in the conduit, as shown in Figure 9.2-1. The pitot tube offers negligible resistance loss in the conduit. Application of Bemoulli’s equation between points (1) and (2) gives, AalyoBalyg 9.2-1) a rer @24) In this equation, point 1 is in the stream just upstream of the probe and point 2 is just inside the open end of the probe (the stagnation point). Since the velocity af the stagnation point is zero, we can solve for the free stream velocity v). C4 =)" 2 From hydrostatic, the pressure difference between point 2 and point I is P2-P1 = pgh 9-1‘The velocity at the particular transverse location where the pitot tube is placed is given by gh)? vt Example 9.2-1 - ‘The speed of a boat is measure by a Pitot tbe. When traveling in seawater (p ~ 64 Ib, the tube measures a pressure of 2.5 Ibifin’ due to the motion. What is the speed of the boat and the rise in level h of the seawater inside the tube. |e) nH Solution — ‘We choose a coordinate fixed with the boat, then the water is moving toward the boat at a velocity v;. Application of Bernoulli's equation between points (1) and (2) gives Ayal 2a vP= 2 4g(h +d) p20 pi Since P, = P2 + ped, we have x ial 4 + gd+ tup= 7 + gh ted Pe 2 Pp Solving for the velocity yields vi = 2gh)'? The pressure due to the motion causes a rise in the seawater within the tube: AP = gh, Therefore ‘The speed of the boat is vy = (2x32.2%5,625)! = 19.0 fs " Witkes, James, Fluid Mechenics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, 1999, pg. 94 929.3 The Venturi Meter and the Flow Nozzle Figure 9.3-1 The venturi meter and the flow nozzle. ‘The pitot tube provides the local or point velocity at a given location in the conduit. We need to integrate the velocity at various points over the cross sectional area of the conduit to obtain the volumetric flow rate, Other devices can provide the flow rate from a single measurement, These devices are sometimes referred to as obstruction meters, since they rely on the pressure drop across the obstruction introduced by the meters. Two such devices are the venturi meter and the flow nozzle shown in Figure 9.3-1. The flow rate can be obtained from the pressure drop between point 1 upstream of the constriction and point 2 at the position of the minimum area. From the conservation of mass, we have piViAs = paVoAa For constant density: Vid; = V2d2. Applying Bemoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 yields Raly-Balyten p 2 pata In these equations, we have assumed uniform velocity over the cross-section area (plug flow), Let D and d be the conduit diameter and the minimum diameter at the throat of the ‘venturi or nozzle respectively, we have -n& = Fs, where p= < 2 ‘Neglecting friction loss and substituting / = V2 into Bemoulli’s equation yields Belay fal py, 2 zh Solving for the velocity at the throat gives = [2h = J-20%, =F) a 0.3-1L) pa- Bp) pl- Bp) 9-3‘The actual velocity is smaller than the ideal value given by equation (9.3-1) due to friction Joss and assumption of plug flow. Therefore the actual throat velocity is usually calculated (9.3-2) Jn this equation, Ca is the discharge coefficient with a value of less than 1 (Cy <1) that must be determined from experiment. For a given flow meter, the discharge coefficient is a function of Reynolds number in the conduit. For high Reynolds number (Vac > 10°), the discharge coefficient is very close to 1 for both the venturi and the flow nozzle. You should note the definition used for the Reynolds number in reading the chart to obtain the discharge coefficient since the Reynolds number could be based on the pipe diameter D or the throat diameter d, The discharge coefficient for the venturi, as well as for the nozzle and orifice, can be described as a function of Ne and by the general equation b Ca= Cat (93-3) ie Table? 9.3-1a lists the parameters Co, b, and m for a venturi meter, a nozzle, and an orifice meter, Table 9.3-1b lists the applicable range of Reynolds number and the approximate accuracy for these meters, ‘Table 9.3-1a Values for Discharge Coefficient Parameters in Equation (9.3-3) Device Co b n Venturi (Machined inlet) 0.995 0 0 Nozzle (ASME long radius) 0.9975 6.5385 05 Orifice (comer taps) 0.5959 + 0.031287" — 0.1848" 91.7185 0.75 Table 9.3-1b ble Range and Accuracy of Equation (9.3-3) __Devi D, in (mm) B Nrep % error Venturi (Machined inlet) 2-10 (50-250) 0.4-0.75 210-10 tf Nozzle (ASME long radius) | 2-16 (50-400) 0.25-0.75 1o%10" | 320 Orifice (comer taps) 2-36 (50-900) 0.2-0.6 10-10 | 206 In Table 9.3-1, D is the nominal pipe diameter, B is the ratio of the throat to pipe diameters, and Ngep is the pipe Reynolds number. The error indicates the percentage accuracy of the discharge coefficient Cy. * Darby, R., Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Marcel Dekker, 2001, p. 297 9-4Example 9.3-1° Figure £9,3-1 Venturi meter A liquid of density p flows through a pipe of cross-sectional area 4, and then passes through the venturi meter shown in Figure E9.3-1, whose throat cross-sectional area is a. A manometer containing mercury (p,.) is connected between an upstream location (point 1) and the throat (point 2), and registers a difference in mercury levels of Ah. Derive an expression giving the volumetric flow rate Q in terms of 4, a, g, Ah, p, Pm, and Ca. If the diameter of the pipe and the throat of the venturi are 6 in. and 3 in. respectively, what flow rate (gpm) of iso-pentane (p= 38.75 Ib/ft°) would register a Ah of 20 in, on a mercury (specific gravity = 13.57) manometer? If the discharge coefficient is 0.98, determine the corresponding pressure drop in psi. Solution - ‘From the conservation of mass, we have PVA=prvra For constant density: VA = Voa, Neglecting friction loss and applying Bernoulli's equation between points | and 2 yields Rylys Bal ve eee Pp Substituting V2 = 4 V into Bemoulli’s equation yields a . -Ayt (4) ve p 2\a. Solving for the velocity inside the pipe gives * Wilkes, James, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, 1999, pg. 94 9-5‘The volumetric flow rate is then O=CyAV\= Cyd ‘The pressure drop is given by AP = (Pm — p)gAh 20) 4 bee AP = (13,5762.4 = 38.75)(32.2) (23) = 4.34%10" Ib-fus The pressure drop in psi is then Ap = 43410" 9 35 psi 62.2144) The volumetric flow rate of iso-pentane is Q= Cad 2 7 = 0992 (£) | 28434%10" 9 36 9s = 1057 gpm 42) Y@ssna6—Chapter 9 9.4 The Orifice Meter Vena contracta area Figure 9.4-1 Orifice meter. Figure 9.4-1 shows one of the simplest flow measuring devices for a pipeline: the orifice meter. A plate with a hole of area 42 is inserted into a pipe of cross-sectional area Aj that is greater than the hole area. The major difference between the orifice meter and the venturi and nozzle meters is the fact that the fluid stream leaving the orifice contracts to an area called the vena contractor area, which is smaller than the orifice area. This happens because of the inward radial momentum possessed by the fluid, As it converges into the orifice hole it will continue to flow inward for a distance downstream of the orifice before the fluid starts to expand to fill the pipe. For highly turbulent flow, the vena contracta area is about 60 percent of the hole area. Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 yields In these cquations, we have assumed uniform velocity over the cross-section area (plug flow). Let D and d be the pipe diameter and the minimum diameter at the vena contracta, we have @ a V ae = PV 2, where B= a Neglecting friction loss and substituting V1 = (V2 into Benoulli’s equation yields ndP oN ga lye = + = BVP = = V2 S p 2 BYE = oVi Solving for the velocity at the vena contracta gives 1 dP] ae — 97‘The actual velocity is smaller than the ideal value given by equation (9.4-1) due to friction loss and assumption of plug flow. Therefore the actual velocity is usually calculated from [>t Z| (9.4.2) In this equation, Ca is the discharge coefficient with a value of less than 1 (Cy < 1) that must be determined from experiment. The discharge coefficient is a function of Reynolds number and beta ratio. If 4, is the hole area, the mass flow rate through the orifice is given by a ee 2 m= PrVracto Incompressible Flow For incompressible flow, equation (9.4-3) becomes (9.4-4) Compressible Flow Assuming ideal gas properties, we can substitute the density as a function temperature and pressure ( p= 2) into the integral fe obtain RT np (04-5) If the flow is adiabatic and reversible, the change in intemal energy is equal to the work supplied to the system dU = dW = Cdl =~ Pav ‘We now use ideal gas law to obtain an expression for PdV in terms of P, dP, T, and aT PV = RT = PdV + VP = RdT > - PdV = VdP - RAT RT Therefore Cyd = VaP -RaT = “~ dP - RAT We can separate the variables to obtain RT a a (Cy + RT = = dP = Cy =(Cp- CS ( Dal = - aP => Com = (Cp CO 98a ka T eee obtai in Integrating the equation we y EL P\t : 2) into equation (9.4-5) yields Substituting the expression T= a(2 MnP P dP _ R pr TdP _ RT, (A hp Min Po OM et et Re | 0.46) The mass flow rate is then gs pe ae pA, ( 2RT.A YW RYE = pVrseuide ane | A) Cote ceence ape (Es PB 2 4-7) FY, G- BY" (pxk-D), Since (o.-48), n= Cabrd ( 2h ) (4) A 2 However, the compressible mass flow rate is normally obtained from the equation for incompressible flow with a correction factor Y for the fluid expansion 992p(R - 1p 2 m= read?” | (0.48) ‘The correction factor Y is found experimentally for radius taps to be Yel- a + 0.356) (9.4-9) 5D Pipe taps eee eeeeaeEeanEaEELSy Flange taps in. — es —> Fi ae Corner taps SEO EERE ah nel TE ” pads a Figure 9.4-2 Orifice pressure tap locations. There are various pressure tap locations as shown in Figure 9.4-2, They are radius taps (1 D upstream and D/2 downstream); flange taps (I in. upstream and downstream); pipe taps (2.5 D upstream and 8 D downstream); and comer taps. Radius taps are the most common while comer taps and flange taps are the most convenient since they can be installed in the flange that holds the orifice plate so that no additional taps through the pipe wall are required, KK Control “volume \ Vena contracta area Figure 9.4-3 Control volume for the calculation of loss coefficient. ‘The friction loss in an orifice meter causes a pressure drop P: — P3. Consider a control volume to be the region from a point just upstream of the orifice plate (P)) to a downstream position where the stream has filled the pipe (P3) as shown in Figure 9.4-3, the momentum balance becomes = tit (Vu — Vs) + Pio + Pat — Ao) - PsA 9-10For incompressible flow / = Vs, we have Pq + P2(A1 ~ Ao) — P34 =0 (9.4-10) From the equation for the mass flow through the orifice 2 m= pV2Ao= cus 208-2] (94-4) ‘We can solve for the pressure P: nro (EP) Ch Substituting P2 into equation (9.4-10) yields 21 gt Pido + Pi(A1— Ao) — ee lea ~A)~ PsA, =0 4 ate Ai(Pi=Ps)~ EEF ynag0 Dividing the equation by A, and solving for (Py ~ Ps) yields Py Py OB DOB BP OE cs 2 2 ‘The loss coefficient for the flow through an orifice can be estimated as pap Ke= UAB) Ch Example 94-1 -m-e----——e nee A cylindrical tank of diameter 1 m has a sharp-edged orifice at the bottom so that the vena contracta area is 63 percent of the hole area Ifthe hole diameter is 2 em, how long will it take an initial dept of acetone to drain completely from the tank”? Solution = Applying Bemoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 yields ? Wilkes, James, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, 1999, pg. 95, 9-1Ralpteg-Balyg p 2 p 2 Since P; = P2 = Paim and V; = 0, we have Ya= gh)” Application of the mass balance on the liquid inside the tank gives Sas == 0.630242 =~ 0.6342 (2gh)"? Separation of variables yields dh ae ~o.0(2 +) ae ide Solving for the time we have 1 1 = 249 Seine . t (e ‘) 0.63(2g)'" 22 ao 0.63(2x 9.81)" t= 202! (cts) 1s assas 0.02) 0.63(2 «9.81? Example 9.4-2° ‘An otifice meter was calibrated in air, and later putin service to monitor the flow of helium, The user of the meter was unaware that the calibration had been done in air. What would be the error in the reported flow rate? Solution ‘The volumetric flow rate is given by Q=V2A0= Cao Fora given meter @- ayn pi? Q=c sino c= cts] > Middleman, Stanley, An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, 1998, p. 499 9-12When the meter is calibrated in air we have = CBaBY” = cy (Py- Py! ‘When the meter is used with helium we have o= cha a2 (2) s-Py!*= Cu 2) (\-P:"? If the meter is calibrated in air and we use it for helium without correcting the reading, we will find smaller by a factor (e)’-(@y"-»7 Therefore, the calculated value Q= Cyi(P; ~ P2)"? must be increased by a factor of 2.7 Example 9.4-3 ~ A horizontal 2-in ID pipe caries kerosene at 100°F with density of 50.5 Ib/f? and viscosity of 3.18 Ib/ftchr, For a mass flow rate of 560 Ib/min, specify the diameter of the comer taps orifice so that 15 in, of mercury is measured by the manometer. The discharge coefficient for the orifice can be estimated with Reynolds number based on the hole diameter by b Ca= Cot Re The parameters in this equation are given by the following table . Device Co Bb n Orifice (comer taps) 0.5959 + 0,0312f"' — 0.1848" 91.716" 0.75Solution -- ‘The pressure difference across the orifice meter is given as Pi— Pa = RialOm — POS The mass flow rate is given by equation (9.4-4) pa cus 208] = Cad [Petes 28] 044) ‘This equation can be rearranged to 1 wa 20H Pm = PIS | -ex [Perigo 2 The pipe area Ai is =(2) = 0.0218 ft, We have two unknowns and two equations: equation (9.4-4) and Ca = Cn + —.-, Assuming Ca= 0.62 yields 15 een 250.5% 5 (846.4 ~50.5) «32.2 “ep 7 (0-62K0.0218) 2.79 = (2) > De We need to check the assumed value of Cs —VDsp sin _ __(4Y(560/60) Ss = 135x108 HRD, 2(1.2/12)3.18/3600) Ne =0.6 > b=9LTIP = 25,5738 7 Coo= 0.5959 + 0.03128" — 0.1846 = 0.6035 = Cy =0.61 Since the calculated Cy (0.61) is closed to the assumed value of 0.62, we accept 1.2 in. as the diameter of the orifice meter. 9-14Chapter 9 9.5 The Rotameter Tapered tube Annular 3s | areaa_ Py Figure 9.5-1 Section of a rotameter Figure 9.5-1 shows a section of a flow-measuring device called a rotameter. This meter consists of a gradually tapered glass tube that contains a solid float made of an inert material such as stainless stecl, glass, or tantalum. The float is often stabilized by helical grooves incised into it. The grooves induce the float to rotate and that gives the meter the name. Other shapes of floats including spheres may be employed in the smaller rotameters. The venturi meter, flow nozzle, and orifice meter introduce a fixed reduction of flow area that results in pressure drop as a function of flow rate. In contrast, the rotameter depends on the change of an annular area between the float and the tube, which is a function of the vertical location of the float, to yield an essentially fixed pressure drop at all flow rates, The annular area behaves like an orifice of variable area. We can determine the volumetric flow rate by applying the conservation laws to the control volume shown in Figure 9.5-1. ‘Mass balance: th = pV\A= pV 2a (5-1) Neglecting friction loss the energy balance (Bernoulli's equation) yields Balytege p 2 Palytiga (95-2) p 2 Application of the momentum equation with the positive direction point upward gives (Pi~ Pad + ti Vi — ti V2—[(@2-21)A — Miprlog-Mg=0 — (9.5-3) In this equation, M is the mass of the float and pris the density of the float, Therefore the term [(<2 — 21)4 — Mipi|pg is just the weight of the fluid. We have assumed negligible change in the tube area across the float. Substituting (P; - P2) in terms of kinetic and potential energy from equation (9.5-2) into the momentum equation we have 9-15paler 21)4 + fare VE)A + th Fy — mi Va — paler 24 -1e{\-2) Py Canceling out the term pg(z2~21)A yields 1 v2 V+ tn Vr ~ th Vo — Me| 1--2-| =0 2 Pr Substituting V4 in terms of V from the mass balance gives 2 1 pave 4, —v2)+ pave paris ee 2] 2 @ a ? 1 a Satna Solving for the velocity V; yields 2, y= {2Ma= 2) (5-4) ot) @ The volumetric flow rate Q is 2Mg(l-p! o= ar, =a|2Me-P! ep) (055) He) : In the cases when a << A and p << py, equation (9.5-5) is simplified to aM)” ae (95-6 . { ad } : Since a and A depend on z, the flow rate can be determined from the position of the float, In practice, the rotameter is calibrated before use, Note that the reading on the rotameter is taken at the highest and widest point of the float. 9-16Example 9.5-1 - A rotameter is used to measure air flow rate. The reading is 2.3 ft'/s for air at 100°F and 720 mmig. However, the meter is calibrated with air at 60°F and 760 mmlg. Determine the corrected air flow rate, Solution ‘We use equation (9.5-6) since air density is much less than float density o- of 24} (95-6) Coat =a Pret In this expression, Qua is the reading with meter calibrated at 60°F and 760 mmlg which is 2.3 ft'/s. The corrected reading is \we J = 245 £015 760 ,, 100+ 460 =2326 sen) 2 720 60+ 460 Pp 9-179.6 Control Valves Control valve is used to achieve a certain flow rate through a system. Let us consider a heat exchanger in which a process stream is heated by condensing steam as shown in Figure 9,6- 1. A heat exchanger is a device that allows energy transfer between the hot and the cold streams. Heat exchangers can be classified as indirect contact type and direct contact type. Indireot contact type heat exchangers have no mixing between the hot and cold streams, only energy transfer is allowed. A control valve is installed on the hot or steam line. Steam Control valve T(t) Heat stream Figure 9.6-1 An indirect contact heat exchanger. ‘The heat exchanger is used to heat the process fluid from some inlet temperature 7;(f) up to a certain desired outlet temperature 7(/). The energy supplied to the process stream comes from the latent heat of condensation of the steam. In this process we want to maintain the outlet process temperature at its desired value regardless of any variation in other variables such as the process stream flow rate or the inlet process temperature. One way to accomplish this objective is by measuring the outlet temperature 7(¢), comparing it to the desired value call the set point. Any deviation from the set point can be corrected by adjusting the control valve to change the steam flow to the heat exchanger. A possible control system for the heat exchanger is shown in Figure 9.6-2. A sensor such as a thermocouple, a thermistor, or any resistance temperature device can measure the outlet process stream temperature. This sensor is usually connected to transmitter, which amplifies the output from the sensor and sends it to a controller. The controller compares the signal with the set point and decides the action necessary to maintain the desired temperature. The controller then sends a pneumatic or electrical signal to the final control element, which is the control valve in this case, to adjust the steam flow rate accordingly. The control valves acts as a variable resistance in the steam line since the flow rate depends on the valve stem or plug position. To regulate flow, the flow capacity of the control valve varies from zero when the valve is closed to a maximum when the valve is fully opened. Part of the job of a control engineer is to size control valves for a given service.SP Set point _ Valve stem | Steam Temperature controler Control valve Temperature transmitter Figure 9.6-2 Heat exchanger control system using control valve. Incompressible Flow A control valve is simply an orifice with a variable area of flow. The volumetric flow rate for incompressible fluid through an orifice is given by ve anf | (0.6-1) = Cade] fee (aes In this equation AP is the pressure drop across the orifice. For a control valve, the flow area and geometric factors, the density of the reference fluid, and the friction loss coefficient are combined into a single coefficient C, to provide the following formula for the liquid flow through the valve (9.6-2) In this equation, APy is the pressure drop across the valve, SG is the fluid specific gravity, and hy is the head loss across the valve. The reference fluid for the density is water for liquids and air for gases. Although equation (9.6-2) is similar to equation (9.6-1), the flow coefficient C, is not dimensionless like the discharge coefficient Ca, but has dimensions of [L°][L/M]'”. The normal engineering units of C, are gpm/(psi)"”. If Q is in gpm and is fy in £2, equation (9.6-2) becomes Q=0.658C (Ay)! (9.6-3) ‘The value of the flow coefficient Cy is different for each valve and also varies with the valve opening or stem position for a given valve. Figure 9.6-3 shows the flow coefficients for Masoneilan’s valves that are provided by the manufacturer from measurements. Different valve plugs are usually available for a given valve, each providing a different flow response or “trim” characteristic when the stem position is changed. 9-19froninartimeme] 114 | 88] % [3m] 1 | 15 3 [4 ]6]8 | 10 (ns| 250 [375 |.500 | 760 | 842 | 1.250) 1.625) 2.6251 3.600 valve $2° | Reduced Trim Full Capacity Trim 34 47 [37 [64 CTT 1 17 | 37 | 64 |i | Th 17 12 25 i 2 47 | 8B 26 | 46, 3 14 “far [0 | 49_| 113 | 195 53 | 126 | 208 | 400 é Ee eae —++ aa [233 | 442 | 648 ] 1000, Figure 9.6-3 Flow cocfficient for Masoneilan’s valve Schedule 40. Example 9.6-17 ‘A process for transferring oil from a storage tank to a separation tower is shown in Figure E9.6-1. The tank is at atmospheric pressure, and the tower works at 12.7 psia. Nominal oil flow is 700 gpm, its specific gravity is 0.94, and its vapor pressure at the flowing temperature of 90°F is 13,85 psia, The pipe is 8-in. Schedule 40 commercial steel pipe, and the pump efficiency is 75%. Size a valve to control the flow of oil if the frictional pressure drop in the line is found to be 6 psi. Use a pressure drop of 5 psi across the valve and estimate the annual cost if the electricity price is $0.10/kW-hr and the pump operates 8200 hr per year. Separation tower 127 psia Solution The flow coefficient for the valve can be determined from equation (9.6-2) * Smith and Corripio, Principles and Practice of Automatic Process Control, Wiley, 1997, pg. 209 9-20Chapter 9 =¢,,/ae 5. o-c, {= (9.6-2) Since the nominal flow is 700 gpm, we want 2x700 or 1400 gpm of flow when the pump is fully opened, The maximum valve coefficient is From Figure 9,6-3 an 8-in, Masoneilan’s valve Schedule 40 has a Cy of 640 gpmipsi'”. This valve is suitable for the service. Now we need to decide where to place the valve to prevent liquid flashing due to the pressure drop through it. Liquid will flash (vaporize) when the pressure in the line is less than its vapor pressure. A good place for the valve is at the discharge of the pump, where the exit pressure is higher as a result of the hydrostatic pressure due to the 60 ft of elevation plus most of the 6 psi of friction drop. The minimum pressure at the valve exit is Prin = (62.3 Ib/ft?)(0.94)(60 (144 in?/f) + 12.7 psa = 37.1 psia. This pressure is much higher than the vapor pressure of the oil at 13.85 psia. ‘The annual cost attributable to the 5-psi drop across the valve is W0gal If (S)\(144lbf / fi’) 8,200hr $0.10 min 7.48gal——0.75 year kW —hr =$ 1,665/ycar To estimate the extra work required by the pump in the above equation we have used the ‘equation Energy = (Power)(time) Energy = (22) (time) It is important to note that a typical process may require several hundreds control valves. An optimum control valve sizing also requires the determination of the pressure drop across the valve that might save thousand of dollars on the energy cost annually. 9-21Compressible Flow Different manufactures have developed different formulas to model the flow of compressible fluids - gases, vapors, and steam - through their control valves. Among several manufactures that produce good valves, including the Crane Company, DeZurik, Foxbora, Fisher Controls, Honeywell, and Masoneilan, we only present the compressible formulas of Masoneilan and Fisher Controls. Their equations and methods are typical of the industry. ‘The equations for compressible flow derive from the equation for liquids. However the expressions look quite different from the equation for liquids since they contain the unit conversion factors and density corrections for temperature and pressure. The flow coefficient Cy ofa valve is the same whether the valve is used for liquid or gas services. Masoneilan uses the following set of equations. ( - 0.148) (9.6-3) In this equation Quem is the volumetric flow rate in standard cubic feet per hour at the standard conditions of 1 atm and 60°F. Cris the critical flow factor with a numerical value between 0.6 and 0.95 depending on the valve types. SG is the gas specific gravity with respect to air and is calculated by dividing the molecular weight of the gas by 29, the average molecular weight of air. 7; is the absolute temperature at the valve inlet in R. Py is the pressure at the valve inlet in psia. y represents the compressibility effects on the flow and is defined by (06-4) (06-5) For steam flow in Ib/hr, P fi = 1.83C,Cr ; (y 0.148") (96-6) C+ 0,0007Ty,) In this equation Ty is the degree of superheat in °F. Fisher Controls uses the following set of equations. 520 59.64 [AP se = Cy Pysin| |S (9.6-7a an ~C, | rl 288 FE) e679 9-22(9.6-7b) CG VR 3417 al in| 3417 [AB aes In equations (9.6-7a) and (9.6-7b) all the symbols are the same as for the Masoneilan formulas except for the two new coefficients C, and C1. The coefficient C’, determines the gas flow capacity of the valve, where as the coefficient C,, defined as Cs /C,, is functionally the same as the C; factor in the equations used by Masoneilan, The values of C can be found on Table 10-3, page 318, in Darby’s text for various valves. The argument of the sine function must be limited to 7/2 radians or 90 degrees since the flow has reached critical flow conditions and cannot increase above this value without increasing P). Let 1 be the density of the gas at P; in Ibi’, the mass flow rate in Ib/hr for steam or vapor at any pressure is given by th = 1.06Cyyp,P sin| 22:54 (AR. (9.6-8a) GVA | =1.06C aR wo[ a2 17 [AB (9.6-8b) CVA leg Example 9.6-2° A 3-in Masoneilan valve with full trim has a capacity factor of 110 gpmipsi"? wi when fully opened. The pressure drop across the valve is 10 psi. (@) Calculate the flow of a liquid solution with density 0.8 g/cm’, (©) Calculate the flow of gas with average molecular weight of 35 when the valve inlet conditions are 100 psig and 100°F. (©) Calculate the flow of the gas fiom part (b) when the inlet pressure is 5 psig. Calculate the flow both in volumetric and in mass rate units, and compare the results for a 3-in, Fisher Controls valve (Cy = 120, Cy= 4280, C1 = 35.7). Solution —- {a) Calculate the flow of a liquid solu n ity 0. For the liquid solution, the volumetric flow rate is given by ‘AP, SG - v0 = 389 gpm =Cy 2 08 ‘The mass flow rate is mi = (389 gpm)(60 min/hr)(8.33x0.8 Ib/gal) = 155,600 Ib/hr * Smith and Corripio, Principles and Practice of tomatic Process Control, Wiley, 1997, pg. 206 9-23(b) Calculate the flow of gas with average molecular weight of 35 when the valve inlet conditions are 100 psig and 100°F. Let Cr= 0.9, we have 1.63 [AP cy VR The volumetric flow rate is given by 163 |__10__ 9.535 “0.9 ¥100+14.7 Orem = 836C,Cr 535 —0.148(0,535)° = 0.512 y—0.148y* Quy = 836(110)(0.9) a7 __ (0,512) = 187,000 seth (33729)(560) ‘The mass flow rate is determined from 6228 & ~0.148y°) (9.6-5) 1 ma eel rn =2.8(110)(0.9)(114.7) iG) 28 512) 17,240 16m (©) Calculate the flow of the gas from part (b) when the inlet pressure is 5 psig. Calculate the flow both in volumetric and in mass rate units, and compare the results for a 3-in. Fisher Controls valve (Cy = 120, C,= 4280, C, = 35.7). 1.63 [BP _ 1.63 [10 a9 CG BR 09 V5e147 The volumetric flow rate is given by RB VSGxT, y —0.148y* = 1.290 —0.148(1.290)* = 0.972 —0.148)") Qscis = 836C,C 19.7 ots = $36(110)(0.9) Fam — (0.972) = 61,000 sefh Doom = 836(110)( ” 1@57 29560 ) se 9-24‘The mass flow rate is determined from (0.6-5) 520 59.64 [AP, acts = Cy Pisi am = Cf in| 8 I) 520 59.64 set) = 4280 = = 68,700 seth ia asr20)66 °°? ™ fee i = 1.06Cyfp,P, vel S24 | a bat The density is determined from ideal gas law: p; = MA. = G5V02-2 9.115 wr ‘RT, (10.73)(560) ori5 197) sin 59-54 = 1,06(4280) J(0.115)(19.7) sin] =" | <7) = 6,340 thy eee van fa A Example 9.6-3* A control valve is to regulate the flow of steam into a heat exchanger with a design heat transfer rate of 15 million Btw/hr. The supply steam is saturated at 20 psig. Size the control valve for a pressure drop of S psi and 100% overcapacity. Solution At 20 psig, the steam latent heat of condensation is AMTeyp = 930 Btu/b, the nominal steam flow is 15x10" = 16,130 Ibyhr ‘The steam is saturated, therefore the degrees of superheat, Tsy = 0, is zero. Assuming a Masoneilan valve with C;=0.8, we have “ Smith and Corripio, Principles and Practice of Automatic Process Control, Wiley, 1997, pg. 208 9.25(9.6-4) y —0.148y° = 0.773 - 0.148(0.773°) = 0.705 For steam flow in Ib/hr, zB Bee eee ea Ge00007F)” 0.148y*) 9.6-6) tt =1.83C\Cr- 16,130 = 1.83C,(0.8)(34.7)(0.705) => Cy = 450 gpmy/psi"” To design for 100% overcapacity, we need a maximum Cysex=2Cy = 950 gpm/psi”. From. Figure 9.6-3, a 10-in, Masoneilan valve, with a coefficient of 1000, is the smallest valve that can provide the service. Using Fisher Controls equation, we have t= 1056 7 wi az Saturated steam at 20 psig, Tux =259°F, p = 0.0833 Ib/f?., Let C, 2 . [59.64 [ 5 EH 16,130 = 1.06C, ./(0.0833)(34.7) vol 8 faa) = 15,000 For 100% overcapacity Cy max = 2(15,000) = 30,000 . The corresponding C, is then Cy = Cy/C; = 30,000/35 = 856 gpm/psi!” ‘We obtain similar value for the valve coefficient C, from both methods. 9-26Chapter 10 Flow in Chemical Engineering Application 10.1 Drag Force on Solid Particles in Fluids VA Figure 10.1-1 Flow past a sphere. When a fluid flows past a spherical particle it will exert a net total drag force Fp on the sphere in the direction of the flow as shown in Figure 10.1-1, This total drag force consists of the viscous drag and the form drag. The viscous or frictional drag is the results of the ‘momentum transfer between the fluid and the sphere due to the difference in their velocities. ‘The form drag is the net force exerted on the sphere due to the difference in pressure upstream and downstream of the particle. The total drag force Fp can be determined from the following equation FIA, (10.1-1) >= Ty? ~ pV, hen ‘This equation is the definition of the drag coefficient Cp where A, is the projected area of the particle in the direction of motion. For a sphere A, = 2°/4. The definition of the drag coefficient from equation (10.1-1) is analogous to that of the friction factor for flow in a pipe 5, fe a (10.1-1) 2m In this equation, ty is the force exerted on the wall by the fluid per unit area, For laminar flow (Nae = PDV.o/t < 1) the differential momentum equation can be solved for the flow over the sphere to obtain the pressure and local stress distributions. The integration of the stress distribution over the sphere surface gives the viscous drag and the integration of the pressure over the sphere surface gives the form drag. For this case the drag coefiicient is given as 10-1