Chapter 5 5.4b One-Dimensional Flow in a Tube, © Figure 5.4-5 Momentum balance on the CV of Ad. We will consider the steady state plug flow in a tube with cross-sectional area 4 as illustrated in Figure 5.4-5. Applying the x-momentum balance on the control volume Adx gives Lv de = nV. WV, dV.) + SF, =0 wey DA, - mar, (5.4-2) on ey ‘The forces acting on the control volume (fluid) result from pressure (dF), gravity (dF), wall drag (dé), and possible extemal “shaft” work (Fe). Ye = dFp + dF, + dF y+ Fen 6.43) Bach of the force in the above expression is given by Fy = A[P ~ (P + dP) = AdP dP’, = ~ pAdxgcos 0 =~ pldeg (since drcos O= dz) Py = ~ ty y =~ tyWode (Wy = perimeter of the wall) ow Fog de 5.25In these expressions, tw is the stress exerted by the fluid on the wall and 51V’is the shaft work performed by the fluid. Substituting the expressions for the forces from Eq. (5.4-3) into the momentum balance equation (5.4-3) gives = AdP = peg — ty Hye = mdV, =0 Dividing the equation by (— a4), we obtain aP Ty OW, pVA Pg gg + Toe ay, SW BVA pee ode pd av =0 In this equation V = V,. Let dv = a. work done per unit mass of fluid, the equation becomes PP gd + Te de + 4 VV =0 pA Integrating this expression from the inlet to the outlet gives dP Lt, Pe [Pt eleo ai) + Pet wt (aK adi=0 G44) where w = | 6v, and a = kinetic energy correction fuctor, a'= 2 for laminar flow, = 1 for turbulent flow. Comparing equation (5.4-4) with the energy equation (5.3-9) i + go —2)) + 1 (aaVa?— ayV?) + er +w=0 (63-9) hp 2 shows that they are identical, provided For steady flow in a uniform conduit 1 WL AL p= eet where Dy = 4 pA Ata ¥, In this expression Dy is called the hydraulic diameter for a conduit of any cross-sectional shape. For a circular tube Ds is the same as the tube diameter D 5:26For this special case of one-dimensional fully developed flow in a straight uniform pipe, the energy and momentum equations provide the same results for the relationship between temperature, pressure, density, velocity, and dissipated energy (¢,) across the system. From the energy balance, er represents the lost energy associated with irreversible effects. From the momentum balance, ¢r represents the work required or friction loss to overcome the frictional force at the wall. In general, the momentum balance gives additional information relative to the forees exerted on and/or by the fluid in the system through the boundaries. This information cannot be obtained by the energy equation, 5.4c Definition of the Loss Coefficient and the Frietion Factor ‘The energy equation can be made dimensionless by dividing it by any term within the equation, iP +ee.-2)+ F laa = enV) + ex +w=0 63-9) ? If the dividing term is the kinetic energy per unit mass of fluid, we obtain the dimensionless loss coefficient, Ke Kem v7/2 A 1oss coefficient can be defined for any element that causes resistance to flow such as a length of pipe, a valve, a pipe fitting, a contraction, or an expansion. The total friction loss is then calculated from the sum of the losses in each element, er = Lke5 The pipe wall stress (zy) is the flux of momentum from the fluid to the tube wall. Therefore it can be made dimensionless by dividing by the flux of momentum p¥* carried by the fluid along the conduct. However a factor of 4 is chosen for the flux of momentum so that it represents the kinetic energy per unit volume (‘4p!*). The Fanning friction factor fis defined ie bw pV? /2 fF Mechanical and civil engineers usually use the definition of the Darcy friction factor fi given by 5:27The advantage of this dofinition is that the lost energy will have a form that shows a direct dependence on the kinetic energy per unit mass. Since Tw 1 a foe? ‘The lost energy in terms of the Darcy friction factor fy is given by ew SE (4) -1 aw(Z) ‘Thus, it is important to know which definition is implied when data for friction factors are used. The Fanning friction factor can be related to the loss coefficient £y. K 7 2 vp 2s (4) 2 pore (aL) 4 dD, dD, D, ve mw ‘Example 5.4-37 Consider the flow in a sudden expansion from a small conduit to a larger one. ‘The conditions upstream of the expansion (point 1) are known, as well as the areas A; and Ay Find the velocity and pressure downstream of the expansion (V2 and P2) and the loss coefficient, K;. Figure 5.4-6 Flow through a sudden expansion. Solution ---- Applying the mass balance to the fluid in the shaded area give ‘The downstream pressure (P) can be obtained from the energy equation * Darby, R., Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanies, Marcel Dekker, 2001, p. 124 5-28=0 Since the above equation contains two unknowns, P2 and e;. We need another equation, the steady-state momentum balance DA- a(h-M)=0 ‘The forces acting on the control volume are substituted into the equation to obtain PiAy + PiglA2— A) ~ P2Aat Fran = pi Vi - Vi) In this equation P;, is the pressure force from the solid surface on the left-hand boundary of the system, and Fat is the drag force of the wall on the fluid at the horizontal boundary of the system. Since the fluid pressure cannot change suddenly, Pi, » P1. Neglect Fyan because the horizontal boundary of the system is relatively small, we have e -Pat.= puri 4- } From the energy equation +hat-12)= 4n(4-1) “n(-() } ‘The loss coefficient for the flow through a sudden expansion is defined as Kr = (- therefore eal Ke ound ‘The experimental value of the loss coefficient for a sharp 90° contraction is Kr = 0.5(1 — f°) where 2 = B. For most systems, the Joss coefficient cannot be determined accurately from » applying the macroscopic momentum and energy balances. They must be determined from experimental data, 5.29ll coupling By Fiexible coupling h. @ Figure 5.4-7 A 90° horizontal reducing elbow. ‘Water is flowing through a 90° horizontal reducing elbow as shown, Determine the retaining forces F, and Fy required to keep the elbow in place. Neglecting frictional loss, D; = 0.20 m, D2 =0.15 m, P; = 1.5 bar (gage), 7; = 6.0 m/s. 1 bar = 10° Pa. Water density is 1000 kg/m’. Solution - From the mass balance 4 Va = Vi) = 6.0x 4 : ) = 10.67 mis ‘The downstream pressure (P2) can be obtained from the energy equation with er =0 + FOP - 1) er =0 P2=P\+ hor- V2?) = 1.5x10° + 500(6° — 10.67°) = 1.1110" Pa Applying the x-momentum balance on the reducing elbow Fy + Pi, + pAiVi(Vix — Vaz) = 0 Fy =~ Ay(Py + p¥ 7) = = m.10° 1.5x10° +1000x67) =— $843 N ‘The force Fis actually in the negative x-direction, A similar calculation for the y-momentum balance gives Fy = 3974 N. [Fy ~ P22 + pdiVi(Vry — Voy) = 0] 5-30Pasa (dough) ander pressure Pasta nace coxtrded ® aspect Ke A pasta-producing machine extrudes raw pasta dough through an annular semicircular die of length L as shown above. Calculate the pressure, in units of psig, required to produce 10 kg/h of pasta under the following conditions: = 10 Pass, p= 1200 kg/m’, L=5 em, Ry =0.5 cm, Ra = 1 cm. The friction factor for the flow an annular semicircular area can be determined from Figure 5.4-8°. Solution - Making a force balance around the channel for shaping pasta yields LWytw = AAP In this equation, L is the length, W, is the perimeter, 4 is the cross-sectional area, and AP is the required pressure drop to push the pasta out of the channel at velocity U. Solving for the shear stress at the wall gives res APA LW, * Middleman, Stanley, An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, 1998, p. 234 5:31From the definition of the friction factor and the hydraulic diameter we have ‘Therefore ‘The friction factor f can be determined from Figure 5.4-8 for annular sector with « = & = 0.5. We obtain fRe ~ 18.8. D,_ A ___05x(R?-R?) 4 W, a(R, +R,)+2(R,-R,) 29? Pr = 05a" = 05°) 0.2062 em 4 m(+05)+2(1-03) ‘The Reynold number is defined as Re= 22” The properties are given as H 100 Poise; p = 1200 kg/m’ = 1.2 g/cm? th _ (10/3600) x1000 PA (.2\@/2F 0.5") 1.96 cm/s 0195 => f- aes = 906.5 ‘The pressure drop required is now evaluated 2 = OP = I, = (0.5X966.5)(1.2\(1.96' (aka) 14.7 AP = 5.43x10* dyne/em? = 5.43x10* 0.80 psig 10° 5-32Example 5.4-6 ~ Find the horizontal force of the water on the horizontal bend shown. The inside diameter of the pipe is 8.0 cm and the inside diameter of the nozzle is 4.0 cm. The inlet velocity V; is 10 m/s. You can assume that the friction loss of the bend is negligible. Vy Eb Figure 5.4-8 Force on a horizontal bend, Solution - From the mass balance 41; = A2V2. Therefore, the nozzle exit velocity is 2 2 D, 8) Vy=¥,| 2] =10[5) =40 mi : (G) (J i ‘Momentum balance in the x-direction gives WF + pd VVig ~ pA2¥2Vox + Pidi = 0 F= pA Willi ~ © Vay) + PiAr Since the friction loss is negligible, we can use Bemoulli’s equation to determine the inlet pressure Py. P= 2-H a= ohh) P; = (500)(40" — 10) = 750,000 Pa ‘The force of the bend on the water is then F= pAV\(V, + V2) + PiAy =AilP) + pay VM + Voy] F= n(0.04°)[750,000 + 1000%10%(10 + 40)] = 6283 N ‘The force of the water on the bend is - F = - 6283 N 5-33Example $.4-7 ~ Water flows through a horizontal bend and discharges into the atmosphere as shown. The pressure gage reads 10 psi, and the flow rate Q is 5.0 fils. Determine the retaining force Fa, and Fay. Determine the volumetric flow rate Q if the retaining force Fg, is 1440 Ibf. Solution - The inlet velocity is Vi = ii == = 25 fi/s and the outlet velocity is V2 = 50 ft/s. ‘Momentum balanee in the x-direction gives — Fat pArViPix~ pdzV2Vax + Pdi = 0 Since V2, =~ Vreos(n/4) Faq + pQ[Fi + Vacos(a/4)] + Pidy=0 Fac= on xSx[25 + 50 cos(n/4)] + 10%144x0.2 = 873 Ibf Momentum balance in the y-direction gives — Fry — pA2V2Vry =0 Fry = ~pOVay = —pQl - V2c0s(n/4)] Fay = pOV2008(/4)] = a x5x[50 sin(n/4)] = 343 It Momentum balance in the x-direction gives — Fax + pA Wi Vix — PAV Vax + PiAi=0 pALVs? ~ pAiVil- 2Vicos(n/4)] = 1440 ~ 10%144x0.2 PAL V,*[1 + 2cos(a/4)] = 8x144 ua y= [8x14 x 32.2 aan 62.4x0.2[1 + cos(z/4)] ‘The volumetric flow rate is then Q = 0.235 = 7.0 ft/s 5-34Chapter 5 5.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum. Figure 5.5-1 A point mass m and a distributed mass M are rotating at a uniform angular velocity @. ‘The linear momentum of a mass m moving in the x direction with a velocity Vis mV. The angular momentum (Lg) of a point mass m rotating with an angular velocity « rad/s in an are having a radius of curvature R is mVgR = mooR*, The angular momentum has dimension of “length times momentum,” and is therefore called the “moment of momentum.” If the mass is not a point but a rigid distributed mass (§M) rotating at a uniform angular velocity, the angular momentum of the differential mass iM is given by Ly = oF dM The total angular momentum of the mass Mis obtained by integration over the entire mass Lo= [arta = w[ PM = al (5-1) ie u where the moment of inertia Fis defined as 1= [aM ‘As an example, we want to determine the moment of inertia for the flywheel of width W, radius R, and mass M, whose cross section is shown in Figure 5. aM = 2nrdrWp i eR I> [Pam = [? 2nrdrWp = 2nWp[) Pdr = par =M > u fa For a fixed mass, the conservation of linear momentum is equivalent to Newton’s second law: 5.35= : a _ dmV) Bema =m@ = ge ae Let P'y be the torque acting on the system, the conservation of angular momentum is written as d( In = Dar = For a flow system, angular momentum may enter or leave the system by convection. As an example, consider the impeller of a centrifugal pump, whose cross section is shown in Figure 55-2, Figure 5.5-2 Cross section of pump impeller. ‘The impeller rotates with angular velocity @, and its rotation causes the fluid to be thrown radially outwards between the vanes by centrifugal action, The fluid enters at a radial position r; and leaves at a radial position r2; the corresponding tangential velocity Vy and V2 denote the inlet and exit liquid velocities relative to a stationary observer. Making an angular momentum balance on the impeller yields d(la) Cr Vidin— Ch r2V2)on +To a For steady-state system, there is no accumulation of angular momentum, and the torque required to rotate the impeller is To = mn alr: ~ m7) ‘The corresponding power required (o drive the pump is the product of the angular velocity and the torque Power = ag 5-36Example 5.5-14 — Consider an ideal garden sprinkler shown in Figure 5.5-3. The central bearing is well lubricated, so the arms are free to rotate about the central pivot. Each of the two nozzles has a cross-sectional area of $ mm’, and each arm is 20 cm long. 20cm 20cm If the water supply rate to the sprinkler is 0.0001 m'/s, determine: (@) The velocity u(nt/s) of the water jets relative to the nozzles. (b) The angular velocity of rotation, @, of the arms, in both rad/s and rps. (©) The applied torque required preventing the arms from rotating, Solution - (a) The velocity u(m/s) of the water jets relative to the nozzles Oe telOsat ge 2 Ones 24 2x5x10%) (b) The angular velocity of rotation, @, of the arms, in both rad/s and rps. Making an angular momentum balance on the steady state sprinkler yields 0= (rari Vidin ~ (titra V2)ou + Po To= ta[r2Va)ou ~ ("1 ¥i)in) Water enters at a radial position r; and leaves at a radial position r2; the corresponding tangential velocity V; and V2 denote the inlet and exit water velocities relative to a stationary observer. We assume that (r2V2)ou >> (r1V;)iny therefore To ® rit (r2Va)out Since the arm is free to rotate, there is no applied torque or Pp = 0 and V2 = 0. The water sharge velocity is zero as seen by a stationary observer. Let tee be the velocity of the nozzle, then Va = t~ taoe = => Une =u = 10 mvs The angular velocity is then “ Wilkes, James, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Enginesrs, Prentice Hall, 1999, p. 103 5:37(©) The applied torque required preventing the arms from rotating. If the arm is not rotating then tase = 0 V2 u— tqoe = 10 ~ 0 = 10 mis Te ® tit (r2V2)ou = (0.0001 m°/s)(1000 kg/m?}(0.2 m)(10 m/s) = 0.2 Nem 5.6 Momentum Balance on Moving Systems We will consider a system that is moving with constant velocity while streams carrying momentum and energy may flow into and out of the system. The absolute stream velocity in the x direction Vis related to the system velocity V», and the stream velocity relative to the system V by the relation Vg = Vex * Vin ‘The analysis for a system moving with a constant velocity will be simplified if a momentum balance is applied to a control volume moving with the system velocity. Example 5.6-1 ~ - Figure 5.6-1 shows a plan of a jet of water impinging against a cone that is held stationary by a force F opposing the jet, which divides into several radially outwards streams, each leaving at an angle of 30 degree with respect to the horizontal. The velocity of the water jet is 18 m/s and its diamoter is 8.0 em. Figure 5.6-1 Jet impinging against a cone, Determine the force need to: (a) Hold the cone stationary. (b) Move the cone away from the jet at 5 m/s. Solution —(@ Force required holding the cone stationary Applying the x-momentum balance on the control volume shown with the dash line P+ pV Vix — pAaV2V2x = We will assume that the area of flow at the inlet is the same as that at the outlet: A) = 42, therefore V; = V2. For steady state system th = pA,V = pV Therefore P= pAVi(Vix ~ Vax) = pdr ¥i(P — Vicos 30°) = 241 ¥1( — cos 30°) F = (1000)(nx0.047)(18"\(1 ~ cos 2/6) = 218.2 N (©) Force required moving the cone away from the jet at 5 m/s. ‘We now choose the control volume that moves with the cone so that the velocity of the water jet relative to the control volume is Vy = V1 ~ ¥,=18-5=13 mis ‘The x-momentum balance is now written with the relative velocities AF + pAyVieV ee — plaVaeVoee = 0 Since A, = Az, therefore Vig = Vax and rit = Ay Vie = pA2V 0 ‘The force required for this case is then F’= pA Vi(Vixr ~ Vos) = ps Vie(Vie— Viet08 30°) = pd Vie?(1 — cos 2/6) F = (1000)(x0,04°)(13\({ — cos 1/6) = 113.8 N Example 5.6-2' - As shown in Figure 5.6-2, a boat of mass M= 1,000 Ibm is propelled on a lake by a pump that takes in water and ejects it, at a constant velocity of V2; ~ 30 fis relative to the boat, through pipe of cross-sectional area A = 0.2 #?, The resistance force F of the water is proportional to the square of the boat velocity V,, which has a maximum value of 20 fs, What is the acceleration of the boat when its velocity is V, = 10 ft/s? Wilkes, James, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, 1999, p. 98, 5:39Solution - Choose the control volume C.V. moving with the boat then the velocity of water entering the CY. is Vu Vs ‘The mass flow rate of water entering or leaving the C.V. is Ji = pa Vag = (62.4)(0.2)(30) = 374.4 Iba! ‘The x-momentum balance is now written with the relative velocities aM.) _ A. = Ma = ti Vie— th Vag VE a 7 Ma = tt Vie th Van + RY At maximum velocity V, = 20 ft/s, there is no acceleration, therefore 2 = WV) k= Var Vid) The acceleration at V, = 10 fils is given by th kyo =4y,-¥+* vy forget cae 374.4 374.4 or aes = = (10-30) + (10) = — 6.55 ft/s* 1000 401000 5-40Chapter 5 5.7 Microscopic Momentum Balance ‘We now consider the general open system or control volume fixed in space and located in a fluid flow field, as shown in Figure 5.7-1. The streamline of a fluid stream is the curve where the velocity at any point is tangent to it. For a differential element of area dd on the control surface, the rate of momentum efflux from this element = (pv)(vddcosa), where (ddcosa) is the area d4 projected in a direction normal to the velocity vector v, a is the angle between the velocity vector v and the outward-directed unit normal vector n to dA, and p is the density. Control volume > Streamlines of fluid stream Normal to surface dA tee Control surface Figure 5.7-1 Flow through a differential area dd on a control surface. (\(vddcosa) is the scalar or dot product of pv(v-n)dd. Since the normal vector m is pointing outward, the momentum (efflux) leaving the control volume is positive (a < 90°) and the momentum (influx) entering the control volume is negative (a > 90°). If we now integrate this quantity over the entire control surface 4, we have the net outflow of ‘momentum across the control surface or the net momentum efflux from the entire control volume 7”, a momentum ee ee of momentum =) from control volume} \ from — comtrol volume, rate of momentum — input from control volume from control volume, e momentum ae) [onsceada = [pnewandd “ 4 Since the rate of momentum accumulation within the contol volume is “4 ~ 2{ pyar, the momentum balance is written as 2 fevar- fevornda + YR 67-1) 7 4 5-41The above equation can also be written as a F lim ale lim Jeena lim we co actytvo AxAyAz axiytrvo— AxAyAz axsyaeo ArAyAz ** Each of the above terms will be evaluated separately and substituted into equation (5.7-2). ‘The rate of momentum accumulation within the control volume, The rate of momentum. accumulation within the control volume is given by é dV im Fila (Olatypraxayhs 8 iy 2p 422 673) axayaevo AxAyAZ AxAyAz or a at . ‘Net rate of momentum transported through the control volume. The net rate of momentum flux into the control volume iflustrated in Figure 5.7-2 is lim Jeviv-n)dd _ (ov, base ve LAVAS . COV, |yisy ~PYY, |, ArAZ ata — AxAyAg ‘AxAyAz ‘AxAyAz 4 LOW Neste —PVY, Avy AxAyAz y z AX ply Figure 5.7-2 Momentum flux through a differential control volume lim Jovo-mad Alor.) , PVr,) , How.) (7-4) seotero — AxAyAZ ox oy a Applying the product rule to the terms on the right-hand side of the equation yields 5-42lim | pv(v-m)d4 [a2 Apr) , Apr, |e wi, al vay axayaroo— AxAyAz ae ey a aw ey Ta ‘The above equation can be simplified by the aid of the continuity equation (5.2-2) ap __ Apr.) _ Pr) alpv,) (52-2) ar Cr ar [222 4%) aa] x 8 ay a& Therefore it vem)dd tim forma op 5 dyed AxAyAz Sum of external forces acting on control volume. y a Ay Graber Az Thy Figure §.7-3 Forces acting on a differential control volume. Zz The forces acting on the control volume are those due to surfaces forces such as frictional forces and pressure force, and body forces such as gravitational force. Summing the forces in the x direction we obtain DUR, = (Gixlevix ~ Grab JAVAZ + (Salyiay ~ Oyaly)AxAZ + (Cralotts ~ Oinle)AxAY wth + gxplcAydz In this equation g, is the component of the gravitational acceleration in the x direction. In the limit as ArAyAz-> 0, we obtain 5-43F, tim ah 00 , Wy , d6, wey We 4 Om 5 Pw + op, aayaeso AxAyAz ar oy & Similarly, we will obtain the following expressions for the summation of the forces in the y and z directions fim 2h ony, syarno AxAyz Gx Gye Tim =r _ 80, , 9, seuacso Achyhz Ox Oye Therefore F F, F, F, lim oe lim, as 4 tim oe 4 lim a axiyarv0 AXAYAZ — aiyse-s0 AxAyAZ * actytov0 AxAyAZ * axaydeva AxAyAz ef : =F. : : lim adv. _ | 0, , 8, . bo, ] e+ | Om 4 ny ‘seaytevo AvAyAZ + Sey [a "ay ° & a &y do, , 8p , do, + [= + ayn + 2s G2 + PAgxex + yey + 8x C2) =F aueytena AKAAE ca = Vist pg = V4(-P8 +1) + pg (6.7-6) The total stress at any point within a fluid is composed of both the isotropic pressure and the anisotropic stress components. By convention, pressure is considered a negative stress because it is compressive. The differential momentum equation becomes F Jim fovay tim fov(v-maa tim » on ev. auto Axdyht seausse AtAyhe * aayuese Axdyhz 45,2] eves ee 5-44oe + pew =-VP + Vent pg 67-7) The three components of the momentum equation in rectangular coordinates system are ) pai av, May, ey, Be) = Py Oe Bin 4 Bee + pee (5.7-8a) a ae By ae) oe ey oo 4 & + pay (5.7-8b) Be + ph (5.7-8¢) at PP Ot, a at ae By * ar In the momentum equation, the terms on the left-hand side represent the time-rate of change of momentum, and the terms on the right-hand side represent the forces. (e+ a py Me, 2) @P | dr, P| ‘The term oe represents the time rate of change of vx at a fixed location, and is called the ) Jocal acceleration, ‘The terms ( Bry Oey, 2%) are called the convective "ey * J acceleration that represents the change in velocity from location to location. The sum of local and convective acceleration is the total acceleration. ‘The four terms Dero aoriae, ov, 24v,2+y,2] is the derivative following the motion of the fluid. This (Su.2u,20.3) ¢ derivative is called the substantial or material derivative and is denoted by - 7 ‘When the substantial derivative notation is used, equations (5.7-8) become Dy, OP , Ou , wm , Or, 2 a WP, On, Oe 5 Oe 5 op 7 iyi estlipetscracmivioyint cortiie 6.7-98) (5.7-9b) (5.7-90) Dt Equations (5.7-9) are valid for any type of fluid since we have not assumed any relationship between shear stress and the shear rate. For laminar flow and Newtonian fluid we have the 5-45following relations between shear stress components and the strain rates in rectangular coordinate form a =) (5.7-10a) er. ev, | Ov, ty = tay (2242) (5.7-10b) ‘Ov, | Oy, Fox = Taz = | Eee 5.7-10 ate (Ger) c o ov, 2 na = | 2s yy | —P 5.7-10d su=a(2%.2v.v) (67-108) = (2% 2y.y)~p 5.7-100) fy 2G -3V-v|~ (5.7-10¢) wo, 2, = pl 2—2-=V fae (5.7-101 of a3 ) fate ‘These relations are called the constitutive equations that relate the local stress components to the flow or deformation of the fluid in laminar flow. If equations (5.7-10) are substituted into equations (5.7-9) and simplified, we will obtain the following relations for incompressible flow where V-v = 0 (67-118) (67-116) (57-110) Hence, the momentum equation for incompressible, laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid in vector notation is given by 5-46Chapter 5 Example 5.7-1° Consider the flow through a rectangular duct whose width is very large in the z direction when compared to the gap (2h) in the y direction, Such a situation could occur in a die when a polymer is being extruded at the exit into a sheet, which is subsequently cooled and solidified. Determine the relationship between the flow rate and the pressure drop between the inlet and exit, together with other relevant quantities. Solution - “ ‘We can analyze the problem by referring to a cross section of the duct, shown in Figure 5.7- 7, taken at any fixed value of z. Inlet - 7 Re Figure 5.7-7 A cross section of the duct with flowing fluid. We make the following assumptions regarding the flow through the duct 1. The flow is steady with Newtonian fluid and constant physical properties. 2. There is only one nonzero velocity component in the x direction so that vy = v; = 0. * Wilkes, James, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, 1999, p. 274 5-473. The entrance and exit effects are negligible and there is no variation of velocity in the z a direction because of the large width so that a 4, Gravity force is in the negative y direction; hence, gy ~~ gand g, = g, = 0. 5. There is no slip at the boundary (the wall), so that v, = Oat y = +h, The differential mass balance or continuity equation & — V-pv) is simplified to V-v = 0 for constant density Ov, Vy | oy, Vv= Sey Sey Me wy & =0, we have & = 0. Therefore v; = vay) is a function of y only. We now ie consider the momentum equation in the x direction Since vy = ve Af May, Many, Magy Me a km by fe ‘This equation is simplified to P, ay, = e t aM a &1) If the dependence of pressure on y is neglected, then P = P(x) is a function of x only. Equation (E-1) becomes 2) A first integration gives wy, as = (E3) a Since the velocity is a maximum at y = 0, we have 1 dP <2 M+ 3c =0 aac” 1 => Cy A second integration of equation (E-3) with C; ~0 gives 5-481 @P pet Pee ¥ te” 2 ‘The constant of integration C2 can be obtained from the boundary condition that v= 0 at y h jt a B+ == Qu de 2 => Cr The velocity profile is finally _ 1 @& ve ES e7-¥) The volumetric flow rate Q for the system with a width I¥ can be obtained by first consider the differential flow rate through an element Way dQ = v,Way Lap Hence O- af yids = 205 SLO" Hobe * 2Wh’ (_ dP ee a) ‘The maximum velocity occurs at the centerline y = 0 : -£(-¢ fe 2a de The average velocity is just the volumetric flow rate Q divided by the area of flow 5-49Shell Balance ‘We can also apply the momentum balance directly to a differential fluid element to obtain the differential equation required for the calculation. Consider a fluid element with dimensions of Ax and Ay in the plane of diagram as shown in Figure 5.7-8. The element has a depth of W in the direction normal to the plane of the diagram. s Figure 5.7-8 Momentum balance on a differential fluid element AxAyW. ‘The convective momentum transfers through the left-hand and right-hand face are Prexvsdy Wx — pravidy Weve = 0 ‘We have assume that v, = v,(p) is a function of y only. Applying the momentum balance on the fluid element AxAyi yields Pi AyW — PloeaxAyW + tyxlyrayAxW — tyxlyAxW = 0 Dividing the equation by the control volume AxAyIF gives — Plee—Ple 4 Feb “tel ‘Ax Ay In the limit as AxAyW” + 0, we obtain dty _aP o & ae ‘The shear stress at any location within the fluid is given by ae f Bes %) aes NG Oe ae ‘Equation (E-4) becomes 5-50al ) 2 #/ pM) a Bd) de For constant physical properties, we have tits a ay de This equation is the same as the one derived from simplifying the following component of the Navier Stokes equations. Oy. yO. Om, oy, pf Se +y, Seay, Mey, ae ae By ee Example 5.7-2 ~ ‘The geometry of angular drag flow between two concentric cylinders is shown in Figure $.7- 9. The inner and outer cylinders have radii of xR and R respectively. The inner cylinder is rotating with constant angular velocity Q while the outer one is fixed. Find the velocity distribution ve(r) for the fluid between the cylinders and the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder. pe Figure 5.7-9 Flow between concentric cylinders. Solution -. The r-component of the Navier Stokes equations for Newtonian isothermal incompressible flow in cylindrical coordinates is given as ofa + pf 222 (20 a | oy Oe, Ye Oy vB Oe ay, Be Ye eH 2% a 38 + 1 dv, 2 dv , ay, oy, +2) + oe, a a 5-51For steady state flow with only one component of the velocity ve(r), the equation is simplified to op x Is. or We have a radial pressure gradient due to centrifugal acceleration, The @-component of the Navier Stokes equations is given 2H 4, Me, Yee, Ye yy Me 2)1 2 fy,y]¢ 4 re 2 Pa ae BO ae) 88 Maelo | oF Discarding the zero terms in the above equation yields Integrating the equation gives 14 omy,) drm)aard?> m= hart rdr 2 ‘The two constants of integrations a and b can be evaluated using the boundary conditions. Atr= KR vo= «RO= Lane + © ae KR AtroR=> ve=0=tar+ & 2" R KR? 2x and a= Vik-K Vik-K Solving two equations for two unknowns a and b: 6 = ‘The velocity distribution is 26 or Wk-K« 2 vo=~ ‘The shear stress 79 is given byYe ROR r Wne-elF R ‘Taking the derivative of the above expression gives d(v% RQ. R) Af%e) a ~2t 2(2) Z( >) The shear stress is then At the surface of the inner cylinder r = xR, therefore Q 1_ 40 ike Kk e Trolen = —2pe ‘The force applied on the inner surface of the cylinder is (2naRL)tolxx. The torque on the cylinder is the product of this force time the moment arm of radius «R. To = 2maRL) tohn(XR) = 2a? RL) ‘We have assumed laminar flow that is achievable for concentric cylinders as long as the rotational speed is below a value that satisfies OR*p <_40 Hw Kd-Ky? Example 5.7-3, Find the velocity profile for the fluid between a rod and a cylinder shown in Figure 5.7-10. ‘There is no axial pressure gradient. The rod is pulled through the cylinder with velocity V. Figure §.7-10 Axial flow between a rod and a cylinder. ‘The z-component of the Navier Stokes equations for Newtonian isothermal incompressible flow in cylindrical coordinates is given as 5-53ay, Oy, we Oy, 2(a,), Lay, | By, ey, Oe 2 py, OM) = o,), 18% BY) 5 5, (Gn Be a0 +” %.) G M5 ae" = PB For steady state flow with only one component of the velocity v,(r), the equation is simplified to =ld(,a, : oa 12(r ) en ‘The two boundary conditions required to solve the differential equation are r=KRv.=V and r=Ryvz,=0 Integrating equation (E-1) once gives Integrating the above equation gives y,=Clnr+D ‘The two constants of integrations C’and D can be obtained from the boundary conditions Atr=sR v,=V =Cl x +D Atr=R v,=0 =CnR+D Solving for C we have Gaels inxR-nR In In(r/R) Ink 5.54