Soil modelling: South East Asia: October-November 2010

6. Cam clay: triaxial tests

Graphical construction and direct calculation
David Muir Wood
University of Dundee

Graphical construction: drained test

Figure 1 can be used to follow the operation of the Cam clay model using essentially entirely graphical
construction. The test is constructed in four linked plots. Figures 1a, b are the two finite plots: the
effective stress plane (a) and the compression plane (b). Each yield locus in the effective stress plane is
linked with a specific unloading-reloading line in the compression plane, which intersects the isotropic
normal compression line (iso-ncl) at the corresponding value of isotropic preconsolidation pressure p0o ,
which is the mean stress where the yield locus intersects the p0 axis. With the known constraints of
a particular test (constant cell pressure, drained, for example) the path of the test can be definitively
tracked in these two plots.
Figure 2 shows a detail of one step of a conventional drained triaxial compression test. The effective
stress path is constrained to climb at gradient q/p0 = 3 in the effective stress plane. This path thus
fixes the points A and B at which it crosses two successive yield loci. Direct vertical projection down to
the compression plane at the same values of mean effective stress then fixes the points A and B on the
volumetric path from the intersections with the corresponding unloading-reloading lines.
The stress-strain response produces relationships which are unbounded: there is no limit, in principle, to
the shear strain that can be imposed. First we calculate the plastic volumetric strain. The vertical sepa-
ration, at constant mean stress, of the unloading-reloading lines through A and B gives the irrecoverable
change in specific volume, v p (Fig 3). The plastic volumetric strain is then:

v p
pp = (1)
v

The plastic distortional strain is then calculated from the condition of normality to the yield locus applied
at the current stress point in the effective stress plane (Fig 4). The direction of the dotted arrow, drawn
perpendicular to the yield locus at point A indicates the ratio of plastic distortional strain increment to
plastic volumetric strain increment, 1/D:

1 pq
= (2)
D pp

We can calculate the elastic distortional strain from the change in distortional, deviator stress, q (Fig
5):

q
eq = (3)
3G

We can sum the plastic and elastic components to find the total distortional strain increment:
 100 a. 100
q q

50 50

c.
0 0
0 50 100 150 p' 200 q

2.5 2.5
v iso-ncl v
b.
q
d.
2.4 2.4

Figure 1: Cam clay: drained test

2.3 2.3

2.2 2.2

2.1
0 50 100 150
Cam
200
clay: drained test
2.1
p'
graphical construction
q
B
A

p'

v iso-ncl

p'

Figure 2: Drained test: stress increment

v iso-ncl

A
-vp
B

p'

Figure 3: Plastic volumetric strain increment

 1
q B D
A

p'

Figure 4: Normality to yield locus

qe qp
q
3G B q
A

Figure 5: Elastic and plastic distortional strain increments

q = eq + pq (4)

and we can project across to the strain diagrams, Figs 1c, d, to plot the corresponding points on the
distortional stress:distortional strain plot (Fig 1c) and the volume:strain plot (Fig 1d).
(In fact, the inclusion of the elastic distortional strain is equivalent to imposing a skew or shear on the
distortional stress:distortional strain plot, since the elastic distortional strain is directly proportional to
q. So, for the purposes of this exercise, we can simply work in terms of plastic strain and recall that for
completeness we would need to add the elastic strains. Alternatively, we need to assume a value of shear
modulus: for example, G = 2MPa? All the other constitutive parameters for Cam clay are implicit in
the plots of Figs 1.)

Graphical construction: undrained test

Figure 6 can be used to follow the operation of the Cam clay model for an undrained test, again using
essentially entirely graphical construction. The test is constructed in four linked plots. Figures 6a, b are
the two finite plots: the effective stress plane (a) and the compression plane (b). Each yield locus in the
effective stress plane is linked with a specific unloading-reloading line in the compression plane. With
the known constraints of a particular test (constant cell pressure, undrained, for example) the path of
the test can be definitively tracked in these two plots.
Figure 7 shows a detail of one step of a conventional undrained triaxial compression test. The path is
constrained to remain at constant volume in the compression plane (Fig 7b). This path thus fixes the
points A and B at which it crosses two successive unloading-reloading lines. Direct vertical projection
up to the effective stress plane at the same values of mean effective stress then fixes the points A and B
on the effective stress path from the intersections with the corresponding yield loci.
The stress-strain response produces relationships which are unbounded: there is no limit, in principle, to
the shear strain that can be imposed. First we calculate the plastic volumetric strain. The vertical sepa-
ration, at constant mean stress, of the unloading-reloading lines through A and B gives the irrecoverable
change in specific volume, v p (Fig 8). The plastic volumetric strain is then:

v p
pp = (5)
v

The plastic distortional strain is then calculated from the condition of normality to the yield locus applied
at the current stress point in the effective stress plane (Fig 9). The direction of the dotted arrow, drawn
perpendicular to the yield locus at point A indicates the ratio of plastic distortional strain increment to
plastic volumetric strain increment, 1/D:

1 pq
= (6)
D pp

We can calculate the elastic distortional strain from the change in distortional, deviator stress, q:

q
eq = (7)
3G

We can sum the plastic and elastic components to find the total distortional strain increment (Fig 5):

q = eq + pq (8)

and we can project across to the strain diagram, Fig 6c to plot the corresponding point on the distortional
stress:distortional strain plot.
(In fact, once again, the inclusion of the elastic distortional strain is equivalent to imposing a skew or
shear on the distortional stress:distortional strain plot, since the elastic distortional strain is directly
proportional to q. So, for the purposes of this exercise, we can simply work in terms of plastic strain and
recall that for completeness we would need to add the elastic strains. Alternatively, we need to assume
a value of shear modulus: for example, G = 2MPa? All the other constitutive parameters for Cam clay
are implicit in the plots of Figs 6.)
There is by definition no volume change during an undrained test. The fourth plot for this test is a plot
of pore pressure against distortional strain (Fig 6d). The increase in pore pressure is the increase in
separation of the total stress path (which is arbitrary, but might be a conventional triaxial compression
path imposed with constant radial stress and hence with slope q/p = 3) and the effective stress path
(which was deduced in Fig 7a). It is instructive to distinguish the components of pore pressure change
that result from the change in total mean stress and the change in effective mean stress (Fig 10):

u = p p0 (9)

and the plot of pore pressures can separate the development of the two components indicating clearly
the pore pressure that comes from suppressed volume change.
 100 100
q
a.
q

50 50

c.
0 0
0 50 100 p' 150 q

2.5
iso-ncl 100
v u
2.4

50

Figure 6: Cam clay: undrained test

2.3 d.
0
q
2.2

b.
2.1
Cam clay: undrained test
0 50 100 150 200
p'
graphical construction
100
a.
q
B
50

0
0 50 100 150 p' 200

2.5
iso-ncl
v
2.4

2.3 A
B
2.2
b.

2.1
0 50 100 150 200
p'

Figure 7: Undrained test: stress increment

2.4

iso-ncl
v

2.3 -vp A

2.2
50 100 p' 150
Figure 8: Plastic volumetric strain increment
 q 1
B D
50
A

0
0 50 100 p' 150

Figure 9: Normality to yield locus

q -p' p
B
50
esp tsp
A

0
0 50 100 150 p' 200

Figure 10: Pore pressure generation: tsp = total stress path; esp = effective stress path

Calculation: drained test

Of course, we can perform analytically the same operations that we have done graphically: and having
the graphical experience allows us to see exactly how we should proceed with the analytical calculations.
We can set these up in a spreadsheet but can also perform the calculations by handand it is important
to use hand calculation in order to check that the spreadsheet is indeed doing what is intended.
1. We must evidently know the values of soil parameters: G, , , M , N .
2. We need initial conditions for the increment of the test: current effective stresses p0A , qA and specific
volume vA , and size of the yield locus (preconsolidation pressure) p0oA . In general the current effective
stress state can lie either on or inside the current yield locus: let us assume that our soil is normally
compressed so that the current stress state lies on the current yield locus. This implies that the current
conditions must satisfy the equation:

q2 1
p0o = p0 + (10)
M 2 p0

In fact, the way that this volumetric hardening model is formulated means that Cam clay also imposes
a link between the current specific volume and the current effective stresses and size of the yield locus.
The geometry of the compression plane (Figs 1b, 11) gives:

!
p0o
v=N ln p0o + ln 0 (11)
p

3. We will assume that we are conducting a conventional drained test with constant lateral stress (cell
pressure) so that:
 v iso-ncl

A
-vp
B

ln p'
Figure 11: Plastic change in specific volume: semilogarithmic compression plane

q
=3 (12)
p0

and we can start the calculation process by choosing a value for the increment q and hence the new
value of qB .
4. From (12) we can calculate the corresponding increment p0 and hence the new value of p0B .
5. From (10) we can calculate the size of yield locus p0oB required to accommodate this new stress state.
6. From (11) we can calculate the new specific volume vB . Through steps 4-6 we have established the
position of the new point in the effective stress and compression planes (Figs 1a, b) as was demonstrated
graphically in Fig 2.
7. Now we have to calculate the strain increments. We can divide the change in specific volume into two
parts: one due to the change in p0o , the plastic part; and one due to the change in p0 , the elastic part.
The plastic part, v p is the volume separation of the unloading-reloading lines at the start and end of
the increment: the geometry of the compression plane shows that this is (Figs 3, 11):

v p = ( ) ln (p0oB /p0oA ) (13)

The plastic volumetric strain increment is then:

v p
pp = (14)
v

8. The plastic strain increment is normal to the yield locus at the current stress, so the plastic dilatancy,
D, is given by:

1 pq 2
= p = (15)
D p M 2
2

where stress ratio = q/p0 . Hence we can calculate the plastic distortional strain increment, pq .
 Table 1: Cam clay: drained test calculation

q q p0 p0 = q/p0 p0o v v p pp 1/D = pq /pp pq eq eq

9. The elastic distortional strain increment, eq , is calculated using the shear modulus G for the soil:

q
eq = (16)
3G
The plastic and elastic components are added to give the total distortional strain increment, q .
10. The calculation process is repeated for a new stress increment, starting at step 3. A table illustrating
the sequence of calculation steps may be helpful (Table 1).

Calculation: undrained test

We can follow a similar process to develop the analytical result for the undrained testguided again by
the graphical experience.
1. We must evidently know the values of soil parameters: G, , , M , N .
2. We need initial conditions for the increment of the test: current effective stresses p0A , qA and specific
volume vA , and size of the yield locus (preconsolidation pressure) p0oA . These are linked as described for
the analysis of the drained test.
3. From our graphical experience (Fig 7), we start the calculation process by choosing a value for the
change in mean effective stress p0 and hence the new value of p0B .
4. The specific volume remains constant so that we can calculate the new preconsolidation pressure p0oB
from the geometry of the compression plane (11).
5. Hence we can calculate the new value of qB from (10), and deduce the corresponding increment
q. Through steps 3-5 we have established the position of the new point in the effective stress and
compression planes (Figs 6a, b) as was demonstrated graphically in Fig 7.
6. Now we have to calculate the strain increments. We divide the change in specific volume into two
parts: one due to the change in p0o , the plastic part; and one due to the change in p0 , the elastic part.
The plastic part, v p is the volume separation of the unloading-reloading lines at the start and end of
the increment: the geometry of the compression plane is shown in (Figs 8, 11). The plastic change in
volume can be calculated from (13) and the plastic volumetric strain from (14). The elastic volumetric
strain is exactly equal to the plastic volumetric strain but of opposite sign.
7. The plastic strain increment is normal to the yield locus at the current stress, so the plastic dilatancy,
D, is given by (15). Hence we can calculate the plastic distortional strain increment, pq .
8. The elastic distortional strain increment, eq , is calculated using the shear modulus G for the soil.
The plastic and elastic components are added to give the total distortional strain increment, q .
9. We will assume that we are conducting a conventional undrained compression test with constant
lateral total stress (cell pressure) so that:
 Table 2: Cam clay: undrained test calculation

v p0 p0 p0o q q = q/p0 v p pp 1/D = pq /pp pq eq eq p u u

q
=3 (17)
p

and we can calculate the increment in pore pressure from the known changes in total and effective mean
stress (9).
10. The calculation process is repeated for a new stress increment, starting at step 3. A table illustrating
the sequence of calculation steps may be helpful (Table 2).

Cam clay: graphical and calculation exercise

1. Use the plots provided (Figs 1, 6) to follow the progress of a drained and undrained triaxial compression
test on Cam clay. Guess reasonable values for any soil parameters that are required.
2. Follow the steps through the calculation procedure for conventional drained and undrained tests
in order to produce numerical values to compare with the graphical results. Estimate values for soil
parameters consistent with the geometry of the plots in Figs 1, 6. (Values implied in these figures may
not be the same for the two tests.) You do not need to use the same step sizes implied by the intervals
between yield loci in these figures.