Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Physics Good PDF
Physics Good PDF
.co
www.sscexamtutor.com
or
tut
am
PHYSICS
ex
ssc
w.
ww
ww
w.
ssc
ex
am
tut
or
.co
m
m
.co
CONTENTS
1. Units & Measurement ............................................................................................ 5-6
or
2. Motion ..................................................................................................................... 7-18
tut
4. Gravitation............................................................................................................ 25-27
•••
ww
w.
ssc
ex
am
tut
or
.co
m
m
.co
UNITS &
MEASUREMENT
or
All the quantities in terms of which Systems of units Length Mass Time
laws of physics are described and whose
1. C.G.S. System Centimetre Gram Second
measurement is essential are called physical
tut
quantities like mass, length, time, light, 2. F.P.S. System Foot Pound Second
current electricity, temperature, etc. 3. M.K.S. System Metre Kilogram Second
Physics [5]
m
radiation corresponding to unperturbed (iii) Par sec. (Parallactic second) : 1
.co
transition between the two specific energy Par sec = 3.1 × 1016m = 3.26 ly
levels of the ground gaseous state of Cs-
(iv) 1 micrometre or 1 micron = 10–6m
133 isotope. The caesium atoms in the
atomic clock act like a pendulum in a (v) 1 nanometre (1nm) = 10–9m
pendulum clock. The atomic clock gives (vi) 1 Angstrom (1A°) = 10–10m
or
the most accurate time with an error of 1
For Masses : (i) 1 tonne or 1 metric ton
second only in 5000 years.
= 1000 kg
IMPORTANT PRACTICAL UNITS (ii) 1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kg.
tut
For Lengths : (i) Astronomical Unit (iii) The largest unit of mass is Chandra
(A.U) : It is equal to the distance between Shekher Limit (C.S.L) 1 C.S.L. = 1.4 times
the centre of the earth and the centre of the the mass of the Sun.
sun. One A.U. = 1.5 × 1011m. (iv) For small masses atomic mass unit
am
(ii) Light Year (ly) : It is equal to the (a.m.u.) is used. 1 a.m.u = 1.6 × 10–27kg.
distance travelled by light in vacuum in For Area : (i) 1 acre = 4047 m2.
one year. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015m.
(ii) 1 hectare = 104m2.
■■■
ex
ssc
w.
ww
or
A body is said to be in motion if it
changes its position with respect to its
surroundings as time goes on. A body is
tut
said to be at rest if it does not change its
position with time, with respect to its
surroundings. SPEED
.co
Average Speed = 3m/s it has a positive acceleration and when the
velocity decreases, it has a negative accel-
Average Velocity eration. This negative acceleration is called
deceleration or retardation.
When a body is released from a height,
or
its velocity increases by 9.8 m/s in every
ACCELERATION second and when a body is thrown above
the earth’s surface, its velocity decreases
The rate of change of velocity with re-
by 9.8 m/s in every second. This change in
spect to time is called acceleration.
velocity every second is called acceleration
tut
due to gravity which is denoted by ‘g’. Its
average value at the earth’s surface is 9.8
m/s2. It is always directed towards the
When a body completes equal displace- centre of the earth because of the gravita-
ment in equal interval of time, its velocity is tional pull. For a freely falling body, its
am
constant and hence, it does not have an acceleration is 9.8 m/s2.
acceleration. When a body shows equal
change in velocity in equal interval of time POSITION (DISPLACEMENT)-
its velocity is not constant but it has a TIME GRAPHS
constant acceleration.
(i) For a body moving with a uniform
EQUATIONS OF MOTION velocity: This graph comes as a straight
ex
or ...(i)
(ii) For a body moving with a uniform (ii) For the motion of a body thrown
vertically upwards : When the body moves
acceleration : If a body starting with an
up, its velocity continuously decreases due
initial velocity ‘u’ moves with a uniform
w.
....(iii)
ww
and ...(iv)
.co
equal to the uniform velocity.
The slope of the velocity time graph is
equal to acceleration.
or
and OB = time (t)
tut
or,
VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH
Example 1 : A car is travelling with a
For a uniformly accelerated motion the
velocity of 20 m/s at a uniform accelera-
velocity-time graph is a straight line.
am
tion of 1 m/s2. Find out its velocity after 10
seconds.
Solution : Given, the initial velocity = u
= 20 m/s. acceleration = a = 1 m/s2. time
interval = t = 10 seconds.
hence, the final velocity = v = u + at
ex
or v = 20 + 1 × 10 = 20 + 10 = 30 m/s.
The area under the velocity-time graph
is equal to displacement. Example 2 : A bus moving at 10 m/s
experiences a constant retardation of 2 m/
∴ Displacement = Area under velocity s2. due to applied brakes. How much dis-
ssc
retardation = – 2 m/s2.
or v = u + at or = 5 sec.
ww
∴ V = u + at
Physics [9]
m
.co
or h = gt2
= 50 – 25 = 25m
or, v2 – u2 = 2as
Example 5. A stone is thrown vertically
or
= 25m. upwards with a velocity of 98 m/s. What will
be its maximum height attained and time taken
It covers a distance of 25 m before it stops. to achieve this height ?
Example 3 : A train travelling with an Solution : a = g = – 9.8 m/s2, u = 98
initial velocity of 4 m/s accelerates uniformly m/s2.
tut
at a rate of 2m/s2. for 20 seconds. Calculate
the distance covered. At the maximum height (h) = s = h and
v=0
Solution : Given, the initial velocity = u
= 4m/s ∴ v2 – u2 = 2as
∴ Displacement,
∴ v = u + at
∴ 0 = 98 – 9.8 × t or t = 10 seconds
ex
or s = 80 + 400 = 480m.
Example 4 : A stone is dropped from PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
rest from the top of a tower. What will be (i) Vectors : They have a definite
its velocity after 2 seconds and what is the magnitude and a definite direction, e.g.
ssc
height of the tower if the stone falls in 5 displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
seconds onto the ground ?
(ii) Scalars : They have definite
Solution : Here a = g = 9.8 m/s2. magnitudes only and not direction. e.g.
u=0 distance, speed, work, energy, power,
electric charge etc.
Hence, after t = 2 seconds, the stone
w.
.co
the net displacement and velocity of the inertia of motion or inertia of direction.
body will be zero but the distance and
speed of the body must be non-zero. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
The velocity and acceleration of a body
may not necessarily be in the same direc- First Law of Motion
or
tion and may not be zero simultaneously. Every body continues to be in a state
The body in equilibrium may be at rest or of rest or uniform motion in a straight
may move with a constant velocity. When line, except in so far as it may be com-
a body is thrown upwards, it will go verti- pelled by force to change that state.’
cally until its vertical velocity becomes zero
tut
Newton’s first law of motion defines in-
and it will return to the ground with the ertia.
same velocity with which it was thrown.
1. Inertia of Rest : the inability of a
When a body is thrown horizontally body to change by itself its state of rest.
from a height or dropped from the same
height in both cases it will be reaching to When a branch of a fruit tree is shaken,
am
the ground simultaneously because in both the fruits fall down. This is because the
the cases the body will be acted upon by the branch comes in motion and the fruits
tend to remain at rest. Hence, they get
same vertically downward acceleration due
detached.
to gravity (g).
The dirt particles in a durree fall off if it
A physical quantity having direction
is stricken by a stick. This is because the
may or may not be a vector e.g. time, pres-
ex
uct of force and the time is equal to the the coin remains at the same place on
impulse. the table due to inertia of rest.
Inertia : The inability of a body to When a horse starts suddenly, the rider
change by itself its state of rest or state of tends to fall backwards due to inertia
uniform motion along a straight line is of rest
ww
Physics [11]
m
When a horse at full gallop stops sud- When a knife is sharpened by press-
.co
denly, the rider on it falls forward be- ing it against a grinding stone, the
cause of inertia of motion of the upper sparks fly off tangentially because
part of the rider’s body. of the inertia of direction.
When an athelete takes a long jump, he When a stone tied to one end of a string
runs first for a certain distance before is whirled and the string breaks sud-
or
the jump. This is because his feet come denly, the stone spins off along the tan-
to rest on touching the ground and the gent of its circular path. It happens so
remaining body continues to move ow- because of the pull in the string was
ing to inertia of motion. forcing the stone to move in a circle. As
tut
soon as the string breaks, the pull dis-
When train stops suddenly, a passen-
appears. The stone becomes free and in
ger sitting inside tends to fall forward.
a bid to move along the straight line
It happens because the lower part of
flies off tangentially.
the passenger’s body comes to rest with
the train but the upper part tends to
continue its motion due to inertia of Second Law of Motion
am
motion. ‘The rate of change of linear momen-
tum of a body is directly proportional to
A person jumping out of a speeding
the external force applied on the body
train may fall forward due to inertia of
and this change takes place always in
motion of his body. Hence, he should
the direction of the applied force’.
run a few steps on the platform in the
direction of motion of train. The second law gives us a measure of
ex
the inertia of direction. The mud-guards product of the mass of the body and its
over the wheels stop this mud, protect- acceleration which measures the magni-
ing the clothes, etc. of the person sitting tude of the applied force i.e.
on the bike.
Use of an umbrella to protect us from
rain is based on the property of inertia
w.
= mass × acceleration
of direction because the rain drops can-
not change their direction of motion. or,
When a bus or a car rounds a curve When a body is moving with a uni-
suddenly, the person sitting inside is form velocity along a straight line, it nei-
thrown outwards. It happens so be-
ww
.co
a straight line. hicles, change in linear momentum is
equal to the sum of the linear momenta
When a body changes its velocity or
of the two vehicles. Since time impact is
direction of its motion, its velocity
very small, hence an extra large force
changes too. It results in an acceleration
develops which results in maximum
which is possible only by the action of
or
damage to the vehicles.
an external applied force. Hence, an ac-
celerated motion is always due to an When a person falls from a height on a
external force. concrete floor, the floor does not yield.
The total change in linear-momentum
Application of the change in linear is produced in a very small interval of
tut
momentum (impluse) and second law time. Hene, the floor exerts a much
of motion : larger force and the person receives
Bogies of a train are provided with the more injury. But when a person falls
buffers. These buffers avoid severe jerks on a heap of sand, the sand yields. The
during shunting of the train. Since force same change in linear momentum is
am
= change in momentum/time and the produced in a much longer time. The
time of impact increases due to pres- average force exerted on the person by
ence of buffers. Hence, force during the heap of sand is, therefore, much
jerks decrease. It results in decrease in smaller and hence the person is not
the chances of damage. hurt.
Crockery items are wrapped in paper
Third Law of Motion
ex
while catching a cricket ball to avoid ways on different bodies. They never can-
injury. In doing so, he increases the time cel each other and each force produces its
of impact of the ball which in turn re- own effect. The forces of action and reac-
tion may be due to actual physical contact
duces the effect of the force on his hands.
of the two bodies or even from a distance.
Shockers in the motor-vehicles re- But they are always equal and opposite.
ww
duce the effect of jerk/force by in- This third law of motion is applicable
creasing the time of impact of the whether the bodies are at rest or they are
jerks given by an uneven road. in motion. This law is applied to all types
Physics [13]
m
of forces e.g. gravitational, electric or mag- of reaction on the jet-plane or rocket in
.co
netic forces, etc. the forward direction. Consequently,
Example and application of the third the jet-plane or rocket moves.
law of motion :
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION
A book placed on a table exerts a force
OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
or
as an action on the table. This action is
equal to the weight of the book. The The total sum of the linear momen-
table exerts a force of reaction equal tum of all bodies in a system remains
and opposite to the reaction to support constant and is not affected due to their
the book. mutual action and reaction. It means in
tut
When a gun fires a bullet, it moves a system of the two bodies, the total
forward due to a force exerted by the momentum of the bodies before impact
gun. The bullet exerts a reaction due to is equal to the total momentum of the
which the gun recoils backward. two bodies after impact. The law of
conservation of linear momentum is
We can walk on a ground easily if it is universal i.e. it applies to both, the mi-
am
tough because the ground provides suf- croscopic as well as macroscopic sys-
ficient reaction against our push. But it tem.
is difficult to walk on sand or ice. This
is because on pushing, sand gets dis- Some common applications of the
placed and reaction from sandy ground principle of conservation of linear
is very little. In case of ice, force of momentum:
ex
reaction exerted by the wall on the ball. object thrown remains zero due to op-
posite directions.
A swimmer pushes the water with a
force of action in backward direction When a man jumps out of a boat to
while water pushes the swimmer with the shore, the boat is pushed slightly
a force of reaction in the forward direc- away from the shore. The initial
w.
tion. Consequently, the swimmer is able momentum of the man and boat re-
to swim. mains equal to that of the final
value.
When a jet-plane or rocket moves in
the sky, the gases produced due to com- The gun must be held tightly to the
bustion of fuel escape through the shoulder when the gun is fired. It would
ww
.co
cycle along a vertical circle in a cage.
second law is the real law because it in- The motor cyclist does not fall down
cludes remaining both the first law and the even at the highest point.
third law.
A pilot of an aircraft can successfully
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION loop a vertical loop without falling at
or
the top of the loop being without belt.
When a body moves along a circular
path or a curve with a uniform circular Motion of vehicles on a curved road :
speed, the body is acted upon by an in-
(a) Level Curved Road : A level curved
ward acceleration. This acceleration acts
road is constructed where the speed of
tut
towards the centre of a circular path or
curve and is called as radial or centripetal the vehicles is slow. Here, the force of
acceleration which gives rise to the cen- friction between the road and tyre of
tripetal force. The centripetal force is an the wheel of the vehicle provides the
essential condition of the circular motion. necessary centripetal force.
Centripetal force (Fc) = mass of the body
am
(m) × centripetal acceleration (ac) (b) Banking of Roads : At the highways
where vehicles run fast, the frictional
or, force is not a reliable source for provid-
ing the required centripetal force to the
centripetal acceleration (ac) = vw vehicle. Hence, at such curved roads, a
safer course of action is to raise the
= rw2.
ex
ground.
essential centripetal force when a satel-
In a circus, a motor cyclist is able to lite revolves around a planet or a planet
perform the feat of driving the motor revolves around the sun.
Physics [15]
m
versa. It is because in doing so the
.co
ROTATIONAL MOTION angular speed increases.
(iii) Consider a ballet dancer is rotating
Torque (Moment of Force)
with her arms and legs stretched
The product of force acting on a body outwards. When she folds her arms
and perpendicular distance of line of action and brings the stretched legs close to
or
of the force from the axis of rotation is the other leg, her angular speed
called moment of force or torque. increases.
Torque = Force × Perpendicular distance (iv) Due to the same reason, the angular
from axis rotation speed of the inner layer of the tornado
tut
Applications of Torque : (whirlwind) is extremely high.
Torque due to a force is maximum, the (v) All helicopters are provided with two
distance from the axis of rotation is propellers. If there was one single
maximum. We can open or close a door propeller, the helicopter would rotate
easily by applying force near the edge of itself in an opposite direction in
am
the door i.e. at maximum distance from accordance with the laws of
the hinges. Hence, a handle or knob is conservation of angular momentum.
fitted near the free edge of the plank of the
door. A wrench with a long arm is required FRICTION
to unscrew a nut fitted tightly to a bolt.
Longer the arm of the wrench, smaller is When a body moves (slides or rolls) or
the required force to give sufficient turning even tries to move over the surface of
ex
distance from the axis of rotation. It follows mass of the body on a surface and
the principle of conservation. It means the roughness of the surfaces in contact
total angular moment of an isolated system between them and the magnitude of
remains always constant. friction, which increases with increase in
Applications of conservation of roughness and mass.
w.
.co
of friction. However, when the surfaces in a machine to the other part through
contact are made too smooth by polishing, belts is possible by friction.
the binding force of adhesion increases and
The working of nuts and bolts for hold-
hence, the frictional force increases. This is
ing parts of machinery together is based
called ‘cold welding’.
on friction.
or
Friction is a non-conservative force
The knots in woven clothes are possible
and hence, the mechanical energy
due to friction.
(potential and kinetic energy) is not
conserved. In fact, friction converts
Disadvantages of Friction
mechanical energy partly into heat, light
tut
(spark), sound, electricity, etc. Since, the force of friction opposes the
relative motion between any two bod-
Generally, friction opposes motion.
ies in contact, hence, extra work is done
However, in certain cases friction is
to overcome the force of friction. It in-
essential for motion. Without friction,
volves extra loss of energy. About 20%
motion cannot be started, stopped or
of the petrol used in an automobile is
am
transferred from one body to the other.
used up to overcome the force of fric-
Thus, friction is a necessary evil.
tion in the engine and in driving.
Advantages of Friction The force of friction results in heating
the working parts of the machinery that
When a person pushes the ground back-
may damage the parts.
ward, the rough surface of the ground
exerts a forward force due to friction. It Friction causes wear and tear of the
ex
Physics [17]
m
Order of the magnitude of the tity. And it never decreases with time.
.co
force of friction is: For a moving particle it cannot be zero.
Rolling friction < sliding friction < lim- Distance covered ≥ magnitude of dis-
iting friction. placement.
Owing to least value of rolling friction Speed is always a + VE quantity.
wheels are used in vehicles.
or
However, it can increase or decrease
with time.
TRIVIA
When a particle returns to the starting
When a particle goes from one point point its average velocity is zero but
average speed is not zero.
tut
to another, the actual length of the
path is called distance covered. The For uniform motion distance covered =
average speed is defined as the dis- magnitude of displacement. The mo-
tance covered per unit time. In the tion is along a straight line and its di-
above case, the straight line distance rection cannot change.
between the initial and final positions
am
is called magnitude of displacement. If a body covers first half distance with
The average velocity is defined as mag- speed v1, and the second half distance
nitude of displacement per unit time. with speed v 2, then average speed
■■■
ssc
w.
ww
or
WORK POWER
When a force is applied on a body and The time rate of change of work is
tut
a displacement is carried out in any power. When a body takes less time to do a
direction except in a direction certain work, its power is said to be more
perpendicular to the direction of the force, and vice-versa.
an amount of work is done by the force.
The amount of work done is equal to
am
the product of the force and the distance Its unit is watt (w). One kilowatt (1 kw)
travelled in the direction of the applied is equal to 1000 watt. One horse power
force i.e. (h.p.) is equal to 746 watt. Power of an
agent measures how fast it can do the
work. The area under the force versus
or, distance graph is numerically equal to the
ex
mechanical work is done by a teacher the work done while the slope of work
teaching a class. When a body falls freely versus time graph gives the power.
under the action of gravity, work done by
gravity on the body is positive. When a
body is pushed or pulled by a force, work
ww
Physics [19]
m
Work = power × time = area under w-t moving with same K.E. and same retarding
.co
graph force is applied on each, both the bodies
will stop after travelling the same distance.
or,
K.E. of a body is also given as :
or
graph.
ENERGY or,
tut
The ability of a body to do work is called
Hence, when a light and a heavy body
energy. When a body can do more work, it
are moving with the same linear momentum,
is said to have more energy and vice versa.
the light body will have more K.E.
Energy is different from power. Energy refers
to the total amount of work a body can do Every moving system is associated with
and power determines the rate of doing a definite amount of K.E. e.g. a moving
am
work. Both the energy of a body and work vehicle, wind, water flow, etc.
done by the body are equivalent and are
measured in Joule (J). Potential Energy (P.E.)
The energy possessed by a body by virtue
Kinetic Energy (K.E.) of its position or configuration is known as
It is the energy possessed by the body its potential energy. The mechanical P.E. is
ex
by virtue of its motion. The kinetic energy of two types viz., gravitational P.E. and
of a body is given as elastic P.E. The gravitational P.E. of a body
at a certain height is due to gravity whereas
the elastic P.E. is due to its property of
elasticity.
Where m = mass of the body and v =
ssc
Where u and v are initial and final body due to the molecular
velocities of the body of mass m. configuration and molecular motion.
When a heavy and a tight body are (iii) Electrical Energy : This energy arises
.co
charge carriers in a particular direction decrease in P.E. appears as an increase in
through a conductor. its K.E. When the body arives at the ground,
its P.E. becomes zero and this appears as
(iv) Chemical Energy : It is the energy
K.E.
possessed by the body by virtue of
chemical bonding of its atoms.
or
Sources of Energy
(v) Nuclear Energy : It is the energy
The sources of energy are immense and
released during the nuclear reaction
they are divided into two groups viz.
due to conversion of mass into energy.
(i) Renewable Source : These sources
tut
Mass-Energy Equivalence of energy are inexhaustible and are being
continuously supplied by nature e.g. wind,
Mass and energy are equivalent to each
flowing water, the sun, ocean tides, biogas,
other and can be interconverted according
plants and vegetable waste, etc.
to Einstein’s equation or
(ii) Non-renewable Source : They are
m = E/c2.
am
exhaustible and have been formed in nature
Where E = energy, m = mass and, c = long ago e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas,
speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 m/s. fissionable materials like uranium.
If mass = 1 kg, the energy released is
Wind Energy
E = 1 kg × (3 × 108)2 m/s2 = 9 × 1016
Air in motion is wind which has kinetic
Joule
energy called wind energy.
ex
but can be transformed from one form to the speed of air is small, then the wind is
another. The amount of energy appearing in known as breeze. On the other hand, if the
one form is exactly equal to the energy speed of air is very large, then the wind is
disappearing in some other form always. known as storm or tornado.
When a body is at rest at a certain Uses of Wind Energy
ww
height above the surface of the earth, it (i) Sail Boats : A boat can be rowed
only has an amount of potential energy. with oars using muscular energy which is
As soon as the body is released from that a tiresome job for a longer distance. Hence,
Physics [21]
m
a sail is used by utilizing K.E. of the wind gravitational force of attraction exerted by
.co
to move the boat. A sail is a large sheet of moon and to some extent by the sun on the
thick cloth spread over a boat in such a water of the ocean. At the time of new and
way that maximum wind falls on it. The full moon, when the sun and the moon are in
sail boat moves due to wind. The speed a straight line, tides are very high. When the
and direction of motion of the soil boat sun and the moon are at right angle from the
or
depend mainly upon the wind. earth, tides are low. The K.E. of the water
during tides is used to produce electricity.
To move the boat in any desired
direction, two sails at right angles to each Tidal power plant is made near narrow
other are attached to the same pole fixed bays. During tides, the gates of the dam
are opened. The rising water is allowed to
tut
on the pole . A steering device known as
rudder is used to turn these two sails fall on the turbine of the generator which
through any angle. One of the sails is used produces electricity and the K.E. of the
to direct the wind and the other sail collects water is converted into electrical energy.
this wind. The kinetic energy of the wind During low tides, gates of the dam are
collected by the second sail (propeller) closed and hence the water level behind
am
moves the boat in th desired direction. the dam rises. This raised water has high
potential energy. Again the gates are
(ii) Wind Mill : A device used to convert opened and the water falls on the turbine.
wind energy into the mechanical energy of Thus, the electricity is produced
the machine is called wind mill. continuously.
Wind energy is pollution free and France and Canada are the leading
economical. However, it is limited to certain countries which harness the tidal energy.
ex
places where wind is in plenty and blows In India, three sites viz. Gulf of Kutch
most of the time. In India, there are some (Gujarat), Gulf of Cambay (Gujarat) and
high wind energy regions like Islands of Sunderbans (West Bengal) have been
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, coastal identified to construct tidal power plants.
parts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, some
ssc
district. This power station is producing more than the inner deep ocean. Due to
about 2000 million units of power every this temperature difference, heat energy
year. The second power station operating can be drawn to produce electricity.
with wind energy is in Okha. The vegetation and biomass found at
the sea bed can be used to produce heat.
ww
.co
The inner part of the earth is very hot Plant : It consists of a well shaped tank
and hence, hot underground water comes inside the ground called digester. Digester
automatically out of the earth’s surface in is divided into two chambers with a
certain regions in the form of fountains partition wall. A drum shaped gas holder
known as hot water springs or geysers. made of steel in the inverted position over
or
The steam of these springs under high the mouth of the digester acts as a storage
pressure can be used to rotate the turbines tank for biogas. This tank moves up and
down over the slurry in the digester tank
of the generator to produce electricity.
and hence this gas plant is called floating
gas holder type. The motion of the drum
tut
Biogas
is controlled by a pipe.
Biogas is a mixture of gases like methane
Mixing tank is connected to the digester
(65%), CO2, H2 & H2S formed when the
with the help of the inlet pipe. The overflow
animal dung mixed with water is allowed
tank used to collect the used slurry is also
to ferment in the absence of air (Oxygen)
connected by a pipe. The biogas collected
and it is produced in a biogas plant. Biogas
am
in the floating tank is taken out with a pipe
is a very good fuel to produce heat.
having a gas valve.
The arrangement of producing biogas
from animals dung, human excreta and
industrial and domestic wastes is known
as biogas plant. There are two types of
biogas plants which have been used in our
ex
bricks and cement. This outlet chamber is heavy load by applying comparatively
connected to the overflow tank which smaller force like lever, wheel and axle,
collects the used slurry. inclined plane, etc.
Physics [23]
m
Effort : The force applied to a machine with the help of the laws of
.co
to overcome load (resistance) is called conservation.
effort.
Violation of the laws of conservation
Load : The resistance (force) to be indicates that the event cannot take place.
overcome by a machine is called load.
Work done depends on the frame of
or
reference.
Mechanical Advatnage (M.A.):
Work done is path independent only in
Velocity Ratio (V.R) or Ideal Mechanical a conservative field.
Advantage (IMA)
Stopping distance of a body
tut
Efficiency of a machine When the water is flowing through a
pipe with speed v, then its power is
am
proportional to v3.
If kinetic energy of body is doubled, the
its momentum becomes times.
Efficiency is always less than one or If an elastic collision of two equal
less than 100%. Ony for ideal machines, masses, their kinetic energies are
the efficiency is one or 100%. exchanged.
ex
V.R. or I.M.A. for some simple If a light and a heavy body have equal
machines— momenta, then lighter body has greater
kinetic energy.
(i) Lever : I.M.A. Potential energy of a system increases when
ssc
Although the exact nature of the nuclear If the speed of a vehicle is made n times,
forces is not known, yet we can solve then its stopping distance becomes n2 times.
problems regarding the nuclear forces ■■■
or
The force of attraction between any two eclipses, and the orbits and time period of
bodies in the universe is called gravitation. the modern artificial satellites. The cause
The force of gravitation is the weakest force behind the tides in the oceans is mainly the
tut
in the nature. However, it is the most gravitational force of attraction between
important force in the universe because it the moon and ocean water.
plays an important role in planetary motion,
the birth of a star, etc.
GRAVITY
am
NEWTON’S LAW OF It is the force of attraction exerted by
GRAVITATION the earth towards its centre on a body
lying on or near the surface of the earth. It
The gravitational force of attraction is called earth’s gravitational pull. Thus,
between any two bodies in the universe is the gravity is a special case of gravitation.
directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the The force of gravity acting on a body is
ex
square of distance between them. the measure of weight of the body. The
force of gravity produces an acceleration
Let two bodies of masses m1 and m2
in a body and it is known as acceleration
respectively having a separation of r
between them. due to gravity. It is denoted by ‘g’. If a body
is of mass ‘m’, then its weight at the surface
Then from the Newton’s law of
ssc
.co
independent of mass, shape, size, etc. of a similar to that of the earth. Its speed is 3.1
falling body i.e. a light and a heavy freely kms/s. Its orbit is coplaner to the equatorial
falling body will attain an equal plane of the earth.
acceleration which is equal to the
It is also known as a geosynchronous
acceleration due to gravity (g). The average
satellite.
or
value of ‘g’ at the surface of the earth is 9.8
m/s2. Heavier a planet or satellite, higher (ii) Polar Satellite : It revolves around
is its ‘g’. The value of ‘g’ at the surface of the earth in a polar orbit which is at 90° to
the moon is 1/6th of the value at the earth’s the equatorial plane. It passes over both
surface. The value of acceleration due to the north and south poles of the earth once
tut
gravity is minimum at planet Mercury and per orbit. Hence, every location on earth
maximum at planet Jupiter. lies with the observation of polar satellite
twice each day. It is also known as the sun
SATELLITE synchrononous satellite.
In order to monitor 100% earth’s
The body revolving around a planet
am
surface, three geostationary satellites are
continuously in an orbit is called a satellite.
required while a single polar satellite can
Moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
do the same job.
Since 1957, many man made satellites have
been put in different orbitals around the
earth. They are called Artificial Satellites. ESCAPE VELOCITY
A satellite revolves around the planet The minimum velocity required to
ex
in an orbit under the effect of the centripetal throw a body so that it becomes free from
force provided by the gravitational force of the earth’s gravitational pull is called escape
attraction between the satellite and the velocity. It is given as = 11.2 km/
planet. The minimum velocity with which s for the earth where g is acceleration due
a satellite is put into its orbital is called to gravity and R, the radius of the earth.
ssc
in its orbit. Its time period of revolution down with a uniform velocity, the weight
around the earth is 24hrs and its height is of a body inside it remains unchanged.
36000 km above the equator of the earth. It But, when the lift accelerates upwards,
.co
●
downwards the weight of a body decreases. That is, it increase in direct proportion to
the distance from the centre of the earth.
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY
● Decrease in acceleration due to gravity
MOTION at a depth d is given by : gd/R, where R
(i) The First Law : Every planet revolves = radius of the earth.
or
around the sun in an elliptical orbit. ● Orbital velocity very near the surface of
(ii) The Second Law : The average radius the earth is 7.92 km/s.
of the elliptical orbit of the planet
● Greater the height of the satellite smaller
sweeps out equal areas in equal
tut
intervals of time. is the orbital velocity.
(iii) The Third Law : The square of the time ● Time period of the satellite very near
period of revolution of a planet is the surface of the earth is about 84.6
directly proportional to the cube of minutes.
average radius of its elliptical orbit i.e. ● No energy is dissipated in keeping the
am
T2 µ R3.
satellite in orbit round a planet.
●
● Kinetic energy of escape for a satellite =
● Gravitational potential due to the earth 2 × kinetic energy of orbital motion.
at its surface is given by : Ve = – GMe|Re
where Me = mass of the earth and Re = ● A body in gravitational field has maxi-
radius of the earth. mum binding energy when it is at rest.
ww
Physics [27]
m
.co
PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
or
Matter is broadly divided into three (ii) Amorphous or Glassy Solids : They
categories, viz. Solid, Liquid and Gas. Due have irregular arrangement of particles.
to the strongest intermolecular force of Hence, they do not have a definite
tut
attraction in solids, they are tough and external geometrical shape and sharp
have a definite shape and size. This force is melting point. They are isotropic i.e. their
relatively weak in liquids and so the shape physical properties have the same value
is easily changed but liquids have a definite in all directions e.g glass, cement,
volume. In gases, the intermolecular force rubber, paraffin, plastic, etc.
of attraction is minimum and hence, they
am
do not have a definite shape, size and LIQUIDS
volume.
Pressure due to a liquid column depends
There is a fourth state of matter called
upon its density and height
plasma state in which matter exists in
ionised state. Plasma state is common in Where h = height of liquid column and
stars. d = density of liquid. If equal amounts of a
ex
position of minimum potential energy. Solids will be more on the narrow base than that
are of two categories : on the broad base.
(i) Crystalline Solids : They have a regular Pascal’s Law : ‘If the effect of gravity is
pattern of constituent particles in three neglected the pressure at every point of a
dimensional space. Hence, they have a liquid in equilibrium of rest is the same.’’ It
definite external geometrical shape and means, in a liquid content, the effect of
w.
a sharp melting point. They are an pressure is equally trasmitted through out
isotropic i.e. their physical properties the liquid system.
like conductivity (thermal and
electrical), refractive index, mechanical Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic press or Brahma
strength etc. have different values in press, etc. work on the Pascal’s law.
ww
different directions e.g. rice, sugar, Pressure is equal to the force acting
quartz, diamond, rocksalt, most of
metals & their compounds, etc. per unit area i.e. pressure
.co
surfaces one with a narrow cross sectional pin but the weight of water displaced
area and other with a broad cross section by the iron pin is less than the weight of
and provided with pistons. Since pressure the pin.
remains the same in every section of the
Initially, a balloon filled with helium gas
liquid system, hence, by putting a small
rises in the air because the weight of the
or
load on the piston of small cross section a
air displaced by the balloon is greater
heavy load placed at the piston of the broad
than the weight of the balloon. As it goes
cross-section can be uplifted.
up, the weight of air displaced decreases
Buoyancy : Whenever a body is due to decrease in the density of air and
tut
immersed in a fluid, the displaced fluid has hence, the balloon halts at a height
a tendency to occupy the original position. where the weight of air displaced by the
Hence, an upward force is experienced by balloon becomes equal to the weight of
the body. This upward force acting on the the balloon.
body inside a fluid is called bouyancy or
buoyant force or upthrust. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
am
Archimedes Principle : ‘When a body Air content above the earth exerts force
is partially or completely immersed in a due to its weight on the ground. This force
fluid, it loses some of its weight which is on the ground gives rise to the atmospheric
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced pressure. At the sea level the value of
by the body.’’ atmospheric pressure is one atmosphere.
Law of Floatation : A body will float in
ex
1 atmosphere = 760 mm of Hg = 76 cm
a liquid, if weight of liquid displaced by the of Hg = 1.013 × 105 N/m2
immersed part of the body is at least equal
to or greater than the weight of the body. = 1.013 × 105 pascal = 760 torr.
Applications are discussed as below : Barometer is a device that measures
pressure. Mercury barometer is the most
ssc
water after melting the iceberg. This is on the ground which would prevent the
because the density of ice is less than yielding of ground. Pins and nails are
that of water and the weight of water pointed so that on pressing on a surface
displaced by the iceberg is more than they exert high pressure on the surface
Physics [29]
m
and hence, easily penetrate the surface. and known as the co-efficient of elasticity
.co
The pointed end has least the surface area or modulus of elasticity. The modulus of
and it provides greater pressure on applying elasticity is a measure of elasticity of a
a normal force because pressure is equal to body.
force devided by area. Due to the same
Ductile Materials : These materials
reason, it is painful to walk bare footed on
show a large plastic range beyond the
or
a road covered with edgy pebbles.
elastic limit.They are used in making
Vander Waal Force of Attraction : It is springs and sheets e.g. coppers, iron, silver,
the minimum force of attraction between aluminium, etc.
any two neutral particles (atoms or
Brittle Materials : These materials
tut
molecules). It may be of two types viz.
show a very small plastic range beyond
cohesive force (between similar molecules)
elastic limit e.g. glass, cast iron, etc.
and adhesive force (between dissimilar
molecules). Elastomers : These materials have no
plastic range. In such materials even a
ELASTICITY small stress can produce a large strain e.g.
am
rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta in the
The ability of a body to regain its original human blood circulatory system, etc.
configuration after removal of an applied
deforming force is called elasticity and the Safety factor
body is termed elastic. Quartz and
phospher bronze are nearly perfectly elastic When a material is used in a certain
bodies. Steel is more elastic than rubber. construction, the working stress is kept
ex
Most of the metals are elastic. much lower than that of breaking stress so
When a body does not regain its original that the safety factor may have a large
configuration at all on the removal of the value.
deforming force, it is called a plastic body. The metallic parts of the machinery are
e.g. plastic paraffin, putty, etc. never subjected to a stress beyond the elastic
ssc
When a deforming force is applied on limit, otherwise they will get permanently
an elastic body, its configuration changes deformed.
and after the removal of the force the body The bridges are designed in such a way
regains the original form. The force applied that they do not bend much or break under
per unit area is called stress and the ratio the load of heavy traffic, force of strongly
of the change in configuration to the
w.
.co
than a solid shaft made of the same equal compressibility.
material.
Hooke’s law is obeyed only for small
The material used to construct a spring values of strain (say of the order of 0.01).
should be of higher elasticity. Hence, steel Higher values of the elasticity (modulus)
having higher elasticity is used to construct a
or
means greater force is required for
spring. Rubber is of lower eleasticity and producing a given change.
hence, it cannot be used to construct a spring.
The materials which break as soon as
If a material is subjected to repeated the stress goes beyond the elastic limit
strains, it losses its elasticity over a long are called brittle.
tut
period of time. After a long use, the bridges
are declared unsafe. The materials which do not break well
beyond the elastic limit are called ductile.
The modulus of elasticity has the same
units and dimensional formula as that The deformation beyond elastic limit is
of strees or pressure. called plasticity
am
Rubber sustains elasticity even when
The material is more elastic if its value
stretched several times its length.
of modulus of elasticity is large.
However it is not ductile. It breaks down
Young’s modulus of elasticity-Y and as soon as the elastic limit is crossed.
modulus of rigidity h exist only for
Breaking stress does not depend on the
solids as liquids and gases cannot be
length or area of cross section of the
deformed along one dimension only and
ex
least elastic. It is so because for the given Elastic after effect is temporary absence
stress applied the gases are more of the elastic properties.
compressible than that of solids. Temporary loss of elastic properties due
Young’s modulus of the material of a to continuous use for a long time is called
wire is numerically equal to the stress elastic fatigue.
w.
which will double the length of a wire. Thermal stress in a rod is independent
of the area of cross section or length of
TRIVIA the rod.
Young’s modulus is defined only for the When a body is sheared, two mutually
ww
Physics [31]
m
Quartz is the best available example of If a body just floats in a liquid (density
.co
perfectly elastic material. of the body is equal to the density of
The pressure is perpendicular to the liquid) then the body sinks if it is pushed
surface of the fluid. downwards.
The upthrust on a body immersed in a The hydrometer can be used to measure
liquid does not depend on the mass, density of the liquid or fluid.
or
density or shape of the body. It only When a gale blows over a roof, the force
depends on the volume of the body. on the roof is upwards.
The weight of the plastic bag full of air
Sudden fall in atmospheric pressure
is same as that of the empty bag because
tut
predicts possibility of a storm.
the upthrust is equal to the weight of
air enclosed. If two bodies have equal upthrust in a
The wooden rod cannot float vertically liquid, both have the same volume.
in a pond of water because centre of If one floats on one’s back on the surface
gravity lies above the metacentre. of water, the apparent weight is zero.
am
The cross-section of the water stream If a beaker is filled with liquid of density
from a tap decreases as it goes down in p upto a height h, then the mean
accordance with the equation of pressure on the walls of the beaker is
continunity.
hp g/2.
We cannot sip a drink with a straw on
Stress and pressure have the same units
the moon, because there is no
and dimensions, but the pressure is
ex
.co
nearest approach to the rigid body. vessel if its angle of contact is obtuse.
Elasticity is meaningless for the rigid In case of liquids which do not wet the
bodies. That is, the elastically is the walls of the containing vessel, the force
property of the non rigid bodies. of adhesion is less than times the
force of cohesion.
or
Compressibility
The height of the liquid column in a
Breaking stress is independent of the
capillary tube on the moon is six times
length of the wire.
that on the earth.
Breaking stress depends on the material
tut
Soldering of two metals is possible
of the wire.
because of cohesion.
Breaking load depends on the area of
When the liquid drops merge into each
cross-section of the wire.
other to form a larger drop, energy is
Bulk modulus was first defined by Max released.
well.
am
The liquid rises in a capillary tube, when
In the stretched spring, tensile strain is the angle of contact is acute.
produced.
Surface tension of molten cadmium
Breaking stress for a wire of unit increase with the increase in
crosssection is called tensile strength. temperature.
If a beam of rectangular cross-section is The coefficient of viscosity of gases
ex
loaded its depression is inversely increase with the rise in temperature but
proportional to the cube of thickness of that of liquids decreases with the
the beam. increase in temperature.
If a beam of a circular cross-section is The streamlined or turbulent nature of
loaded, its depression is inversely flow depends on the velocity of flow of
ssc
Physics [33]
m
Gases cannot be liquified above the
.co
critical temperature.
Above critical temperature a substance
is in gaseous state and below critical Dew point
temperature it can be in vapour state.
It is the temperature at which the
or
The branch of thermal physics that deals amount of water vapour actually
with measurement of the amount of present in a certain volume of the air is
water vapours present in the sufficient to saturate that volume of air.
atmosphere is called hygrometry.
* At the dew point the actual vapour
Saturated and unsaturated air :
tut
pressure becomes the saturation vapour
(i) The air is said to be saturated when the pressure.
maximum possible amount of water Relative humidity can also be defined
vapours are present in it. as:
* The pressure of the water vapours in Relative humidity =
am
the saturated air is called saturation
vapour pressure.
(ii) If the air contains vapours less than the
maximum possible amount possible in
the air, then it (air) is said to be Relative humidity is low when the air is
unsaturated. dry.
ex
The humidity refers to the presence of Relative humidity is high if the air is
water vapours in the atmosphere. It is moist.
defined in the atmosphere. It is defined
in the following two ways. Hygrometer :
.co
cryogenics. etc. due to the condensation of saturated
Maximum value of relative humidity is vapours.
100%. Small droplets of water formed due to the
The saturation vapour pressure of water condensation of water vapours near the
at 100°C is 760 mm of Hg at sea level. surface of the earth constitute mist or fog.
or
As the temperature rises, the absolute Mist or fog formed much high above the
humidity may increase and the relative surface of earth is called cloud.
humidity may remain constant or may Human beings feel comfortable when the
even decrease. relative humidity is between 50% to 60%.
tut
Let the saturation vapour pressure at When the air is saturated with water
temperature t°C is p. If the atmospheric
vapours, the relative humidity is 100%
pressure is reduced to p, the water starts
and dew point is equal to the room
boiling at t°C.
temperature.
At the same temperature one feels hotter
am
if the relative humidity is high. When the relative humidity is 100%, the
reading of the dry and wet bulbs is
If the air is absolutely dry, the dew point same.
is not observed.
Smaller the difference in the
The dew point does not change if the temperature of dry and wet bulbs, larger
temperature of the room is changed. is the relative humidity.
ex
The relative humidity decreases with the Water vapours are always seen around
increase in temperature. the ice, because the temperature around
If water is sprinkled in the room, both it is less than the dew point.
relative humidity as well as the dew
point increase.
ssc
w.
ww
Physics [35]
m
.co
SURFACE TENSION
or
The molecules at the surface of a liquid Some common examples of surface
have a higher potential energy than those tension :
of the inner molecules. P.E. = mgh where
The hairs of a shaving brush when taken
tut
m is mass of a molecule, g is acceleration
out of water are pressed together. In-
due to gravity and h is the height of the
side water, hairs spread out. On taking
molecule above the bottom of the liquid.
out the brush from water, the water
Due to maximum height the surface
molecules of the liquid have maximum P.E. film forms between the hairs while tend-
Hence, in order to have higher stability, ing to make its surface area minimum
am
the liquid surface tries to minimize its P.E. due to surface tension brings the hairs
In doing so, it tends to contract to have closer to each other.
minimum surface area, number of In soldering, addition of flux reduces
molecules and hence, minimum P.E. and the S.T. of molten tin, hence, it spreads.
maximum stability. Consequently, the
liquid surface behaves as if convered with The liquid drop has a tendency to have
minimum surface area due to the sur-
ex
force acting per unit length at the liquid face tension of oil is more than that of
surface. hot water, hence oil drop remains as a
drop on hot water.
The surface molecules of the liquid are Bees like insects can float on water surface
always under the effect of an inward force because the weight of the insect is bal-
due to force of cohesion between the surface anced by the force of surface tension of
molecules and inner molecules. That water. Due to the same reason, a greased
imparts surface tension. The surface tension iron needle can float on water surface.
ww
.co
solution and taken out, a soap film is formed Examples of capillary action :
on the loop due to surface tension.
The tip of of the nib of a pen is split in
The bits of camphor are seen dancing order to provide a capillary which helps
on the surface of water. The bits of the ink to rise to the end of the nib and
camphor reduce the surface tension of enables it to write continuously.
or
water where they are dipped. Due to
irregular shape of the camphor bits, When a chalk piece is dropped into
unequal forces of surface tension act on water, air bubbles come out. The pores
them. Hence, they move erratically on in the chalk containing air act as nar-
the surface of water. row capillaries. Hence, water enters
tut
It is better to wash clothes in hot soap these pores due to capillary action and
solution. Hot solution has lower sur- air bubbles come out.
face tension. Hence, the solution spreads A blotting paper has fine pores that
over a larger area or clothes and clean- act as capillaries. Hence, ink rises in
ing action increases. them leaving the paper dry.
am
Action of detergent or soap solution : The capillary action of narrow capillar-
When detergents or soaps are dissolved ies in the threads of a towel enables the
in water, the surface tension of water towel to soak water.
decreases. Hence, a detergent/soap so-
lution spreads more quickly over the The wooden door swells in the rainy
clothes. Consequently, more dirt come season because of the capillary action
ex
in contact with the solution and cleans- of moisture available in the air through
ing action enhances. Further, hot the pores in the wood.
soution has lower surface tension than Molten wax in candles or oil in lamps rises
a cold one which gives extra cleaning through threads due to capillary action.
ability to the detergent/soap solution.
Clay soil has capillaries but sand does
ssc
Hence, warm food is tastier than the Ploughing breaks the fine capillaries in
same food when cold. the soil. It prevents the rise of water
and reduces evaporation of water con-
CAPILLARITY tent in the soil.
The phenomenon of natural rise or fall The transport of water and minerals
ww
of liquid column in a narrow tube is called from the soil to plants is favoured by
capillarity and the tube is known as the the capillary action in the conduction
capillary tube. The capillarity increases with tissues called Xylems in the plants.
Physics [37]
m
hence, its area of cross-section decreases. If
.co
VISCOSITY the mouth of the tube used to water plants
It is fluid friction that arises due to inter in the garden is pressed, the speed and
molecular forces which are effective when range of the water flow increases, because
the different layers of the fluid are moving on pressing the cross sectional area of the
with different velocities. It gives rises to a mouth of the tube decreases. Due to similar
or
backward dragging force between the fluid reason the velocity of water increases when
layers moving with respect to each other. water flowing in a broader pipe enters a
Viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase narrow pipe.
in temperature but viscosity of gases
increase, under similar conditions. BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
tut
The phenomenon of viscosity plays an The total sum of energy of a fluid
important role in the circulation of blood during its flow remains constant. A fluid
through arteries and veins of human can have potential energy, kinetic energy
body. and pressure energy during its flow. Its
potential energy depends upon height,
am
At railway terminals, the liquids of high
viscosity are used as buffers. kinetic energy on velocity and pressure on
the pressure of the fluid.
Water flows faster than honey because
viscosity of water is lower than that of Applications of Bernolli’s Theorem :
honey hence, a small dragging force The size of the needle of a syringe con-
appears during the flow of water. trols flow better than the thumb pres-
ex
Chemists use the knowledge of viscosity ergy of the flow constant, velocity in-
to determine molecular mass and shape creases more in accordance with the
of large organic molecules like proteins Bernoulli’s theorm.
and cellulose.
Two rows of boats moving parallel to
each other and nearby, are pulled to-
FLOW OF FLUID wards each other. The velocity of wa-
w.
The rate of flow of a fluid through a ter between the two rows increases
tube is inversely proportional to the area of which results in increase in K.E. of
cross section of the tube. It means narrower water in between. Hence, pressure
the tube, higher will be the velocity of fluid and pressure energy of water on the
outerside of the rows increase. Con-
ww
.co
in accordance with the Bernoulli’s tion. Hence, kinetic energy of lower
theorem. air becomes more and consequently,
in order to have equal energy, the pres-
The roofs of hut or tinned roofs are usu-
sure energy of upper air gets to in-
ally blown off without causing any harm
crease. It results in increase in pres-
to the huts during cyclones or storms.
or
sure above the ball. This pressure pro-
The wind blows speedly above the roof
vides a centripetal force acting at a
during the storm whereas air inside the
right angle to the linear velocity of the
hut remains at rest. It gives higher ki-
ball. Consequently, the ball follows a
netic energy and small pressure energy
curved path.
tut
above the roof whereas below the roof
K.E. is small and pressure energy is high.
Due to high pressure and hence, higher TRIVIA
pressure below the roof, the roof experi- Molecular forces donot obey the inverse
ences an upward force and is blown off square law of distance.
with stormy wind.
am
The molecular forces are of electrical
The wings of the aeroplanes are de- origin.
signed such that it experiences an up-
ward pressure and hence, an upward Work done in forming a soap bubble of
force. It is based on Bernoulli’s theo- raidus R is 8πR2 σ, where σ = surface
tension.
rem. The upper surface of the wing is
more curved than its lower surface and Work done in breaking a drop of radius
ex
its leading edge is thicker than its trail- R into n drops of equal size = 4 π R2 σ
ing edge. Hence, the velocity of air above (n1/3 – 1).
the wings becomes more than that be- Same amount of energy is liberated in
low them i.e. kinetic energy of air above combining n drops into a single drop.
the wings becomes greater than that of
air below the wings. Consequently, the Angle of contact increases with rise in
ssc
When a spinning ball is thrown, it de- increase the angle of contact as well as
viates from its usual straight line path surface tension.
and its path becomes curved. This ef- Detergents decrease both the angle of
fect is based on Bernoulli’s theorem contact as well as surface tension.
and is known as Magnus effect. When
Surfaces tension does not depend on
ww
Physics [39]
m
Viscosity of gases increases with the above the bottom or at the depth h
.co
rise in temperature. below the surface of the liquid.
The rate of flow of liquid in a tube of The range is maximum for h = H/2. It
radius r length l whose ends are main- is given by
tained at a pressure difference p is :
or
. Here η = coefficient of vis-
cosity where R = 8η l/πr4 is called fluid Interatomic or intermolecular forces are
resitance. zero when the separation between them
is infinite.
Viscosity is independent of pressure.
tut
At a certain distance r = r0, the inter-
When a liquid is in equilibrium, the atomic or inter molecular force is zero.
force/forces acting on its surface are The value of r0 is different for the differ-
perpendicular everywhere. ent atoms and molecules.
In a liquid the pressure is same at the For r > r0, the interatomic/ intermo-
same horizontal level.
am
lecular forces are attractive.
The pressure at any point in the liquid For r < r0, the interatomic/intermolecu-
depends on depth (h) below the sur- lar forces are repulsive.
face, density of liquid and acceleration
due to gravity. At r = r0, the interatomic/intermolecu-
lar potential energy is minimum and
It is independent of the shape of the con- negative. It is the equilibrium position of
taining vessel, or total mass of the liquid.
ex
the atoms/molecules.
Bernoulli’s equation is in accordance Both the interatmoic as well as inter-
with the law of conservation of energy. molecular force vary inversely as the
It assumes that in the flowing liquid, sixth power of distance (F ∝ 1/r6).
every particle going across the cross- Differences between interatomic and
ssc
If a vessel contains liquids upto a (ii) Interatomic force are 50 to 100 times
height H and it has a hole in the side larger than the intermolecular forces.
at a height h, then the velocity of
(iii) Value of r0 for atoms is less than that
efflux is . The time taken by for molecules.
the liquid to reach the ground level is
ww
or
Space is a vast and endless area or an artificial satellite around the earth is
region outside the earth’s atmosphere known as the orbit of the satellite.
where the stars, planets and other celestial
tut
Characteristics of the Orbit of the
bodies exist.
Satellite:
Space exploration is the study of
(a) Apogee : The farthest point on the
collecting and analysing the information
orbit of a satellite from the surface of the
and data about the various heavenly or
earth is known as apogee.
celestial bodies in the outer space.
am
(b) Perigee : The nearest point on the
With the advancement in technology, a
orbit of the satellite from the surface of the
complete branch of science known as Space
earth is known as perigee.
Science has been developed to explore the
outer space. At present, the space (c) Inclination : The angle between the
exploration is done by using artificial and plane of the equator of the earth and the
space probes. plane of the orbit of the satellite is known
ex
as inclination.
A small body revolving around a planet
in an orbit is known as a satellite. A satellite is bound to the earth’s
gravitational pull as a planet is bound to
TYPES OF SATELLITES the Sun’s gravitational pull.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF
(i) Natural Satellite : A celestial body ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
revolving around a planet is known as the
Geo-stationary Satellite : A satellite
natural satellite. For example, the moon is
which is at rest with respect to the earth is
the natural satellite of the earth.
called a geo-stationary satellite. The orbit
All planets except Mercury and Venus of such a satellite around the earth is
w.
stationary satellite.
ORBIT OF SATELLITE
Polar Satellite : Geo-stationary
The closed elliptical path followed by satellites, orbiting about 36000 km above
Physics [41]
m
.co
Specialised Establishments Operating Under DRDO
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC): Specialised in the development of satellite launch ve-
hicles and sounding rockets.
ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC): The lead centre for satellite development, covering structures, ther-
mal systems, spacecraft mechanisms, power systems and satellite integration.
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC)-SHAR - Sriharikota Space Centre:India's prime launching
pad facility, providing the launch infrastructure as well as solid propellant processing and their test-
or
ing. A second launch pad has been recently built at SDSC-SHAR.
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) : The lead centre in the area of liquid and cryogenic
propulsion for launch vehicles and satellites.
Space Applications Centre (SAC): Specialised in the development of payloads for communication,
meterological and remote sensing satellites; it conducts space applications research and develop-
ment.
tut
ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC): It provides mission support to Low-
Earth orbit satellites and to launch vehicle missions.
Master Control Facility (MCF) : The monitoring and control centre for the geostationary satellites.
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU): Carries out research and development in inertial sensors and
systems and allied satellite elements.
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) : An autonomous institution supported by DOS, it is re-
sponsible for acquisition, processing and distribution of data from remote sensing satellites, based
am
in Hyderabad.
the equatorial plane, are used for sufficient in the space technology has to
communication purposes. fulfill the following requirements:
On the other hand, low to medium 1. Fabrication of Satellite or
altitude satellites are known as polar Spacecraft : Satellites play an important
satellites. These satellites move over the role in the field of space research. Therefore,
ex
orbit passing through the north and south an expertise is required for planning,
poles of the earth above the polar plane. designing and fabricating the different types
The orbit in which the polar satellite moves of satellites or space crafts.
is known as the polar orbit.
2. Designing and Fabrication of
Polar satellites are not used for Launch Vehicles : Launch vehicles are
ssc
communication purposes. They are used required to put satellite in the orbit around
for remote sensing and hence are known earth and to launch the space probe.
as remote sensing satellites.
Therefore, these vehicles have to be
The orbit in which a polar satellite or developed for the successful launching of
remote sensing satellite moves is such that satellites.
the satellite always passes over a particular
w.
area of the earth at the same local time. 3. Earth Control Station : When satellite
Such orbit of the satellite is known as sun- is put into orbit, its all operations have to
synchronous orbit (or polar orbit). be controlled and guided by sending proper
command from surface of the earth. Such
commands are sent from the station
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR
ww
or
the length and breadth of the country.
from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket
The Indian Space Rearcher Organisation Launching Station (TERLS). Although this
has set up a large number of organisations rocket was very small (diameter = 75 mm),
and research centres across the country to yet it had all the basic features of a rocket.
tut
carry out research and developmental Since then India never looked back and
activities in the field of space research and today it has the honour to be the sixth
technology. nation in the world in the field of space
technology.
am
ex
ssc
w.
ww
Physics [43]
m
.co
SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
or
PERIODIC MOTION a simple pendulum etc. are simple
harmonic motions.
The motion of a body which is repeated
Application of SHM are discussed as
tut
identically after a fixed interval of time is
known as periodic motion and the fixed below :
interval of time is known as time period of When the load attached to a spring is
the motion. pulled once a little from its mean
position & left free, it oscillates in simple
The motion of the hands of a clock is in
harmonic motion.
am
a periodic motion. The time period of the
hour’s hand is 12 hours, of the minute’s The motion of liquid contained in U-
hand is 1 hour and of the second’s hand is tube when it is compressed once in one
1 minute. of the two limbs & left to itself, is simple
harmonic motion.
The rotation of the earth about its axis
with a time period of 24 hours and the If a tunnel is dug along the diameter of
revolution of earth around the sun with a earth & a body is dropped in it, the
ex
time period of 1 year are other examples of body will oscillate in simple harmonic
the periodic motion. motion between the ends of the earth’s
diameter.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION When the oscillation of a body in simple
harmonic motion is free from frictional
ssc
particle from this point. This fixed point is When the oscillation of a body in simple
called the centre or mean position of harmonic motion involves frictional
oscillation. The simple harmonic motion is forces, its oscillations are damped. The
an oscillatory motion which in turn is a amplitude and energy of the body in a
periodic motion. However, a periodic may
damped oscillation decrease with time.
or may not be an oscillatory motion.
ww
.co
in air etc. mechanical structure is subjected to a strong
driving force that matches one of its natural
When a body oscillates with its own
frequencies, the amplitude of oscillations
natural frequency without involving an
of the structure becomes very large.
external periodic force, its oscillations
Consequently, the structure may collapse.
are called free-oscillations. The
or
It is for the same reason the marching
oscillations of the string of a sitar when
soldiers break steps while crossing a bridge.
plucked once and let free, of the bob of
In order to avoid effect of resonance the
a simple pendulum when once
aircraft designers make sure that none of
displaced from its mean position and
the natural frequencies at which a wing
tut
let free and of the prongs of a tuning
can oscillate match the frequency of the
fork when one of its prong is struck
engines during flight.
once on a rubber and let free are
examples of free oscillations. In an earthquake, the structures, whose
natural frequency matches the frequency
When a body oscillates with the help of
of the seismic waves, collapse. During an
an external periodic force other than it
am
earthquake sometimes, short and tall
own natural frequency, its oscillations
structures remain uneffected while the
are called forced oscillations.
medium height structures fall down. This
All musical instruments consisting of happens because the natural frequencies
strings like sitar, violen Reasonant of the short structures happen to be higher
Oscillations etc. produce forced and those of taller structure lower than the
oscillations. frequency of the seismic waves.
ex
Physics [45]
m
e.g. sound, waves on the liquid surface, Longitudinal waves
.co
vibration of string, etc. (ii) Electromagnetic
waves : They do not require a medium for
propagation e.g light, X-rays, microwaves,
infra-red, ultra-violet rays, etc.
On the basis of the mode of vibration
or
the waves are of two types viz.
(i) Transverse wave and (ii) Longitudinal
waves C = Compression
Transverse Wave Motion : It is the R = Refraction
tut
type of wave motion in which the particles l (Wave Length) : For the transverse
of the medium vibrate about their positions wave the wave Length is equal to the
in a direction perpendicular to the distance between the two successive crests
propagation of the wave. A transverse or troughs. It is also equal to the sum of the
wave is represented in the form of crest width of a crest and a neighbouring trough.
and trough.
am
For the longitudinal wave, the wave length
When a stone is thrown in a pond, is equal to the distance between the two
transverse waves are formed. The vibrations successive compressions or rarefactions. It
of the membrane a of drum, of the string of is also equal to the sum of the width of a
a sitar, violin etc. produce transverse waves. compression and a neighbouring
Longitudinal Wave Motion : It is the rarefaction.
type of wave motion in which the particles Time Period (T) : It is equal to time
ex
of the medium vibrate about their mean interval taken to complete one vibration.
positions in the same direction in which
the wave is propagated. Frequency (n) : It is the no. of vibrations
produced per second. It is equal to the
Sound produced from a source is a reciprocal of time period i.e.
longitudinal wave like vibrations of a
ssc
.co
inside liquids and gases. However, a air.
longitudinal wave can pass through solids,
The weakest audible sound has inten-
liquids and gases.
sity 10–12 W/m2. Its loudness is equal to
1 dB.
TRIVIA
or
If the intensity of sound increases by a
A pendulum clock slows down in sum- factor of 10 then the loudness increase
mer and goes faster in winter. by 10 dB or 1B.
Sound waves are mechanical waves If the loudness of sound is changed
which cannot travel in vaccum. by 1dB, then the intensity of sound
tut
Sound waves do not propagate in saw- changes by 26%.
dust because it is not a continous me- The prongs of a tuning fork vibrate
dium. transversely and the stem vibrates lon-
Mechanical waves propagate energy gitudinally with the same frequency.
am
and momentum, but they do not propa- The point of contact of the stem and
gate matter. prongs of the tuning fork is an antin-
ode.
ex
ssc
w.
ww
Physics [47]
m
.co
Sounds
or
Sound is produced in a material sounds are heard at the other end. The first
medium by a vibrating source. These sound heard is propagated through steel
vibrations are carried by air, as a medium and the second one is propagated through
tut
and strike our ear drum. The ear drum air.
vibrates and the message is conveyed to
An increase in the density of the
our brain and we hear the sound. A sound
medium reduces the speed of sound. Moist
heard persists for 0.1 second in brain. It is
air has lower density than dry air and
called as persistence of hearing.
hence speed of sound is more than that
am
Depending upon the frequency range, moist air.
sound has three categories viz. (i) Infrasonic
The speed of sound increases with rise
(ii) Sonic and (iii) Ultrasonic or supersonic
in the temperature of the medium. The
sounds.
speed of sound in air increase by 0.61 m/
Infrasonic sound has a frequency less second for every one degree rise in
than 20Hz. Sonic sound is between 20 Hz temperature above 0°C.
ex
and a bat upto 10 5 Hz. Dolphins can much after the flash of lightning is seen.
produce and detect sounds of frequency Due to the same reason, spectators hear
upto 105 Hz. the sound of ball on bat a little after they
see the batsman actually striking the ball in
Sound is a longitudinal wave. Its speed
a cricket match.
in dry air is 332 m/s. The speed of an
Sonic Boom : Sound produced by a
w.
.co
clouds, ground, etc. Sound waves can be like water and oil.
focused after reflecting from a curved surface
(v) to accelerate crystallisation of
in the same way as light waves.
substances and to produce oxidation.
ECHO (vi) to coagulate aerosols i.e. displaced fine
or
particles of a solid or a liquid in a gas,
Reflected sound is called echo. An echo e.g. dust, smoke, mist, etc.
occurs when the reflected sound wave
(vii) to liquify gels in the same manner as
comes back to the listener within a time
they are liquefied by shaking.
interval of not less than 0.1 second after the
tut
original sound wave reaches the listener so (viii) in getting alloys of uniform
that a distinct repetition of the original sound composition.
is perceived. It is so because the persistence (ix) for washing silken fabrics.
of hearing of sound is 0.1 sec. A sound can
be perceived only if stays back at least for
ULTRASONOGRAPHY
am
0.1 second or more on our ears.
An echo is used to determine the speed It is a technique used to form an image
of sound in a medium. Exploration of or picture of a matter by using ultrasonic
underwater petroleum deposits is done by waves. This technique is used in medical
science treatment. The medical sonography
detecting echo of shock waves produced
is commonly known as ultrasound. In this
by explosions on the water surface.
technique, ultrasound wave passes through
ex
The wave phenomena like total internal the organs to be diagnosed. The velocity of
reflection, refraction and interference are wave depends upon the elasticity and
also given by sound waves similar to those density of the tissues in the organ and an
of the light wave. echo is detected by a specific microphone.
The echo obtained from the tissues of the
ssc
Physics [49]
m
.co
Difference between Intensity and Loudness
Intensity Loudness
1. It is a physical quantity. 1. It is not an entirely physical
which can be accurately measured. quantity.
2. It does not depend upon the sensitivity 2. It depends upon (i) sensitivity
of the ear. of the ear and (ii) intensity of\
sound.
or
3. It has an objective existence i.e., it 3. It has got a subjective existence
exists whether there is some i.e, it exists only when some
listener or not. listener is acually present.
4. Unit of intensity is Wm–2. 4. Unit of loudness is bel.
In a tape recorder of T.V. bass refers to low pitch and treble refers to high pitch. So when bass is on,
tut
low pitch sounds of tabla and dholak become loud. When treble is on, high pitch sounds become
predominant.
animals like frog, fish, etc. These waves received per second or the apparent
can destroy micro organisms like bacteria frequency of the source changes and is
and yeast. not the same as that of the source. The
pitch of the note heard appears to rise if
am
In dental science, ultrasonic waves are they approach each other and appears to
used for extracting the broken teeth, to detect fall if they recede away from each other.
cracks or other defects in homogeneity The apparent change in frequency of a
noticeable by reflection or absorption. sound wave due to a relative motion
Vibration of a Source of Sound : When between the source of sound and the
a source is sounded, it generally vibrates in listener is known as Doppler’s Effect. It is
equally observed for light too.
ex
frequencies. The tones of the lowest Doppler’s effect is used to detect a star,
frequency are called the fundamental note a galaxy etc. It can be used to find out
and the tones of higher frequencies are whether a star/galaxy is approaching us
called over tones. The notes of frequencies or receding away from us. It favours the
which are integral multiples of the hypothesis of an expanding universe.
fundamental frequency are called as
w.
.co
organ pipes), wooden blocks or steel bars mosquito has high pitch, but low intensity,
(marimba, xylophone) etc. produce a while the roar of a lion has a low pitch, but
pleasant effect on our minds and hence, high intensity. Frequency of ladies, voice is
are known as musical sounds. generally higher than that of gents and
Intensity, loudness, pitch, quality, etc. hence, a lady’ voice is always sharper than
or
are characteristics of musical sounds. a gent’s voice.
Intensity : Intensity of sound is a purely Quality : It is the characteristic of
physical quantity, It is equal to the amount musical sound that enables us to distinguish
of sound energy passing per unit time per between the sounds of same intensity and
tut
unit area around a point in a direction same pitch produced by two different
normal to the area. Intensity is measured sources. Its cause is the difference in the
in watt/m2 or watt/(cm)2. frequency and relative intensities of
overtones produced by two sources of
Threshold of Hearing or Zero Level
sound.
of Intensity : it is equal to 10–16 watt/cm2
am
for a normal human ear which can just Voices of two singers singing a duet,
hear a note of frequency of 1000 Hz. voices of our friends, voices of family
Loudness : The sensation produced in members etc. can be distinguished from
the ear that enables us to distinguish each other on the basis of difference in
between a loud sound and a faint sound is quality of the sound produced by them.
called loudness.
REVERBERATION
ex
decrease with increase in distance from sound decreases due to absorption of sound.
the source of sound. However, the sound continues to be heard
Pitch : It is the characteristic of musical because of the persistence of the reflected
sound which distinguishes a sharp sound sound waves which go on traversing the
from a dull sound. Thus, it represents the hall a number of times before they reach
ww
degree of shrillness of a musical note. Pitch an intensity below the threshold of hearing
depends on the frequency of sound and i.e. the multiple reflection of sound results
Doppler’s effect. in reverberation.
Physics [51]
m
A room with zero reverberation time is (iii) A good audience, because one listener
.co
called a dead room. An ordinary syllable is equal to 5 square feet of an open
takes about 0.2 seconds to decay. For a window.
musical sound, the optimum value of
(iv) Curved walls or corners should be
reverberation time may be between 1 to 2
avoided so that sound is not unduly
seconds. The reverberation time in the halls
concentrated and there are no regions
or
like theatres, auditoria, etc. is adjusted
of silence.
suitably by a specific design so that sound
heard is distinct and pleasant. The time of reverberation can be
decreased by increasing absorption of
For obtaining good acoustic property
sound. Reverberation should be small but
tut
the hall should have sufficient sound
not absolutely zero because then the hall
absorbing features, like:
gives a dead effect.
(i) A few open windows.
Diatonic Musical Scale : This scale
(ii) Sound absorbing soft materials like consists of 8 notes. From the note (1) to (8)
cloth, asbestos, etc. or heavy curtains pitch increases due to increase in the
am
put up in the hall at various places. relative frequencies.
ex
ssc
w.
ww
or
Ray Optics : It is based on “the Reflection on a Plane Mirror : The
rectilinear propagation of light” i.e., light image formed by a plane mirror is virtual
follows a straight line motion through a & erect. The image distance is equal to the
tut
given transparent medium. It involves object distance from the mirror. The image
reflection, refraction & dispersion of light. is laterally inverted i.e., the right side of the
object appears as the left side of its image
REFLECTION OF LIGHT & vice-versa. Lateral inversion is due to the
fact that the image of an object is as far
“When a light ray is incident on a sur- behind the plane mirror as the object is in
am
face, it returns back into the same medium.” front of the mirror.
Laws of Reflection : For a given incident ray, if the plane
(i) The incident ray, normal drawn at the mirror is rotated through an angle ‘q’ then
incident point and the reflected ray lie the reflected ray rotates through an angle
in the same plane. of ‘2q’.
The length of a plane mirror in which a
ex
XY = reflecting surface,
(a) if n = an odd whole no. then ‘n’
AB = incident ray,
images are formed
BC = reflected ray,
w.
.co
Image Formation in a Concave Mirror
Position of Position of Nature of
towards or away from the object, its
object image image image will move by a distance ‘2x’ in
1. At infinity At the focus Real, Inverted & the same sense.
diminished.
2. Beyond the Between the Real, Inverted & If the object moves with a velocity ‘v’
centre of centre of cur- Diminished towards or away from the mirror, its
or
curvative vature & focus image appears to move with a velocity
3. At the centre At the centre Real, inverted ‘2v’ in the same sense. The same is true
of curvature of curvature & same size as if the mirror moves.
that of the object
4. Between the Beyond the Real, inverted Reflection on Spherical Mirrors :
centre of curvat- centre of & magnified
tut
Types of spherical mirrors
ure and focus curvature
5. At the focus At inifinity Real, Inverted & (i) Convex or Divergent Mirror : It is a
highly magnified portion of a hollow sphere of glass whose
6. Between pole Behind the Virtual, Erect & inner surface is silvered. Since rays incident
& focus mirror magnified
parallel to the principal axis are diverged
(ii) If the two mirrors are parallel, then away the principal axis, hence, it is known
am
q = 0° as a divergent mirror.
(ii) Concave or Convergent Mirror : It
∴ = µ = infinity. is a portion of a hollow sphere of glass
i.e., infinte no. of images are formed. whose outer surface is silvered. All rays
incident parallel to its principal axis are
Use of Plane Mirror : Plane mirrors convergent at its focus.
ex
Some important facts regarding the the pole and the focus is focal-length (f). The
image formation by a plane mirror : distance between the pole and the centre of
curvature is radius of curvature (R). The
When we see a series of images in a perpendicular drawn at a point where a ray
thick plane mirror, out of these the sec- is incident on the spherical mirror must pass
ond image is brightest. through the centre of curvature.
w.
.co
Spherical Aberration: The inability of
a concave mirror of a larger size to converge
all rays parallel to the principal axis at the
or
focus, is called spherical aberration.
Concave mirror
It can be removed by using a parabolic
P = Pole concave mirror of larger aperture.
Px = Principal axis Uses of Spherical Mirrors:
tut
C = Centre of Curvature A convex mirror is used as a reflector in
PC = Radius street lamps to diverge light over a large
area.
F = Focus
A convex mirror is used as a rear view
PF = Focal Length
am
mirror or driver’s mirror in cars, scoot-
A & B : Incident points ers etc. for looking at the traffic at the
rear of the vehicle because this mirror
AC & BC = Normal drawn at incident
produces an erect and diminished im-
points.
age of the traffic behind the vehicle. Since
Image formation in a convex Mirror. the image is small in size, hence the field
It always produces virtual and view is much wider as compared to a
ex
Virtual Image : It is always erect and light. A bulb is placed at the focus of
behind the concave and convex mirror. the concave mirror. The beam of light
Focal length is half of the radius of from the bulb after reflection from the
concave mirror goes as a parallel beam.
curvature (f = R/2).
A concave mirror is used by dentists
and ENT specialists to focus light on
w.
Mirror Formula :
teeth, eye and throat to examine these
Where u = objects distance from the organs. The device consisting of the con-
pole of mirror. cave mirror used to examine eyes is
called Ophthalmoscope.
v = image distance from the pole of
A concave mirror is used as a shaving
ww
mirror.
mirror or make up mirror as it can form
f = focal length of the mirror. erect and magnified image of the per-
R = radius of curvature of the mirror. son within its focus.
Physics [55]
m
A spherical mirror can also be used as a the virtual image (acting as virtual
.co
trick- mirror or magic mirror to see dif objects) on the retina. A virtual image
ferent types of images of the same ob- can be photographed.
ject or person.
The focal length of a plane mirror is
Some important facts regarding the infinity.
reflection of light:
When a spherical mirror (concave or
or
Image : Size of mirror does not affect convex) is placed in a liquid e.g. water,
the nature of the image except that a its focal length does not change because
bigger mirror forms a brighter image. A focal length of a mirror depends upon
virtual image cannot be taken on screen. its construction and not on the external
tut
But our eye lens forms a real image of medium.
ABC of Photometry
S.No. Term Definition Unit
1. Luminous flux (f) visible light energy lumen
2. Lumnious intensity or luminous flux emitted Candela or C.P.
Illuminating power (l) per unit solid angle
am
3. Illuminance or Intensity luminous flux that passes (i) Lux or metre candle
of illumination of surface (E) through unit area in a (ii) phot or cm candle
direction normal to area.
4. Luminance or Brightness (B) luminous flux reflected Lambert
from unit area into our eyes.
When we read a book, light is scattered rarer medium, it bends away from the
by the paper into our eyes. This is called normal to the interface separating these
Diffuse-reflection. A printed paper has two media. This phenomenon is known as
ex
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When light goes from rarer (e.g. air) to
PO = Incident ray, AB = Interface
a denser (e.g. glass) medium, it bends
towards the normal to the interface, OQ = Refracted ray, i = Angle of incidence,
separating these two media. On the other
r = Angle of refraction.
w.
2. Rays of light from the object, on reflection/ 2. Rays of light from the object, on reflection/ refraction only
refraction, actually meet at the image. appear to meet at the image.
3. It is always inverted. 3. It is always erect.
4. Linear magnification is negative 4. Linear magnification is positive.
.co
ray, the refracted ray and the normal to straight path of original light.
the surface separating two media all lie in
Relative Refractive Index (µ)
the same plane.
or
constant. µ is known as the refractive index where 1µ2 = Relative refractive index of
of the medium in which refracted ray medium 2nd w.r.t. 1st medium,
travels w.r.t. the medium in which the C1, C2= speeds of light of the two media.
incident ray travels.
l1, l2 = wavelengths of light of the two
tut
Cause Behind Refraction of Light: Due media.
to change in medium, wavelength of light
changes. It results into change in the speed µ1 & µ2 = individual refractive indices
of the two media
Difference between Concave and Convex Mirrors
am
Concave mirror Convex mirror
1. Reflection of light occurs from sunken side of 1. Reflection of light occurs from the side which is bulged
mirror. out.
2. Its focus and centre of curvature are on front 2. Its focus and centre of curvature are at the back of mirror.
side of mirror. f and R both are negative f and R, both are positive.
3. Image formed may be erect or inverted. 3. Image formed is always erect.
ex
4. Size of image may be smaller, equal or larger 4. Size of image is always smaller than the size of
than the size of object. object.
5. Field of view is narrow. 5. Field of view is broad.
Physics [57]
m
and reflections, then in the given figure apparanet position of the star changes
.co
a light ray suffers refraction thrice at point continuously. It leads to the twinkling
B, C & D. It follows path AB → BC → CD of a star.
→ DE. If the final ray DE is incident at 90°
A rod appears bent in water due to
to a plane mirror M, it retraces the original
refraction of light.
path as ED → DC → CB → BA.
or
The sun is visible to us before actual
sunrise & after actual sunset. The at-
mosphere has higher density than that
of outer space. Hence, light coming from
the sun enters outerspace to atmosphere
tut
i.e., from rarer to denser medium. It
results in the bending of light. When
the sun is below the horizon before the
sunrise and after the sunset, its appar-
ent position is visible above the hori-
zon. Hence, the sun is visible 2 minutes
am
Some Common Effects of Refraction before the actual sunrise and 2 minutes
Stars twinkle due to refraction. The dif- after the actual sun-set. Thus, the day
ferent layers of atmosphere are of dif- becomes longer by 4 minutes due to
ferent (a) density, (b) temperature (c) effect of refraction.
speed and their density, temperature Real and apparent depths of an object
speed change continuously. Hence, the in water or any transparent medium.
ex
2. Reflection takes place at all values of angle 2. It is possible only when angle of incidence in denser
of incidence. medium is greater than critical angle for the pair of
media in contact.
3. Some energy gets absorbed or refracted 3. The entire energy is reflected. There is no absorption/
while majority of energy is reflected. refraction.
w.
.co
rarer medium. Ray AO is incident at angle
i1. Its angle of refraction is <NOB = 90°. The
refracted ray OB is parallel to the surface of
denser medium. This angle is called as
Critical angle (i1 = c). Ray CO is incident at
or
an angle i2>i1. Its refracted ray is OD in the
denser medium. It means when a light ray
An object at O appears at I when it is is incident at an angle greater than the
viewed from air. critical angle, it returns back to the same
medium. This phenomenon of returning
tut
AO = Real depth of object in water or a
back of a light ray in the denser medium is
transparent medium.
known as T.I.R. Critical angle (c): The angle
AI = Apparent depth of object. of incidence of a light ray in the denser
medium corresponding with the angle of
If µ = relative refractive index of water
refraction in the rarer medium is 90° is called
w.r.t.air.
am
as critical angle.
Physics [59]
m
the normal as it travels from denser
.co
Seven Colours of Visible Light
upper layer to the rarer lower layer.
This process continues till the angle of Colour Range of Range of frequnecy
Violet wavelength (λ) (× 1014 Hz)
incidence is less than the critical angle.
Indigo 3900-4550 7.69-6.49
At a particular layer of air the angle of Blue 4550-4920 6.59-6.10
incidence becomes greater than the Green 4920-5770 6.10-5.20
critical angle and it gives rise to the Yellow 5770-5970 5.20-5.03
or
T.I.R. It gives the impression of a water Orange 5970-6220 5.03-4.82
pond near the tree i.e. mirage. Red 6220-7800 4.82-3.84
tut
light is incident at an angle greater than
the critical angle, on going from wa- by two refracting surfaces. Out of these
ter/ glass to air bubble, it suffers T.I.R. two refracting surfaces at least one is
Hense the air bubble shines brilliantly. spherical.
This effect is used in manufacturing
decorating glass objects. A lens can be regarded as combination
of a larger no. of small prisms. When a
am
Totally Reflecting Prisms : These prisms beam of light is incident on a lens, the rays
are right angled isosceles prisms which
of light get refraction through these prisms.
turn the light through 90° or 180°. The
critical angle for glass-air interface is 42° Structure of a lens:
& in these prisms the angle of incidence
is 45°. Thus, the angle of incidence be- (i) Principal Axis : It joins the two centres
comes greater than the critical angle that of curvature of the two spherical
surfaces of a lens.
ex
(i) R + G + B = W
(iii) Principal Focus : It is a point on the
(ii) B + Y = W
(iii) R + C = W principal axis where the rays of a
(iv) G + M = W parallel beam of light meet or appear
(b) Triangle representing complimentary to meet after being refracted through
colours and their combination is : the lens.
(i) B + Y = G
(iv) Focal Length : It is the distance
w.
(ii) R + B = M
(iii) Y + R = O between the principal focus & the
(iv) Y + M = B + O = R + G = Black optical centre.
Difference between Primary and Secondary Rainbow
Primary Rainbow Secondary Rainbow
ww
.co
centres of curvature and two foci. Power of a Lens (P) .
or
Common Defects of Vision
Long sightedness (Hypermetropia): A
person suffering from this defect can
Concave lens see objects far away but cannot see the
tut
nearer object. In this defect eye forms
the image of an object behind the retina.
For correct vision image should be
formed at the retina only. This defect is
corrected by using a convex (converg-
am
ing) lens of suitable focal length.
Short-sightedness (Myopia) : A per-
XY = principal axis, C = optical centre, son suffering from this defect can see
the nearer objects clearly but is unable
C1 & C2 = Centres of curvaturess
to see objects far away. In this defect
F1 & F2 = foci of lens. the image is formed in front of retina.
This defect is corrected by using a con-
ex
(ii) Far point of eye comes focus at a point in front far point from defective eye.
closer than infinity. of the retina.
2. Hypermetropia or (i) Eye can see distinctly Focal length of eye lens Using a convex lens of focal
Long sightedness only the far off objects, increases. Rays from near length (f) where
shifts away from the eye. the back of ratina. u = distance of object from eye
lens v = distance of near point
of defective eye.
Physics [61]
m
(2) If a convex and a concave lens of the (7) When a lens is placed in a medium of
.co
same focal length are placed co-axially equal density, it acts as a glass slab. Its
with a small separation between them, focal length becomes infinity and
the combination acts as a convex lens. power becomes zero.
(3) If a lens is cut into two equal halves
with a plane perpendicular to the OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
or
principal axis, the focal length of each Microscope : It is used to magnify
part doubles. minute objects close to us.
(4) If a lens is cut into two equal halves (i) Simple Microscope (Magnifying
with a plane along the principal axis, glass) : It is a biconvex lens. When an
tut
the focal length of each part remains object is placed within its focus, a
unchanged. magnified, virtual and erect image is
(5) An air bubble in water behaves as a formed.
concave lens. (ii) Compound Microscope : It consists
(6) When a lens is placed in a medium of of two convex lenses of unequal size placed
am
higher density (higher refractive co-axially. The larger lens is eye-lens to see
index), the nature of the lens reverses the final image and the smaller lens is object
i.e. a converging lens behaves as a lens in front of which the object is placed.
diverging lens & vice-versa. The object lens forms a real inverted image
4. 4.
ssc
of the object. This image is formed within the eye-lens, acts as an object for the eye-lens
focus of the eye-lens and acts an object for which gives the final, virtual and highly
the eye-lens. The eye-lens forms a highly magnified image.
magnified virtual image of the object.
w.
It consists of two convex lenses. The dispersion of light. These seven colours
larger one is the object lens and the smaller obtained are viz. violet, indigo, blue, green,
one is the eye lens. The real image formed yellow, orange and red. They can be
by the object lens within the focus of the remembered as ‘VIBGYOR’. Dispersion of
.co
different wavelengths contained by white
light. Smaller the wavelength of light, more
is its deviation. Since wavelength increases
from violet to red light, hence, the deviation
decreases from violet to red light. A band
or
of seven colours of white light obtained by
dispersion is known as a spectrum.
Spectroscope (or Spectrometer) : A (1) Magenta (M) = Red + Blue
device used to disperse light and to observe
(2) Yellow (Y) = Red + Green
tut
the spectra obtained is called spectroscope.
(3) Cyan (C) = Green + Blue
COLOUR OF OBJECTS (4) White (W) = Red + Green + Blue.
Colour of any object is the same as is Complimentary Colours : Any two
reflected by the object and received by our colours are said to be a pair of
am
eyes. e.g. when white light falls on a red- complimentary colours if these colours
produce white, when mixed together e.g.
rose, it reflects only wavelength of red
colour and absorbs all other colours of white
light. Hence, it appears red.
Pigment : It imparts colour to the
objects. A pigment absorbs most of the
ex
flower appears red in red light. This is ∴ Red + Green + Blue = White & Red +
because yellow pigment in the yellow Green = Yellow.
flower cannot absorb red light and hence,
(ii) Magenta + Green = White
reflects the red light.
∴ Red + Blue + Green = White & Red +
Primary Colours : They cannot be
w.
Blue = Magenta.
obtained by mixing two or more colours.
(iii) Cyan + Red = White
They are viz. Red, Blue and Green. When
they are mixed together, the result is white ∴ Green + Blue + Red = White & Green
i.e. Red + Blue + Green = White + Blue = Cyan.
ww
Physics [63]
m
Primary Pigments : They are Yellow, particles because blue colour has
.co
Cyan & Magenta. When these three smaller wavelength.
primary pigments are mixed in equal
(ii) The sun looks red at the sunrise and
proportion a black pigment is obtained.
sunset: The red colour is scattered least
Yellow pigment + Cyan pigment + due to its longest wavelength and
Magenta pigment = Black pigment. hence, the red-light is able to travel
or
maximum distance in atmosphere. At
Because, this mixture of pigments
the time of the sunrise and sunset, the
absorbs all colours of white light and reflects
position of sun is lower in sky and
nothing, so it appears black.
hence, it looks orange-red.
tut
Secondary Pigments : When a pair of
(iii) Due to least scattering of red-colour,
primary pigments are mixed together, a
it is used as a sign of danger-signals.
new pigment is obtained called secondary
pigment. They are: Rainbow : It is a spectrum of sun’s
Primary Pigments Secondary light in nature. It occurs in the form of arcs
Pigments of concentric coloured circles in the sky,
am
(i) Cyan pigment + Yellow Green Pigment when the sun’s light falls on rain drops.
pigment Rain-drops act as tiny prisms that cause
(ii) Cyan pigment + Blue Pigment dispersion of light. The essential condition
Magenta pigment
for observing a rainbow is that the observer
must stand with his back towards the sun.
(iii) Yellow pigment + Red pigment
Rainbow is formed due to the total internal
Magenta pigment
reflections and refractions caused by rain
ex
gets scattered in all directions. The intensity It involves superposition of two light
of scattered light decreases with increase waves at a point in the medium of
in the wave length of light i.e., smaller the propagation of light. When these light
wavelength of light, more is the intensity waves superpose crest to crest or trough to
of its scattering. e.g. trough, the result is constructive
ww
(i) Blue colour of Sky : Most of the blue interference whereas crest to trough
colour of white light coming from the superposition results in destructive
sun gets scattered by atmospheric interference. Coloured soap bubbles and
.co
to interference of white light. For this contrast.
thickness of wall of the bubble and oil film
In optical stress analysis.
should be of the order of wavelength of
visible light (4000A° to 8000A°). The In calculators and watches, letters and
phenomenon of interference is used in numbers are formed by LCD (liquid
or
holography (three dimensional virtual crystal display through polarisation of
image formation) by using a laser beam. light.
Polarisation of scattered sunlight is used
POLARISATION OF LIGHT for navigation in solar compass in po-
lar regions of earth, where magnetic
tut
It involves restricting all vibrations of a
compass becomes non-functional.
light wave in a single plane.
In CD Players, polarized laser beam
Polaroids : Materials that polarise light.
acts as needle for producing sound from
Most of them are artificial. Tourmaline is a
compact disc, which is in encoded digi-
natural polaroid.
tal format.
am
Uses of Polaroids :
Polarisation is used to study asymme-
In Sun glasses to protect the eyes from tries in crystals and molecules using
glare. the phenomenon of optical activity.
In head light of motor-car to reduce The ability of a crystal or molecule to
glare. rotate the plane of polarised light,
either clockwise or anticlockwise is
ex
w.
ww
Physics [65]
m
.co
HEAT
or
Heat is the form of energy that flows The temperature of a body is measured
from a body at higher temperature to by a
another body at lower temperature, when
tut
Thermometer: There is no upper limit
the two bodies are in contact with each
of temperature but there is a fixed lower
other. Every body is composed of a large
limit. The lowest value of temperature is
no. of particles which possess certain kinetic
called as ‘Absolute Zero’. The absolute zero
energy. The total sum of kinetic-energy of
is equal to zero kelvin (O°K) or (–)273.15°C.
all constituent particles of a body is equal
to heat contained by the body. Clinical Thermometer : It is a mercury
am
in glass type thermometer. The
TEMPERATURE thermometer scale is marked from 95°F to
110°F or 35°C to 43°C within the range of
It is the degree of hotness or coldness of human body temperature. Advantages of
the body. It is just a scale that measures the mercury in the thermometer-
thermal state of a body. All bodies in thermal
(i) it is opaque and shining and hence,
ex
.co
THERMAL EXPANSION 0°C to 4°C. But its volume increases and
The increase in length, area or volume density decreases with increase in
of an object due to rise in its temperature is temperature above 4°C. Thus, the density
called as thermal expansion. The object of water is maximum at 4°C. This unusual
shows contraction due to decrease in its expansion of water has a favourable effect
or
temperature. The expansion/contraction for aquatic animals. Since the density of
of an object depends upon the change in water is maximum at 4°C, water at the
temperature & its nature i.e. expansivitiy. bottom of lakes, ponds etc. remains at 4°C
in winter even if at the surface it freezes.
Practical applications of thermal This allows marine animals to remain alive
tut
expansion: and move near the bottom.
• A small gap is always left in between
two iron-rails in a railway line. SPECIFIC HEAT
• An iron rim to be fitted on a wooden The specific heat of a substance is equal
cart wheel is always slightly small in to the amount of heat absorbed by its unit
am
diameter. The rim on heating expands mass to raise its temperature through one
and upon cooling gives a strong grip on degree. Thus, larger the value of specific
the wheel due to contraction. heat of a substance, smaller is rise in its
• Some suitable space is left between the temperature inspite of absorbing a large
girders used for supporting bridges. amount of heat. The specific heat of a
substance depends upon the nature and its
• A glass stopper jammed in the neck of
ex
Physics [67]
m
above the surface and this process is known Generally, relative humidity (R.H) is
.co
as evaporation. Evaporation lowers the expressed in a percentage. If the above
energy of a liquid and hence, causes cooling ratio is 0.5, the relative humdity is 50%. If
effect. This effect is used in cooling water the air is already saturated, the R.H. is
in pitchers having porous walls. When a 100%.
space contains the maximum possible
or
amount of vapour, the vapour is called Dew : In winter nights, the atmospheric
saturated. If the amount is less than temperature goes down. The surfaces of
possible maximum amount of vapour, the window-panes, flowers, grasses etc. become
vapour is called unsaturated. The possible still colder due to radiation. The air near
maximum amount of vapour depends on them becomes saturated & condensation
tut
the temperature & can be achieved easily begins. The droplets condensed on such
due to rise in temperature of the liquid. surfaces are called as Dew.
The pressure exerted by a saturated vapour
is called saturation vapour pressure (SVP). Fog : In winter, if temperature goes
The temperature at which the saturation down even more, the whole atmosphere in
vapour pressure becomes equal to the that region may become saturated. Small
am
present pressure is know as Dew-Point. If droplets then condense on the dust particles
the temperature is decreased below the present in the air. These droplets keep
dew point some of the vapour condenses. floating in the air & form a thick mist
which restricts visibility. This thick mist is
HUMIDITY
called Fog.
The amount of water vapour in a unit
In winter, glass-walls of a house,
ex
.co
BOILING OF A LIQUID the engine to heat supplied to it i.e.,
The energy of a certain mass of a liquid
in its vapour state is more than in its liquid
state. When heat is supplied to a liquid, its
kinetic energy increases and at a certain Efficiency of a heat engine is always
or
stage, the molecules anywhere in liquid less than 1 or 100% because a heat engine
can form vapour bubbles. These bubbles cannot convert total heat supplied to it
float to the surface and finally vapour into mechanical work.
molecules come out of the liquid. This A heat engine consists of three
tut
phenomenon is known as boiling and the components viz.
temperature at which boiling occurs is
known as boiling point. At the boiling point, (i) Source of heat : It is at higher
the vapour pressure at the liquid surface temperature from which the engine gets
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. heat.
Hence, higher the atmospheric pressure at (ii) Working Substance : It converts
am
the liquid surface higher is the boiling point the heat obtained partly into mechanical
of liquid. Water boils at 100°C when the work & supplies the remaining heat to the
atmospheric pressure is 1 atmosphere. 1 sink.
atmosphere is equal to 760 mm of mercury.
(iii) Sink : It is at lower temperature to
If the pressure becomes 2- atmosphere,
absorb unused heat.
water boils at 120°C. In pressure cooker
water boils at temperatures higher than Types of Heat Engine :
ex
water and food takes longer time to cook. atmospher is its working substance.
Hence, a pressure cooker is more useful for Practically, its efficiency is about 12% to
cooking on hill-stations. 16%.
(ii) Internal Combustion Engine : In
HEAT ENGINES
this engine, heat is produced by burning of
fuel inside the body of engine e.g. Petrol &
w.
.co
heat from a cold body, converts it partly than gases. Metals are much better
into work & supplies the heat left to the conductors than non-metals. Metals have
hot body. Food stuffs, water, etc. inside the free moving electrons which carry heat
refrigerator act as a source of heat. A highly from one point to the other in a metal.
volatitle liquid, Freon (dichlorodifluoro
For a given body, the rate of flow of
or
methane) is its working substance. The outer
heat by the conduction is directly
surrounding at higher temperature acts as
proportional to the cross-sectional area,
sink.
proportional to the temperature difference
The freezer is surrounded by a copper between the ends & inversely proportional
tut
coil in which freon evaporates that causes to the distance between the ends. Hence, a
cooling effect. The vapour is removed and thick & short metallic rod conducts more
condensed to form liquid in the condenser heat in a given time across its two ends
coil, fitted at the back of the cabinet, by a than a thin & longer metal-rod.
compression-pump or compressor. The
Applications of Thermal Conduction:
condenser coil becomes warm due to the
am
liquification of vapour. Again, the liquid • Cooking utensils are made of metals
begines to evaporate & this cyclic process whereas their handles are made of plas-
continues. A thermostat switch regulates tic or wood because metals are better
the temperature inside the refrigerator by conductor and plastic & wood are poor
switching the compressor on and off at conductors. Hence, hot utensils can be
intervals. When the refrigerator is easily held by their insulating handles.
defrosted, the temperature inside it
ex
conduction does not involve the actual and feathers does not allow flow of
movement of the molecules of the medium. heat from the body of the birds to the
In general, solids are better conductors cold surroundings.
.co
dust. Air trapped in the saw dust blocks cold region and in order to occupy their
the transfer of heat between the cold position the cold molecules come from the
ice and the surroundings. It prevents cold region. It results convection currents
the melting of ice. and consequently the entire system gets
heated. Convection is common in liquids
• A new quilt is warmer than an old one.
or
and gases.
The new quilt encloses more air than
the old one. This air, being bad conduc- Applications of Thermal Convection:
tor of heat, does not allow heat of our • Function of ventilation in houses is based
body to flow to the surroundings. on the convection. During winter, air
tut
• Two thin blankets together are warmer comes out from houses because the in-
than one blanket of their combined side temperature is high whereas in
thickness. The air contained in between summer air comes in because the outer
the two blankets is a bad conductor temperature is high. It involves the
and it prevents heat from escaping and movement of air from high in tempera-
keeps the body warm. ture to lower temperature by convec-
am
tion currents.
• In airconditioned rooms, double lay-
ered windows are preferred than the • In refrigerators, freezer is set at the top.
single layered windows because a thin Temperature of air at the bottom is
layer of air is contained between the higher than that inside the freezer. The
two layer of glass panes in the win- warm bottom air moves up and cold
dow. freezer air moves down. It results con-
ex
pet, hence the feet feel cold on the stone and cold top-water to move down and
but not on the carpet. thereby setting up a convection cur-
rent. Consequently entire water con-
• Due to the continuous working of a tent gets heated.
refrigerator, a thick layer of ice deposits
on the outside and the inside of the • In electric ovens, the heating elements
freezer and hence, it has to be switched are fitted near the bottom to heat the
w.
off for defrosting. The cooling action of entire enclosed air by convection.
the freezer slows down because ice is a • Monsoons, trade wind in sea, water
bad conductor of heat. Hence, defrost- streams in sea, winds, etc. are due to
ing improves the functioning a refrig- the convection.
erator.
ww
.co
conduction and convection requires a radiation. White or light colours of
material medium whereas heat transfer by houses keep cooler in summer because
radiation does not require a medium. All light coloured surface do not absorb
bodies radiate thermal radiations at all much solar radiation.
temperatures. The amount of heat • Thermos Flask : It is a double walled
or
radiation radiated per unit time depends glass bottle having a vacuum between
on the nature of the radiating surface, the walls. The inner wall is silvered
surface area and temperature of the body. whose mouth is closed by a plastic
Similarly, all bodies absorb a part of thermal stopper. The vacuum does not allow
radiation incident on them. When an the loss of heat by convection and the
tut
amount of thermal radiation is incident on stopper being insulator does not allow
a body, it is partly absorbed, partly reflected conduction of heat. The silvered wall
and partly transmitted. The amount of prevents radiation as it is a poor emitter
absorbed, reflected and transmitted thermal and a poor absorber of radiation. Thus,
radiation depends on the nature & in a thermos flask transfer of heat by
am
temperature of the body. conduction, convection and radiation
When a body absorbs more and emits is minimised. Hence, a hot liquid in it
less radiation, its temperature goes up; when remains hot and a cold liquid or ice in it
a body emits more and absorbs less remains cold for a longer time.
radiation, its temperature goes down and • At a point in front of fire, heat is received
when a body absorbs and emits equal due to radiation only, while at a point
amount of radiations, its temperature
ex
body will emit radiation at the fastest rate surface area of their bodies. As total
on heating. Lampblack is close to a energy radiated by a body is
blackbody. Bolometer and thermopile are proportional to the surface area of the
close to a blackbody. Bolometer and body, the loss of heat due to radiation
thermopile are instruments used to measure would be reduced.
thermal radiation.
w.
absorber. Hence, a bright polished cup air from comeing out. Hence, a car
keeps tea or coffee warm for a longer parked in the sun with its windows
time in comparison a rough black cup. closed gets terribly warm in comparison
The base of an electric iron is highly to the outer atmosphere.
[72] General Science
m
• Cloudy nights are warmer than clear
.co
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
nights because clouds reflect the
radiations emitted by the earth at night It states that the rate of loss of heat
and keep it warm. Thus, clouds act as a from a hot body is directly proportional to
blanket. temperature difference between the body
and its surroundings.
• Glass, which is ordinarily used as the
or
base in photographic plates, is A hot water during cooling from 100°C
transparent to light while opaque to to 90°C takes less time than that in cooling
thermal infra-red radiation. But certain from 50°C to 40°C. Hence, when hot water
special kinds of glass have been and fresh tap-water are placed inside a
tut
prepared which are transparent only refrigerator, the rate of cooling of hot water
to thermal infra-red. Such glasses, used is found to be faster than that of fresh-tap
in the preparation of photographic water.
plates, have made it possible to obtain If hot coffee is served with cream in a cup
long distance photographs, even under and without cream in another cup, the
misty conditions using infra-red
am
creamed coffee remains hot for a longer time.
radiations.
• The fact that good reflectors are bad LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
absorbers and bad radiators is utilised
First Law : The first law of
in making firemen’s helmets and metallic
thermodynamics is a particular and more
tea-pots highly polished on the outside.
rigorous statement of the principle of
ex
Water can absorb 90% of heat radiation, conservation of energy. When a substance
which shows the importance of the absorbs an amount of heat at a constant
existence of water vapour in the pressure, then part of this heat is used up
atmosphere. The water vapours in the to raise the temperature which results in
atmosphere protect the earth from the the increase of internal energy. The rest of
more intense heat rays of the sun during the heat is used in doing work in allowing
ssc
the days and from the extreme cold the external pressure.
during the nights. In very dry regions, Second Law : It is impossible to
where there is little water vapour in the construct a device working in a cyclic
air, the days are intensely hot and the process whose sole effect is the transfer of
nights are extremely cold. heat from a body at a lower temperature to
w.
• Gases are poor radiators of heat, hence a body at a higher temperature ‘OR’ it is
in the construction of furnaces, the impossible to construct an engine working
gases are made to fall on fire-bricks, on a cyclic process whose sole effect is the
which radiate heat freely. conversion of all heat supplied to it in an
equivalent amount of work.
• Because black bodies are the best
ww
.co
Kelvin) temperature the total sum of constant, the volume of a given mass of
absolute entropy of a crystalline solid is a gas is directly proportional to its
equal to zero. temperature in Kelvin scale i.e. V a T or
= constant; where V is volume & T is
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
or
temperature in Kelvin.
Isobaric Process : It involves constant
pressure
Isochoric Process : It involves constant
• Gay Lussac’s Law : The volume
volume.
tut
remaining constant, the pressure of a
Isothermal Process : It involves given mass of a gas is directly
constant temperature. However, heat proportional to its temperature in
changes. Kelvin i.e.
Adiabatic Process : It involves constant
P a T or = constant, where P is pressure
am
heat. However, temperature changes.
Melting process and boiling process are and T is temperature in Kelvin of a
common examples of an isothermal process given mass of gas at constant volume.
because they occur at constant
temperatures. Practically, a perfect
adiabatic process is impossible. However,
its approximate examples are (i) Sudden • Ideal Gas Equation : It is also known
ex
bursting of the tube of a bicycle tyre (ii) as standard or the perfect gas equation
Propagation of sound in air. (iii) Expansion which is given as
of gas or vapour in a heat engine.
PV = nRT
.co
motion. They have different velocities or total energy does not determine the
in different directions. The velocity of direction of flow of heat. It is deter-
gas molecules increases with mined by the temperature alone.
temperature.
• When heat is absorbed by a body but its
(iv) The gas molecules collide temperature does not change, only the
or
continuously against each other and intermolecular potential energy of the
against the wall of container. system changes. This is the case with
melting and boiling.
(v) The pressure of the gas is equal to the
pressure exerted by the gas molecules • Systems are in thermal equilibrium
tut
on the wall of container. when their temperature are same or
average kinetic energy per molecule is
(vi) The gas-molecules are perfectly elastic
same.
spheres and exert negligible force of
attraction or repulsion on each other • Internal energy consists of energy of
or on the wall of container. translational, rotational as well as vi-
am
brational motion of the molecules.
The kinetic theory of gases explains
most of the gas laws like Boyle’s law, • The ratio of molar specific heat capac-
Charle’s law, ideal gas equation, etc. ity depends on the molecular weight of
the substance. Because it depends on
TRIVIA mass of one mole which is turn de-
pends on molecular weight.
• The net change in the intermolecular
ex
Physics [75]
m
• Pure and dry gas should be used as drical bulb are more sensitive than those
.co
thermometric substance. with spherical bulb.
• Below -200°C, the hydrogen and nitro- • Alcohol thermometer is preferred to the
gen cannot be used because they start mercury thermometer due to the larger
liquifying. Therefore, helium gas is used value of the coefficient of cubical ex-
for temperature below - 200°C. pansion.
or
• The platinum thermometer can mea- • Following properties make mercury the
sure temperature accurately upto 0.1°C. ideal thermometric substance.
• The thermoelectric thermometers are (i) Does not stick to the glass walls.
very sensitive and can be used to mea-
tut
(ii) It shines.
sure the temperature of insects.
(iii) Coefficient of expansion is uniform.
• Radiation Pyrometer : These are the
devices to measure the temperature by (iv) Vapour pressure is low.
measuring the intensity of radiations (v) Low thermal conductivity and
received from the body. They are based
am
specific heat.
on the fact that the amount of radia-
tions emitted from a body per unit area (vi) Available in pure form.
per second is directly proportional to • Gas thermometers have higher sensi-
the fourth power of temperature tivity than the mercury thermometers
(Stefan’s law). These can be used to because their coefficient of cubical ex-
measure temperatures ranging from pansion is much larger and same is for
ex
.co
98.4°F the fps unit of heat = 252 cal =
amount of heat required to raise the
• The clinical therometers read from 96°F
temperature of 1 lb of water through
to 110ºF.
1°F.
• Thermo electric therometers can be used
• 4.2 J = 1 cal
or
to measure rapidly changing tempera-
ture. • Specific Heat : It is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit
• Clinical thermometer are much shorter
mass of substance through 1 degree. Its
than the laboratory thermometers be-
dimensional formula is ML2T–2q–1. It
cause they are used to measure a lim-
tut
may be expressed in cal/g°C, kcal/kg°C.
ited range (96°F to 110°F) of tempera-
BTU/lb°F. J/kgk
ture.
• Cal/g°C = kcal/kg°C = 4.2 × 103 j/
• Platinum resistance therometer can be
kgK.
used to measure temperature inside a
motor engine. • Molar Specific Heat : The amount of
am
heat required to raise the temperature
• The radiation therometers can measure
of 1 mole of substance through 1 kg is
temperature from a distance.
called molar specific heat. It is denoted
• Adiabatic demagnetisation can be used by C. Its unit is J/mol K. It is generally
to meausre temperatures very near to used for gases.
the absolute zero.
• For the gases, molar specific heat is de-
ex
• The degree Fahrenheit is the smallest fined at constant volume (Cv) and at
temperature range among all the scales constant pressure (CP). It is found that
of temperature. CP - Cv = R. Where R is molar gas con-
• Heat : It is a form of energy. The SI unit of stant.
heat is joule. • Thermal Capacity : It is the amount of
ssc
(i) Calorie : It is the amount of heat re- heat required to raise the temperature
quired to raise the temperature of 1g of substance through 1°C or 1K. Ther-
of water through 1°C. For interna- mal capacity = mass × specific heat.
tional use the calorie is defined as The dimensional formula for thermal
the amount of heat required to raise capacity is ML2T2q–1. Its unit is cal/°C,
the temperature of 1g of water from kcal/°C, J/K.
w.
Physics [77]
m
• Principle of Calorimetry : The amount • Latent heat is used for doing work in
.co
of heat gained or lost when its tem- increasing the distance between the mol-
perature rises or falls by Dq is given by : ecules during the change of state. That
Q = mc Dq, where m is the mass of the is the latent heat increases the potential
substance. energy of molecules and their kinetic
energy remains constant, therefore, the
• According to the principle of calorim-
or
temperature also remains constant.
etry, when two bodies exchange heat :
the heat lost = the heat gained. It is in • Sublimation : Direct conversion of solid
accordance with the law of conserva- to vapours is called sublimation.
tion of energy.
• HoarFrost : Direct conversion of
tut
• Latent Heat : Heat required to change vapours to solid is called hoarfrost.
the state (from solid to liquid or from
• Melting : It is the process in which
liquid to gaseous, of one gram/kilo-
solid is converted into lqiuid. The re-
gram of substance at constant tem-
verse is called freezing or solidifcation.
perature is called latent heat (symbol
L). Its unit is cal/g, kcal/kg or J/kg. • Boiling : It is the process of conversion
am
of liquid to gaseous state. The reverse is
• The amount heat absorbed or given out
called condensation or liquefaction.
during the change of state is given by :
Q = ML, where M is the mass of the • Melting and boiling occur at definite tem-
substance. peratures called melting point and boil-
ing or liquefaction.
• Latent heat is of two types : (i) Latent
heat of fusion for change from solid to • The liquids boils at a temperature, at
ex
liquid at the melting point and (ii) La- which its vapour pressure is equal to
tent heat of vaporisation - for change of the atmospheric pressure.
sate from liquid to gaseous state. • Evaporation : Conversion of liquid into
• Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g. gaseous state at all temperatures is called
evaporation. It is a phenomenon that
ssc
ww
or
An Electromagnetic radiation is an (5) They are composed of energy particles
electromagnetic wave (E.M.W.) that called Photons. Every photon has a fixed
consists of oscillating electric and magnetic frequency which does not change when
tut
fields. An accelerated charge (e.g. a photon travels through different
oscillating charge) produces an oscillating media. The velocity of the photon
electric as well as magnetic field in its changes in different media due to
neighbourhood. These oscillating fields act change in its wavelength. Photon is
as sources for each other and thereby electrically neutral does not have mass
produce each other. It results an E.M.W. at rest. In fact, a photon does not exist
am
The accelerated charge reduces its energy at rest because a photon is an energy
that appears as energy of E.M.W. The particle of the E.M.W. which in turn is
electric-field, magnetic field and speed of a dynamic state of energy.
the E.M.W. are mutually perpendicular. It
(6) The E.M.W. shows all wave phenomena
gives transverse nature of the E.M.W. An
like light.
E.M.W. is associated with energy &
ex
spectrum.
oscillating charges.
Only a small part of this spectrum is
(2) They do not require any material
visible to human eyes because the radiations
medium for propagation. of this part produces sensations on the
(3) They travel in a freespace (vacuum or retina of the eye.
air) with the speed of light i.e. 3X108 (1) Gamma Rays: They are emitted by
w.
m/s because light is also an E.M.W. radioactive nuclei. They have the shortest
When they travel through a medium, wavelength and the highest frequency and
their velocity depends entirely on the hence, the highest energy. The study of
electric and magnetic properties of the γ-rays provides us with valuable
medium. information about the structure of the
ww
or
and arc lamp.
4. Visible Light 4×10–7 to 8×10–7 8×1014 to 4×1014 Excitation of valence
electrons.
5. Infra-Red 8×10–7 to 3×10–5 4×1014 to 1×1013 Excitation of atoms &
molecules
6. Heat-Radiation 10–5 to 10–1 3×1013 to 3×109 Hot bodies
tut
7. Microwaves 10–3 to 0.3 3×1011 to 1×109 Oscillating currents
in special vacuum tube.
8. Ultra-high frequency 1×10–1 to 1 3×109 to 3×108 Oscillating circuit
(UHF)
9. Very High Frequency 1 to 10 3×108 to 3×107 Oscillating circuit
(VHF)
10. Radio-Frequencies 10 to 104 3×107 to 3×104 Oscillating circuit
am
11. Power frequencies 5×106 to 6×106 60 to 50 Weak Radiations from
a.c. circuit.
The overlapping in certain parts of above E.M. Spectrums shows that the correponding radiations can be produced by
two methods.
decelerate inside a metal target. They are (3) Ultraviolet Rays: They are produced
used - by the excitation of atoms, a spark and arc
lamp. The sunlight consists of ultraviolet
for detecting explosives: opium,
ex
faults, cracks, flaws and holes in final eclipse, the sun is completely covered by
metal products (b) for the testing of the shadow of the moon. But the ultraviolet
weldings, castings and moulds. rays emitted by it reach the earth. Hence,
in radiotherapy to cure untraceable skin the direct vision of the solar eclipse through
the naked eyes is avoided.
diseases and malignant growths. The
ww
photographic film containing the pho- They are used: (i) to preserve food stuff
tographs of the body parts is as known & making drinking water free from bacteria
a Radiograph. as these rays kill bacteria & germs.
.co
documents and finger- prints in forensic
in weather forecasting through infra-
laboratory.
red photography, and
to study the structure of solids and mol-
ecules. in checking the purity of chemicals and
in the study of molecular structure by
for sterilizing the surgical instruments.
or
taking infra-red absorption spectra,
for checking the mineral samples (6) Heat Radiations: They are
through the property of ultraviolet
produced by any hot bodies. They are
rays causing flourescence.
used for heating purposes.
tut
in burglar alarm.
(7) Microwaves: They are produced by
(4) Visible Light: White-light emitted oscillating electrical circuits. They are used:-
by the sun is visible light. It is composed of
seven colours. Except the visible light, all in micro wave ovens.
the remaining electromagnetic radiations in RADAR systems and in satellite com-
are invisible. Besides the solar-radiations, munication.
am
there are a number of sources giving visible
light e.g. candle, electric-bulbs etc. (8) UHF, VHF and Radiowaves : They
are produced by the oscillating circuits.
(5) Infra-red rays: Infra-red rays are
They are used as carrier waves during the
emitted by the atoms and molecules of hot-
transmission of Radio-signals, TV-signals,
body. Infra-red rays are absorbed by the
body on which they fall. So the body FM-Radios, etc.
ex
becomes hot. Hence, infra-red rays are also (9) Power- frequencies or Power
known as heat-radiations. Waves : They are produced from a.c.
They are used: circuits. They are used for lightning.
to heat the interior of a car and house,
RADIATION IN ATMOSPHERE
to cook food using a solar cooker,
ssc
for producing dehydrated fruits, ozone layer is slowly being depleted and
this is causing great concern to scientists
for taking photographs during the con-
and environmentalists.
ditions of fog, smoke, etc.
Physics [81]
m
The earth gets heated by absorbing heat The discharge tube phenomenon is used
.co
from the sun & radiated energy mostly in in making sodium lamps, mercury vapour
the infra-red region. Low lying clouds and lamps, fluorescent tubes, neon signs, flood
the atmosphere prevent these infra-red light, etc.
radiations of earth from passing through
them and thus serve to keep earth’s surface Cathode rays consisting of electrons,
warm at night. This phenomenon is called are produced in the discharge tube at a
or
as “Green House Effect”. pressure of 0.01 mm of mercury.
The upper part of the atmosphere of
the earth receives about 1.36 kilo joule of
ELECTRONIC EMISSION
energy per second per unit area from the The phenomenon of emission of
tut
sun. The earth’s surface receives 47% of electrons from the surface of a metal is
this energy emitted from the sun. The called electronic emission.
energy crisis can be overcome by harnessing
this energy. A large number of devices have (a) Thermionic Emission: It involves
been developed to harness the solar energy emission of electrons due to appropriate
directly. The commonly used devices are: heating of the metal surface. The devices
am
Solar cookers, solar furnaces, solar water like diode valve and triode valve are based
heaters, solar power plants, solar-cells etc. on the thermionic emission of electrons.
The diode valve is used as rectifier and
All of the above devices are pollution-
free and most of them are economical. triode valve is used as transistor and
amplifier in electrical circuits.
Limitations in harnessing solar energy
are--- (b) Photoelectric Emission: It involves
ex
PHOTO CELLS
flow of electric current due to an applied illumination into a change in the photo
potential difference. The electric-discharge current obtained. This current is used to
through a gas is carried out in discharge operate control systems and in light
tube. The discharge tube involves the measuring devices.
ionisation of gas which gives rise to different
ww
Applications of Photo-cells:
coloured discharges and finally, the cathode
rays are produced depending upon the in TV camera for telecasting scenes and
value of pressure inside the tube. in photo-telegraphy.
.co
system at dusk and dawn, without any particles like electrons have mass character as
manual attention. well as wave character. The nature of a particle
to behave as a mass as well as a wave is known
in photometry to compare the illumi-
as dual nature of matter. Electron-microscope
nating powers of two sources.
is the device that exploits the wave-nature of
or
in industries for locating small flaws or electrons to provide high resolving power.It
holes in metallic sheets. has successfully been employed to investigate
as photoelectric sorters; to sort out the structural details of bacteria, viruses, etc. It has
materials of different shades. proved to be a powerful tool of investigation
for research in science, technology, metallurgy,
tut
to determine the opacity of solids and industry, medicine, etc.
liquids.
to control the temperature and chemi- X-RAYS
cal reactions.
When highly energetic electrons are
made to strike a metal target of high atomic
am
METALS SHOWING THE number like Tungsten and Platinum, the x-
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION rays are emitted.
Alkali Metals: Lithium, sodium, The device used to produce x-rays is
potassium, cesium, etc. show the known as an x-rays tube or Coolidge tube.
photoelectric effect with visible light.
X-rays are electromagnetic waves. They
In the photoelectric effect, one photon
ex
E = mc2 where E = energy, m = mass & may cause diseases like genetic-disorders;
c= speed of photons. cancer, etc. The screen of Computer, TV,
oscilloscopes, etc. are using a cathode-ray
The wave-nature is given as
tube in which a highly accelerated electrons
E = hv, where E = energy and v= strike the screen. It results in a small amount
ww
frequency of photon h = Planck’s constant of x-rays. Hence, their screens are designed
Photons are electrically neutral and to absorb the x-rays.
have zero rest mass.
Physics [83]
m
.co
ATOMIC PHYSICS
or
Every atom is composed of three kinds Hence, the size of the nucleus increases
of fundamental particles viz. Electrons, with increase in the mass number.
Protons and Neutrons. Protons and
tut
Neutrons are in the atomic nucleus while NUCLEAR STABILITY
electrons revolve around the nucleus in
definite circular path called orbits. It depends upon the nuclear size and
Electrons are negative and have a definite neutron: proton ratio. As the nuclear radius
energy in a definite orbit. Protons are increases, nuclear stability decreases. Higher
positive while neutrons are neutral. the n/p ratio of a nucleus lower is its
am
stability. From Hydrogen (Atomic No=1)
When an electron changes its orbit, an to Bismuth (20983Bi - At .No. 83 & Mass No.
amount of energy is exchanged (lost or = 209) all nuclei are quite stable except
gained) in the form of radiations (infra- Technetium (43Tc) and Promethium (61 Pm).
red, visible, ultraviolet and even x-rays).
However, from atomic number 84
Every atom has an equal no. of electrons
(Polonium -Po) to 92 (Uranium -U) are
and protons and hence, an atom is neutral.
ex
than that of the atom. The concept of binding the nucleons (protons, neutrons
nucleus, nuclear and atomic size were etc.) in the nucleus is nuclear force. As the
given by Rutherford. The concept of orbits nuclear size increases the nuclear force of
and energy of an electron in its orbit were attraction decreases. The nuclear force is
given by Neil Bohr. The motion of an the strongest force in nature.
electron in its orbit is similar to that of a
w.
energy of the electrons also increases. of the nucleus. Their difference is known
Every nucleus of the atom has neutrons as mass defect. This mass defect gets
and protons. The volume of the nucleus is converted into energy which is called
directly proportional to its mass number. Nuclear-binding energy.
[84] General Science
m
Nuclear species called Nuclides are When a nucleus emits a beta-particle,
.co
symbolised as where X= chemical the mass number of the daughter nucleus
remains unchanged but its atomic number
symbol of the species, Z= Atomic number=
increases by one unit. There is no effect on
Number of proton = Number of electrons,
the atomic and mass number due to gama-
A = Mass number = Sum of number of
emission.
protons and neutrons, A-Z= Number of
or
neutrons (N). Units of Radioactivity:
1 Becquerel (Bq) =1 decay/ second
e.g. . Bi = Bismuth, 83 = Atomic no.
= No. of proton 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7x 10 10 decays /second
tut
209 = Mass No. = Z+N = A 1 Rutherford (Rd) = 10 6 decays/second
natural and can not be stopped. It was substance is infinity i.e. the taken initial
discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896. sample of a radioactive sample decreases in
amount with time but never becomes zero.
The radioactivity results in the
conversion of an unstable larger nucleus Besides α -, β - &, γ - particles, some
into smaller stable nucleus along with the other subnuclear particles like positrons,
w.
emission of certain radioactive decays. These neutrinos, antineutrino etc. are also emitted
radioactive decays are alpha rays, beta rays during the radioactive decays. Positron is
& gamma rays. During every radioactive an antiparticle of electron i.e. it has mass
decay an amount of energy is released. equal to electron but is equally positively
charged. It is also known as positive β -
When a nucleus emits an alpha-particle, particle. Symbols used for position,
ww
the daughter nucleus has atomic number neutrino and anti-neutrino are
lesser by 2 units and mass number lesser by respectively. Nuclear changes during the
4- units. radioactive decays:
Physics [85]
m
(1) a decay → Generally, such disintegration stops as
.co
soon as the bombardment is over. However,
Uranium → Thorium + α-particle +
if the bombarded nucleus keeps on
Energy
disintegrating even after the bombardment
(2) β decay → is stopped, the phenomenon is called
induced radioactivity.
or
Thorium → Protactinium + b-particle +
Energy e.g. Boron, when bombarded by α -
particle, continue to disintegrate further even
(3) γ decay → after the bombardment is stopped, as follows :
Sodium → Magnesium + β- particle +
tut
gamma-particle.
Boron + a particle → Nitrogen - 14 →
ARTIFICIAL & INDUCED Nitrogen -13 + Neutron. Produced is a
RADIOACTIVITY radioactive nucleus produced by artificial
radioactivity. Its half-life is 11 minutes.
am
The phenomenon of disintegration of
otherwise stable nuclei by bombarding
them with suitable projectiles is called Nitrogen → Carbon - 13 + positron.
artificial radioactivity.
ABC OF RADIATION
α -rays β -rays γ -rays
ex
Properties
1. Similar to Helium nuclei Electrons E.M. Waves like X-rays
2. Symbols
3. Atomic No. 2 –1 0
4. Mass No. 4 0 0
5. Speed 1.4×107 m/s 33% to 99% of the Equal to the speed of
to 2.1×107m/s light light
ssc
6. Penetrating power Least and can be stopped Higher and can pass Highest & can pass
by 0.02 mm thick through a few mm through several cms
aluminium sheet. thick alumium sheet thicks iron & lead slabs.
7. Ionising power Maximum due to Intermediate Minium due to
maximum charge (+)2 that of between zero charge
unit & maximum mass a– & g rays
8. Range in air Depends upon the radio Several meters Very long
active source and varies
w.
from 3 to 8 cm.
9. Effect on photographic Produce smaller effect More effect Maximum effect
plate
10. Flourescence effect Produce flouresence in Also produce floure- Produce flouresence
in some substance like sence in barium in some substances like
barium-plantinocyanide plantinocyanide and willimite
and zinc sulphide zinc suplide
ww
11. Effect of electric and Show deflection Show deflection do not show deflection
magnetic field
12. Effect on human body Cause burning effect Can cause a shock Can cause cancer
on longer exposure.
.co
NUCLEAR REACTION
This released energy appears in the form of
It involves the transformation of a stable γ-rays, kinetic energy of nuclei of Barium
nucleus into another nucleus by (Ba), Krypton (Kr) & neutrons (n).
bombarding the former with suitable
particles. These particles are called
or
projectiles e.g. neutron, proton, electron, ● Nuclear Chain Reaction : In a nuclear
alpha-particle, γ-ray etc. Neutron due to fission of Uranium three secondary
mass and Zero charge is the best projectile. neutrons are released along with a huge
amount of energy. These three neutrons
Representation of a nuclear reaction.
cause the fission of other three
tut
Target Nucleus +Projectile → Daughter Uranium-235 nuclei & produce 9-
Nucleus + Emitted - Particle neutrons which in turn, can bring about
e.g. the fission of 9-Uranium -235 nuclei &
so on. This process multiplies so quickly
Nitrogen - 14 + - particle → Oxygen - (i.e. a few micro-seconds) that a
17 + Proton tremendous energy is released in a
am
Above reaction is the 1st artificial fraction of time. Such a continuous
nuclear transmutation discovered by process is known as Chain Reaction. If
Rutherford in 1919. the chain reaction is controlled the
energy released is used for peaceful
A nuclear reaction may be of two types purposes like in Nuclear Reactor or
viz. Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion. Nuclear-pile. If the chain-reaction is
ex
Physics [87]
m
a substance called a Moderator e.g. (c) to produce radioactive isotopes. These
.co
graphite, deutrium or heavy water. The isotopes are used in medical science,
number of neutrons released is reduced industry and agricultural research.
by Control Rods e.g. Boron - rods or
(d) to produce neutron beam of high inten-
Cadmium rods.
sity which is used in the treatment of
● Nuclear Reactor : It converts nuclear cancer and nuclear research.
or
energy into heat. It is based on
controlled nuclear fission. Indian Nuclear Reactors
Fuel: A fissionable material is used as a Our country has adopted a three- stage
fuel. e.g. (Plutonium), etc. strategy of nuclear power generation :
tut
Commonly is used as a fuel.
(a) The first stage aims in the use of natural
Coolant: It is used to absorb the heat uranium as a fuel, with heavy water as
produced in the reactor core. e.g. water moderator.
and heavy water are used as Coolants at
ordinary temparature but at high (b) The second stage involves the develop-
temperature, generally liquid sodium is ment of the fast breeder reactors. For
am
used as a coolant. this, the discharged fuel from the reac-
tors is reprocessed to obtain plutonium-
Shield: The whole reactor is protected
239, which is further used for the fast
with a concrete wall; so that radiations
breeder reactors.
emitted can be stopped.
(c) The third stage involves using fast
Moderators & Control-rods:
breeder reactors to produce missile U-
Moderators are around the core of the
ex
reactor. Control - rods are inserted inside 233 from Th -232 & to build power
the core of the reactor. reactors based on them. India is cur-
rently, well into the second stage of the
Fast Breeder Reactors: Out of the total programme and considerable work has
Uranium available in nature only 2% part also been done on the third stage (i.e.
is fissionable 235 U & 98% part is non- the utilization of Th -232).
ssc
.co
Hyderabad for processing. At this complex, organisms cause the ionisation of atoms
the fuel elements are formed after enriching and molecules resulting in the
the Uranium. These processed fuel elements decomposition of the complex organic
are then supplied to different nuclear plants molecules in the body of the organisms.
as situated, at Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Consequently the normal functioning of
or
U.P., Tarapur in Maharastra and the biological system becomes disrupted.
Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. The damaging effect of the nuclear
radiations would depend upon - (i) dose of
Nuclear Hazards radiations, (ii) rate of dose given, and (iii)
nature of the organism exposed.
tut
The nuclear radiations cause pollution
at three stages: The dose of radioactive (nuclear)
(a) When nuclear fuel is mined, processed radiations is measured in a unit called
and enriched, it constantly emits nuclear Roentgen(R). The quantity of radiations
radiations. that produces 1.61x1012 pairs of ions in 1
gm of air is equal to one Roentgen(R). In
am
(b) Accident can be caused due to leakage practice, milliroentgen is used as the
of nuclear reactions from reactors. Some- exposure unit or dosage unit. The radiation
times the nuclear reactor core may get absorbed per second is called dose rate or
faults resulting in vast radiations. Such exposure rate or radiation absorbed dose.
accidents have already been occurred,
one in USA at Three Mill Island and The safe limit of exposure to radiation
other at Chernobyl in Ukraine. over the entire body is 250 milliroentgen
ex
ture of cells in the human body. on earth. Such conditions are available in
stars & hence, the nuclear fusion is a stellar
(b) They cause diseases like cancer, leuke-
phenomenon. It is the cause behind the
mia and blindness. stellar energy. In the biggest star i.e. sun,
(c) They cause genetic disorder in a hu- the nuclei of hydrogen fuse together to
ww
Physics [89]
m
brought together in less than a
.co
APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE
microsecond. It results in a violent explosion
ISOTOPES causing destruction because the combined
In discovery of new sub-nuclear par- mass becomes super critical. At the critical
ticles. mass of a radioactive sample, a controlled
chain reaction occurs.
In discovery of new radioactive and
or
non-radioactive isotopes of elements.
TRIVIA
In the radio-active and nuclear research.
In photoelectrical effect, the electron is
In agriculture- by using the tracer-tech-
assumed to be bound. That is, the en-
nique the fertilizer consumption of
tut
ergy of the incident photon is of the
plants can be measured by the help of
order of the binding energy of the elec-
Geiger-Muller Counter (GM Counter).
G M Counter can detect the presence of tron.
a radioactive isotope and can measure In Compton effect, the electron is as-
its activity. sumed to be free. That is, the energy of
am
In industry- The tracer technique can the incident photon is much larger than
be applied by using a radioactive iso- the binding energy of the electron.
tope to study the wear of auto mobile- Einstein was awarded Nobel Prize for
engines. explaining the photoelectric effect.
In medical science- by using the radio- Photoelectric effect was discovered by
active isotope of Iodine by the help of Hallwach.
ex
tion of energy.
In Radio dating - The age of old rocks
is determined by measuring the radio- Cesium is the best photosensitive metal.
active materials e.g. Uranium present The hardness of the X-rays depends on
in the rocks. the accelerating potential of the elec-
The last two applications given above trons incident on the target.
w.
.co
nomenon and the production of γ-rays negative.
is a nuclear phenomenon. Lead is the heaviest atom which is ra-
Frequency of γ-rays is greater than that of dioactively stable.
X-rays. All naturally occuring radioactive sub-
or
Efficiency of production fo X-rays is less stances are finally converted into lead.
than 1%.
For radioactive nuclei : .
The target in the X-ray tube should have
high atomic weight and high melting where n = number of neutrons and p =
tut
point. number of protons.
Absorption coefficient of X-rays is high- The quantisation of the enegy states of
est for lead. an atom was demonstrated by Frank
Hydrogen atom cannot emit X-rays. Hertz experiment. The experiment dem-
onstrated the existence of discrete en-
Compton effect is observed with X-rays
am
ergy levels in the atom.
and γ-rays.
The binding energy of the electron in
Electron microscope works on the wave the ground state of hydrogen is called
nature of moving electrons. rydberg, 1 rydberg = 13.6 eV.
Wavelength of the matter waves does The isotope 1H3 of hydrogen is unstable
not depend on the charge of the par- and decays to 2He3.
ex
ticle.
Radium was isolated by Pierre Curie
Bohr’s theory is applicable to both the and Madma Curie.
hydrogen as well as hydrogen like at-
oms. Out of electron, proton and neutron,
only neutron is unstable in free space.
Observation of faint spectral line very It decays into a proton and an electron.
ssc
by Henry Becquerel.
In the Bohr model of the atom, an elec-
tron can revolve around the nucleus in Natural radioactivity was discovered
a stable orbit without emitting radia- by Henry Becquerel.
tions of its orbit has whole number of In free space, the neutron decays as :
de Broglie waves.
ww
Physics [91]
m
The radioactive decay rate is not af-
.co
fected by temperature or pressure.
Critical mass of fissionable uranium –
The first nuclear transmutation was 235 can be reduced by surrounding it
achieved by Rutherford. with neutron reflecting substances.
In the nuclear reactions, mass + energy The decay of artificial radioactive iso-
or
is conserved. topes is accompanied by positron de-
cay.
The decay constant as well as half life
period are independent of the age of In the fission of 92U235 energy released is
the radioactive sample. 200 MeV.
tut
The radioactive substances are stored Enriched uranium is better fuel for the
in lead containers, because lead absorbs reactor because it has greater propor-
the radioactive radiations. tion of U-235.
The moderator of the nuclear reactor The percentage of mass which changes
should slow the neutrons without ab- into energy during fusion is of the or-
am
sorbing them. der of 0.7%.
In the sun and stars, the energy is In the fission of uranium, the percent-
released through natural fusion of age of mass converted into energy is
hydrogen into helium with carbon about 0.1%.
serving as nuclear catalyst. Protons attract each other when they
To photograph the brain tumour, Hg 197 are separated by a distance of 10–14m.
ex
radio isotope is generally used. A neutron can be added to or taken out
The neutrino has no charge and negli- of the nucleus of an atom without
gible mass. changing its chemical properties.
Both photon and neutrino are chargeless Nuclear fusion requires very high tem-
ssc
.co
electrical waves are not transmitted as
First atomic reactor was designed by such because they are heavily absorbed
Enrico Fermi. by the atmosphere.
Artificial transmutation of elements was For full wave rectifier, the minimum
discovered by Rutherford. number of diodes required is two.
or
Enriched uranium is that in which the Both n as well as p type semiconduc-
percentage of U-235 is more than 0.7%. tors are neutral.
The fissionable material used in the The output of rectifier is DC mixed with
atom bomb dropped on Nagasaki in AC.
tut
1945 was Plutonium. The resistance of intrinsic semiconduc-
Thermal neutrons have kinetic energy tor decreases with the increase in tem-
perature.
of the order of other gas molecules in
their surrounding. Diode was discovered by Fleming.
am
The density of nucleus is of the order The production of electromagnetic
of 1017 kg/m3. waves by an oscillating charge was pre-
dicted by Maxwell.
The thickness of pn junction is of the
Thermionic emission was discovered by
order of 10–6 cm.
Thomas Alva Edison.
ex
ssc
w.
ww
Physics [93]
m
.co
ASTRONOMY
or
The branch of science which deals with SOLAR SYSTEM
the study of position, composition, motion
and other related facts of the heavenly The sun has its own family, known as
tut
bodies, is called astronomy. The source of the Solar System. Solar system consists of
information about the heavenly bodies is the sun, its nine planets and other heavenly
electro magnetic waves radiated from bodies like asteroids, satellites (Moons),
them. It includes the two windows of the comets, meteors, etc.
astronomy viz. The sun is at the centre and all other
am
(i) Optical Window of Astronomy: It members of system move around it in
involves the study of the heavenly bodies elliptical orbits due to the gravitational force
through visible radiations by the help of of attraction between them.
optical telescope. Sun
(ii) Radio Window of Astronomy: It It is the nearest star to us. It is heaviest
involves the study of the heavenly bodies and largest member of the solar-system. Its
ex
through radiowaves by the help of radio- mass is 1.98x 1030 kg and diameter is 1.392
telescope. x 10 9 m. It is about 109 times the diameter
of the earth. It rotates about its axis and
ASTRONOMICAL UNITS OF completes one rotation in 25 days. Our sun
DISTANCE is also called Yellow dwarf star. It emits
continuously the electromagnetic radiations
ssc
(i) Light Year (ly):- It is equal to the both in visible and in radiowaves regions.
distance travelled by light in vacuum in
The sun consists of a bright layer at the
one year. 1ly = 9.46 × 1015m centre called Photosphere that emits light.
(ii) Parsec (Parallactic Seconds):- The photosphere is surrounded by a hot-
gaseous layers called the chromosphere.
1 parsec = 3.1 × 1016m
w.
.co
released during the nuclear fusion. It involves There are eight planets in the solar
the conversion of a certain mass into energy. system. These planets are revolving around
The sun has been continously radiating energy the sun in elliptical path. They do not emit
at the rate of 46x1026 Joules per second for their own light but reflect some of the
the last several billion years without getting incident light of the sun. These planets in
or
cooler. The light emitted from the sun reaches the order of increasing distance from the
the earth in 8.3 minutes. sun are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Solar Constant(S): The amount of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Until
radiant energy received per second per unit recently Pluto was recognised as the ninth
planet. However, Neptune and Pluto keep
tut
area of a perfectly black body surface at
right angles to the direction of the sun-rays on exchanging their distance in their
at the mean distance of the earth from the elliptical orbits in such a way that
sun is known as the solar constant. sometimes Neptune is the farthest and
sometimes Pluto.
Solar constant = 1388 Watt/m2 = 2 cal/
(cm2 - minute). The mass of the earth is about 6x1024
am
kg. The planets Venus and Uranus rotate
Sun-Spots: Certain dark spots are
about their axis from the east to the west
observed in the photographs of the visible
whereas all the other planets rotate from
light disc of the sun. These dark-spots are
the west to the east. Venus and Uranus are
called sun-spots. They have relatively lower
called retrograde.
temperature (4500K) at the sun- surface.
Their numbers vary with time. The (1) Mercury: It is the hottest, the
ex
maximum sun spots activity occur smallest and the nearest to the sun amongst
regularly after every eleven years. This all planets. It is seen just before the sun
period is known as the sun-spot cycle. The rise, and after the sun-set. Its atmosphere
sun-spots are also associated with high contains H, He, Ar and Ne-gases. The
magnetic fields (2000 to 3000 gause). temperature of its sun-facing side is 427° C
ssc
particles. It results a lot of magnetic and SO2, CO & water vapour. Its temperature
radio disturbances all over the earth. It is 480°C and pressure is very high. Hence,
also affects the plant growth. life is not possible on it. It is seen 3 hrs
before the sun-rise and 3 hrs after the
Solar Wind: The out flow of materials
sunset. Hence, it is known as Morning/
as charged particles e.g. electrons and
ww
Evening star.
protons, etc. from the sun is called as solar
wind. It results in emission of one million (3) Earth: It is one of the unique planets
tonne particles per second from the sun. having life. Its atmosphere contains 78% of
Physics [95]
m
N2, 21% of O2 and traces of He, Ne, Kr, (6) Saturn: It is the second largest planet.
.co
CO2 and water vapour. 71% surface of its It consists of H2 and He with traces of NH3
is covered with water. Moon is its natural and methane (CH4). It is recognised by a
satellite. system of revolving rings around it. The
rings have dust particles and ice. Its
(4) Mars: Its very thin layer of
temperature is about (-) 180°C. The largest
atmosphere contains 95% CO2, 2.7% N 2,
or
satellite is Titan (diameter = 5800 km).
1.6% Ar and traces of O2, CO and other
gases. Its surface has craters of different (7) Uranus: It is made up of H2, He,
sizes. It is also known as “Red - Planet” NH3 and CH4. It appears green due to the
because it appears red owing to the present large amount of CH4 and NH3 clouds in its
tut
of iron- oxide upto 16% of its soil. Its day- atmosphere. Its temperature is about (-)
temperature ranges from 21°C to 27°C but 127°C.
at night it becomes (-) 84°C. Phobos
(8) Neptune: It is the 8th planet of the
(diameter =27 km) and Deimos (diameter
sun. It has six satellites.
= 14 km) are its two satellites.
Its surface has frozen methane (CH4). Its
(5) Jupiter: It is the largest planet. It is a
am
orbit crosses the orbit of Neptune. Its single
spinning ball of gases and liquids like
discovered satellite is Charon. It was treated
ammonia, hydrogen (NH3,H2) and helium
as the coldest and lightest planet of the sun.
He with no solid surface. Its temparature is
about (-) 140°C. No life is possible on it due Moon: It is the natural satellite of the
to ammonia clouds and intense emission of earth. Its period of revolution around the
radio wave on it. earth as well as the period of rotation about
ex
.co
is pointed towards the earth. Its diameter and a long tail. Near the sun, some of the
is 3476 km and the distance from the earth materials of the comet gets evaporated due
is 3.54x105 km. Its mass is 0.0123 times the to solar heat. The light of the sun exerts a
mass of the earth. Its surface is rocky and pressure on these vapours and forces them
rough. There are deep depressions or holes away from the comet in the form of tail.
or
and high mountains on the surface of the When a comet is far away from the sun, it
moon. It does not have atmosphere and shows no tail. A comet appears after regular
water. Its gravitational pull is 1/6th that intervals of time in the sky e.g. Halley’s
on the earth. Latest measurements showed comet has a time period of 76 years. It was
that the maximum temperature on the last seen in 1986 and is expected to be seen
tut
moon at day is 117°C and minimum again in 2062.
temperature at the night is - 171°C. Moon
Meteors: They are smaller pieces of
does not emit light by itself. It simply reflects
stones and metals which are produced due
light of the sun falling on it. The reflected
to breaking of comets while approaching
light on the Moon reaches the earth in the sun. When they enter the earth’s
am
1.28 seconds. Due to its rotation around atmosphere, they burn due to friction of
the earth, it looks different depending on the atmosphere and burn completely before
its position with respect to the sun and the they fall on the earth’s surface. They appear
earth. The age of the moon is the same as bright due to burning. Hence, they are
that of the earth i.e. about 4 billion years. called Fire balls or shooting stars.
Asteroids: The groups of small solid Meteorites: They are unburnt meteors
objects made of rocks and minerals which
ex
are about 320 to 490 million km away the Giant or Jovian or Superior Planets:
sun. Their orbits are highly elliptical which They are far away from the Sun e.g. Jupiter,
enable them to approach the Earth, Venus Saturn, Uranus, Neptune & Pluto.
and Mercury after regular intervals of time.
Albedo: The ratio of the sun’s energy
Their size varies from 50 m to 350 km in
reflected by a planet to that incident on it is
radius. They are believed to be the pieces of
w.
which is made of gases, ice and dust for Mercury, albedo =0.06 & for Moon,
particles and moves around the Sun in a albedo = 0.07. Hence, Venus has denser
long spindle shaped orbit. When a comet clouds and atmosphere but Mercury and
Physics [97]
m
Moon do not have any clouds and star (Sun), then the remaining mass (H2,
.co
atmosphere. He & dust) formed disc shaped clouds
around the sun. These clouds were at very
Existence of Atmosphere on a Planet:
low temperature vis-a-vis the sun and hence
The possibility of existence of atmosphere
contracted due to gravitational pull and
on a planet depends upon the escape
condensed to form a small chunk of matter
velocity of that planet. Higher the value of
or
known as planetesimal. There were larger
escape velocity, more is the possibility of
number of planetesimals around the sun,
atmosphere on the planet. The escape
which attracted each other to form biger
velocity depends upon the acceleration due
chunks of matters. These big chunks of
to gravity (g) and temperature of the planet.
matters continued to grow by attracting
tut
If the value of ‘g’ is more, the escape velocity
smaller pieces of matters by gravitational
is more. If the temperature of the planet is
pull. The matter was scattered in space in
high, the average velocity of the gas
all directions. They gave rise to planets and
molecules may achieve the escape velocity
satellites. The matters which could not
and consequently, the gas molecules escape
participate in formation of planets and
out from the surface of the planet.
am
natural satellites collided with these formed
Thus, to have atmosphere on a planet, planets and satellites. It led to form deep
the planet must have lower surface craters on the surface of planets and
temperature, higher value of ‘g’ and higher satellites. These craters are visible on the
escape velocity. surface of moon and Mars.
Evolution of Earth : The Earth was
FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM formed by the collection of large number of
ex
Formation of Sun: The Sun was formed cold planetesimals. These planetesimals
about 5 billion years ago. The clouds of H2, came from two regions (i) from the inner
He and dust formed Nebulae. At the planets like Mercury and Venus and they
beginning, these clouds were at very low were rich in iron, silicon, magnesium and
temperature. These clouds collapsed slowly traces of other elements (ii) from the outer
ssc
due to their mutual gravitational force of planets like Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus and
attraction to form a Protostar. As these they were rich in H2, CO2, CH4 and water.
clouds collapsed, the atoms of H2 and He A larger amount of heat was produced when
collided with each other and hence, these cold planetesimals collided with each
temperature accelerated. At a very high other. Heat was also produced due to (i) the
temperature, the atoms of H2 ionised into contraction of planetesimals under the force
w.
ions which further fused together to form of their gravitational pull (ii) the
He- nuclei along with the release of disintegration of some radioactive elements
tremendous energy. Thus, sun was formed. like uranium and thorium. Hence, due to
At present, the sun is a middle aged star large amount of heat the initial earth was in
and is expected to live for another 5 - billion a molten state. The melted earth then began
ww
.co
which formed the core of the earth. people on the earth.
The lightest materials began to float on Evolution of a Star : The vast space
the surface and formed the crust of the between the stars is filled with dust
primitive earth. particles and gases like H2 and He. This
material is called Interstellar matter, from
or
The intermediate dense materials ar-
which a star is formed. The interstellar
ranged itself in between the core and
the crust of the earth and formed the matters are in the form of clouds. When
mantle of earth. the clouds of gas-particles are illuminated
by nearby stars, the clouds appear as bright
The process of reorganisation of molten
tut
nebulae whereas the clouds rich in dust
matter of the primitive earth into various appear as dark nebulae because they absorb
layers of different densities is called the radiation of the stars. The process of
differentiation. At the time of the formation of star begins only if the
differentration, the water vapours and the original clouds have a mass of at least 1000
gases in the various minerals were released. solar mass.
am
Later on, these water vapours were
condensed to give rain. The rain water Formation of Protostar (First Stage) :
filled the craters on the earth and thus, Initially, the interstellar matter is at very
oceans were formed. The various gases low temperature (–173°C). Due to the
released formed the atmosphere of the gravitational attraction the interstellar
earth. The changes occuring on the earth matter contracts and is compressed to such
were fast in the begining now they are an extent that a huge ball of gases is formed.
ex
slowing down. At present, these changes This gaseous ball is known as a protostar.
are responsible for the occurence of A protostar contains highly condensed
earthquakes, eruption of volcanoes and gases mainly H 2 & He. A cloud of
making and raising of mountain ranges. intersteller matter takes about 105 years to
become a protostar. Protostar does not emit
light and heat.
ssc
STARS
Formation of a Star from Protostar
A star is a luminous heavenly body (Second Stage) : In the protostar the gas
emitting its own heat and light molecules collide with each other.
continuously. Stars twinkle because of Gradually these collisions become fast and
refraction of light through different layers numerous due to continuous increase in
of the atmosphere. Stars appear to move
w.
Physics [99]
m
converted into a cluster of protostars and known as giant, super gaint or red-giant.
.co
then into a cluster of stars i.e. a galaxy. This stage lasts for several million years
Inspite of a large attractive force of and at the end, the rate of production of
gravitation inside the star, it does not energy becomes so high that it explodes in
collapse because there is a high temperature the form of a Nova or Super Nova, throwing
that provides a high-pressure to counter out the major outer mass into interstellar
or
balance the attractive force. This balance space. This is the death of a star. Depending
continues for billions of years. upon the mass of left core of a star the
following heavenly bodies are formed:
Formation of Red-giant (Third Stage) :
Due to continuous nuclear fusion of (a) White Dwarf : If the original mass
tut
hydrogen nuclei to form He-nuclei, the of a star is less than two times the mass of
number of H-atoms decrease. It results in the sun, the gravitational compression
the decrease in pressure in the core of a leaves the core of the star, composed of
star. Hence, the inward force of attraction protons with electrons flying around in the
increases in the core and the core contracts form of electron clouds. When this electron-
rapidly but the outer layer expands cloud with stands the inward gravitational
am
outward. Thus the volume of a star becomes force, then a stable equilibrium is achieved.
very large. The outer layer gradually cools At this stage, the star is called a white
and appears red. This stage of a star is dwarf. It gradually cools finally ceasing to
Theories of Origin and Evolution of the Universe
The Big Bang Theory : This theory was proposed by Le Maitre and Gammow. According to this theory,
at the beginning of the universe, the entire matter of the universe was once concentrated in an ex-
ex
tremely dense and hot (1012k) fire ball. Then about 20 billion years ago a vast explosion (big-bang)
occurred. The matter was broken into pieces which were thrown out with high speed in all directions
forming stars and galaxies; which are still moving away from one another. The Hubble’s law agrees
with this theory.
Steady State Theory : It was given by Bondi, Gold and Fred Hoyle. According to this theory, the no.
of galaxies is constant and new galaxies are continously created to occupy the position of those gal-
ssc
axies which have the crossed the boundary of the universe. Thus, the size and mass of the universe
are constant.
Pulsating Theory : According to this theory the expansion and contraction of the universe occur alter-
nately i.e. the universe is pulsating. At present, the universe is expanding and after a certain amount of
expansion, it will begin contraction due to the gravitational pull. The alternate expansion and contrac-
tion of the universe gives rise to a pulsating universe.
emit radiations. Then it becomes a black- to form neutrons. Hence, the core contains
w.
dwarf. The most famous white dwarf is neutrons only. It gives the birth of a neutron
Sirius-B close to the brightest star Sirius. star.
(b) Neutron Stars : If the original mass (c) Black Hole : If the original mass of a
of a star is between 2 to 5 times the mass of star is more than 5 times the mass of the
the sun, the recoil of supernova explosion sun, the recoil of supernova is extremely
ww
is set up in the core. Now, the electrons are violent. Hence, the core collapses to have
forced into the nuclei and the result is an object which has a very high density
combination between electrons and protons and gravity. As a result any radiation or
.co
never comes out. This object is called a view it appears spiral. From the side view,
Black Hole. As the black hole is invisible, so it hasa thick central part (Nucleus) which
what is happening inside it and what had gradually becomes thin towards the edge.
happened to the matter of the core of the Its diameter is about 105 light years. The
star is unknown. The recent experiments sun is at 3×104 light years away it centre.
or
have shown that one of the components of The sun completes one revolution around
Cygnus XI is a black hole. the galactic centre in 220 millions years
with a speed of 250 km/second.
GALAXY Pulsars : They are neutron stars which
tut
A Galaxy consists of very large group emit radio signals at extremely regular
of stars, their families (i.e. planets etc.), intervals of time. Their pulsating radio
dust and gases held together by the signals are due to their high rotation and a
attractive force of gravitation. A galaxy is very large magnetic field.
a building block of the universe. Total
galaxies are about 100 billions and each CONSTELLATION (NAKSHATRAS)
am
galaxy has about 100 billion stars. Thus,
A constellation is a collection or group
there are about 1022 stars in the universe.
of a few stars. It forms a pattern which
Our solar system belongs to the galaxy
resembles the shape of an animal, object or
known as Milky Way galaxy (Akash
a human being. There are 88 known
Ganga). Another known galaxy is
constellations. They are visible in a definite
Andromeda which is about 2.2 million light
part of the sky.
ex
.co
constellation is Dhruva Matysa or Laghu RED-SHIFT OF GALAXIES
Saptarishi. This constellation can be seen
It is explained on the basis of the
clearly in July in the northern part of the sky.
Doppler-effect. When the source of wave
(3) Scorpio or Vrischika : It consists of moves away the observer, the apparent
seven stars whose arrangement resembles wave-length increases or the apparent
or
a scorpio. It can be seen clearly from frequency decrease. This is known as Red-
February to August in the Southern part of shift because the region of spectra has large
the sky. wavelength and smaller frequency. The
(4) Orion, The Hunter (Vyadha or study of the spectral pattern of the galaxies
tut
Mirga) : Its shape is like that a hunter. The shows a red-shift. It means that most of the
two stars at the top row makes the right and galaxies are moving away from each other
left shoulder of the hunter. Three stars in the with enormous speed and the universe is
middle row form his belt and the two stars in continuously expanding.
the bottom row form his feet. The faint stars Hubble’s Law : Hubble and Milton
below the belt are arranged in the shape of a
am
studied the red-shift of various gallaxies
sword of the hunter. This constellation can and put forth the law. The Hubbles law
be seen clearly from October to April in the states that the recession velocity of a galaxy
southern part of the sky. is proportional to it distance from us i.e.
(5) Cassiopeia (Sarmistha) : It consists
of five dominated stars. The pattern of the
stars is like the letter W. This is clearly seen Where V= recession velocity of a galaxy.
ex
w.
ww
or
The system of electronic communication signals). (ii) Frequency Modulation: It
involves the faithful transfer of messages results into frequency modulated wave
in the form of electrical signal from one (FM-wave singals). (iii) Phase modulation:
tut
point to another point. Basic components It results into phase into modulated signal.
of a communication system include AM wave signals are mainly used for
Transmitter, Transmission Channel & commercial broadcast of voice-signals. They
Receiver. The information message is first can be noisy because atmospheric
converted into electrical signal by a device phenomena like lightning or man made
called Transducer. This electrical signal is electrical signals affect this. AM-wave carrier
am
then transmitted by transmitter. An frequency ranges from approx. 0.5 to 2 MHz.
electronic signal in the Audio frequency
FM-signals are noise free and of better
range cannot be transmitted over a long
quality. They have large bandwidth and
distance because of lower value of audio
are preferred for transmission of music.
frequency range. Hence, low frequency
FM signals include—(i) FM radio (88 to
signals are loaded on a high frequency
108 MHz), (ii) Very High Frequency (VHF)
carrier signal by a process known as
ex
Physics [103]
m
The digital communication involves the acts as a modulator & modem-I acts as a
.co
quantization of the digitial data (0 and 1) demodulator.
by the help of a device called quantizer.
Modems that support a voice/data
Hence, it becomes relatively more error-
switch have an inbuilt microphone and
free and noise-free. It makes the digitial
speaker for voice communication. In voice
communication more reliable than the
mode, the modem acts as a regular
or
analog-communication.
telephone while in data mode, the modem
acts as a regular modem.
DEMODULATION
The rate at which a modem can transmit
It is the reverse processs of modulation and receive data (message) is measured as
tut
that is carried out in a receiver to record Bits per second (bps). Higher data transfer
the original information signal. rate can be achieved by data compression
In an electronic communication system, which is performed by some specific modems.
the transmitter modulates the information The digital communications, computer
signals and transmits them by an antenna & modem use a binary number system to
am
via transmission channels. The receiver deal with digital signals (data). Binary
receives the modulated transmission signals system involves two volues as 1 and 0 only.
and demodulates them to recover the 0 ® refers, open-circuit or No or space.
original information signals. A transmitter
1 ® refers to close circuit or yes or
performs data transmission and a receiver
mark.
performs data retrieval. In electronic
communication, data to be transmitted Both 0 and 1 are called Bits. A group of
ex
combinations
function as modulator as well as
Demodulator and hence, its name is n = the no. of bits in a byte.
Modem (Mo ® Modulation and dem ®
demodulation). In the transmitting mode, FAX
it acts as a modulator while in the receiver- (FACSIMILE TRANSMISSION)
mode, it acts as a demodulator.
w.
.co
machine receives digital image-information and ionosphere. It is also known as short wave
reconstructs the received image on the paper. (SW) band in the radio transmission.
This is also known as Facsimile Telegraphy.
(iii) Space or Tropospheric Wave
Communication : It involves the transmission
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
of FM-Radio-signals, TV signals and
or
The communication channel is the Microwave signals in the range of VHF &
physical medium between a transmitting UHF. These signals cannot be transmitted by
and a receiving stations through which the using ionosphere because the ionsosphere
transmitted signals may propagate. can reflect the frequency upto 40MHz only.
Hence, these signals are transmitted from
tut
Types-(i) Space Communication
the transmitting antenna to the receiving
channel including satellite communication
antenna directly. Its range depends upon
and (ii) line communication channels. the height of the transmitting antenna. Its
Space Communication : It involves the range can be increased (a) by using a no. of
transmission of the message signals freely antennas called Repeaters in between the
am
in space by a transmitting antenna and transmitting antenna and receiving antenna.
receiving the signals by intercepting them (b) by increasing the height of the transmitting
with the help of receiving sets or antennas antenna. This height can be maximised by
at the other end. locating the transmitter on a satellite.
The space communication channel
involves: SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
ex
(i) Ground wave communication (ii) Sky It involves those frequency signals
wave communication (iii) Space or which can pass through the ionosphere
Tropospheric or surface wave without being reflected by the ionosphere.
communication. The satellite carries an equipment called
Radio-Transponder. The function of the
(i) Ground Wave Communication : It
transponder includes reception, storage,
ssc
used for between radio broadcasting at of revolution is 24 hrs, height 36000 kms
low frequencies ranging from 500 Khz to and direction of revolution from west to
1500 Khz. The ground of the wave includes east similar to that of the earth. It is
the medium wave (MW) band. revolving in a circular orbit called Geo-
synchronous orbit that is coplanar with
(ii) Sky Wave Communication : In sky
ww
Physics [105]
m
For global comunication, three satellites are For ground water surveys.
.co
parked 120° apart from each other in the
In the field of spying, to lcoate the
geo-stationary orbit.
position and movements of the enemy.
Remote-Sensing : It is a technique
which is used to observe and measure the T.V. REMOTE CONTROL
characteristics of the object or phenomenon
or
at a distance without being in physical The Remote Control used in TV and
contact with it. Its working is related with music system is an electronic device. It
the measurement of some kind of signals consists of an integrated circuit (I.C.) and
emitted, transmitted or reflected from an other components like a diode, a transistor,
object in order to determine certain physical a capacitor, etc. When a key on the remote
tut
properties of the object, like its temperature is pressed, it translates it into infrared
location, size, colour nature, etc. The remote signals which are received by the electronic
sensing uses, electromagnetic techniques circuit of the TV and required operations
that covers the entire electromagnetic are performed.
spectrum. Any photography is a kind of Line Communication : In order to
am
remote sensing. RADAR, SONAR, Satellite interconnect (i) a transmitter to an antenna,
with sensors, etc. are other examples of (ii) a transmitter to a receiver (iii) a receiver
remote sensing. to an antenna some specific wires are
Satellite remote sensing systems provide required. These wires are known as
the data critical to weather-prediction, transmission-lines. Some of them are as
agriculture forecasting, resource follows:
exploration (archaeology, geological survey,
ex
To locate the debris of a crashed increases from the parallel wire lines to the
aeroplane or jet plane. optical fibre lines. The optical fibre line is
To identify the extent of pollution and the best because it has maximum efficiency
its source. and minimum loss in energy.
To estimate the damage being done by Coaxial cable system is better than
ww
.co
In the cable system, the deviation in
frequency & phase response of the signals Weather Forecasting : A laser based
passing through a cable are set by using a RADAR called Lidar is used for weather
device called equalizer. forecasting.
A telephone link can be established Reading bar codes, manufacturing and
or
using ground waves, sky-waves, reading compact discs, cutting cloth in gar-
microwave, co-axial cables and latest, the ment industry etc. are also some of the uses
optical fibre cables. The microwave link is of lasers.
more noisy than the coaxial link. The optical
fibre link are free from noise & energy MICROWAVE DEVICE
tut
losses.
(1) Radar (Radio Detetection &
LASER Ranging) : RADAR system detects the
objects like aeroplanes and ships. Its
(Light Amplification by stimulated antenna transmits microwave (frequency
emission of radiation): Laser is a process greater than 1000 MHz) signals which are
am
by which a coherent, hightly intense mono reflected from the object. Knowing the time
chromatic and almost perfectly parallel interval between the transmission and
beam of light is obtained. The term ‘Laser’ reception of the signals, the distance of the
is also used for the beam of light obtained object is measured.
this way.
(2) Microwave Oven : It bakes food
Use of Lasers : Lasers are used in : using microwaves. These microwaves are
ex
ww
Physics [107]
m
.co
ELECTRO
MAGNETISM
or
electron or a proton. Electric charge is
ELECTROSTATICS always conserved when some electrons are
Electrostatics deals with the study of transferred from one body to the other, the
tut
electric charges at rest. Electric charges at body giving electrons becomes slightly
rest are produced either by friction between lighter and the body gaining electrons
two insulating bodies which are rubbed becomes slightly heavier.
against each other or by electrical induction
between a charged body and an earthed COULOMB’S LAW
uncharged body.
am
The electric forces between the two
When two insulating bodies are rubbed point charges is directly poportional to the
against each other, electrons are transferred product of the charges and inversely
from one body to the other. Electrons are proportional to the square of distance
negatively charged particles. Hence, the between the charges. The electric force may
body giving electrons becomes positively be attractive or repulsive depending upon
charged while the body gaining electrons the nature of the two charges. The
ex
rubbing
the charged body attracts electrons present
Positive Charge Negative Charge inside the atoms at the surface of the
Glass Rod Silk Cloth
uncharged body. Hence, a few electrons
Fur or woollen cloth Rubber rod, Ebonite
come out at the surface resulting in a
and Amber.
negative charge at the surface and an equal
Woollen Carpet Rubber Shoe
positive charge appears on its opposite face.
w.
other is the charge on an electron (–1.6 × has now a net negative charge. The
10–19c). Hence the total charge on a charged uncharged body can acquire a net positive
body is equal to the sum of products of no. charge too provided the charged body
of electrons transferred and charge on an placed near it was negatively charged.
.co
near a piece of paper, it attracts the paper capacitor.
because of force of attraction between the Van de graaff Generator : It produces
charge on rod and induced charge which highly energised positively charged
has appeared on the paper. particles or ions by producing very high
electric voltage. It is used in scientific or
or
ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING OR industrial works.
ELECTROSTATIC SCREENING Atmospheric Electricity : Earth is a
Protecting a certain region of space good conductor of electricity. Its electric
from external electric fields is known as potential is ‘0’ Volt everywhere at the
tut
electrostatic shielding. earth’s surface. When a positively charged
body comes in contact with the earth,
A hollow conductor stores charge only electrons flow from earth to the body
at its surface. Hence, electric field remains whereas when a negatively charged body
outside only, and inside the hollow electric comes in contact with earth, electrons flow
field is zero. Such a space having zero from the body to the earth. Lower
am
electric field is known as Faraday’s Cage. atmosphere is a poor conductor of electricity
Therefore, to protect delicate instruments but its conductivity increases with increase
from external electric fields, they are kept in height. Ionosphere is a very good
inside a hollow conductor. In a thundersto- conductor. This is primarily due to
rm accompanied by lightning, it is safer to ionization of particles of air by cosmic ray
be inside a car or a bus than to be in the particles having energies to the order of
open ground or under a tree. The metallic 1014 MeV.
ex
.co
by electrostatic precipitation of fly ash. Van de Graaff generator.
or
2. Metallic conduction is due to the movement Electrolytic conduction is due to the movement
of electrons in the metallic conductor. of positive and negative ions in the electrolyte.
3. The chemical properties of the metallic conductors The chemical properties of the electrolyte
do not change due to metallic conduction. change due to electrolytic conduction.
4. The metallic conductor is not The electrolyte decomposes due to electrolytic
tut
decomposed due to metallic conduction conduction.
but it is only heated up.
(3) In electrostatic spraying of paints, etc. works both on d.c. and a.c. Joule
ex
.co
of higher wattage will give more bright
light and will pass greater current 1 Ampere . Conventionally, the
through it. It will have lesser resistance electric current flows from higher to lower
and same potential difference across it.
potential against the flow of electrons.
If one bulb gets fused, other bulbs will
or
work.
Ohm’s Law
In series grouping of bulbs, the bulb of
higher wattage will give less bright light The current flowing through a
and will have smaller resistance and po- conductor is directly proportional to the
tential difference across it. If one bulb potential difference across the ends of the
tut
gets fused the other bulbs will not work. conductor provided the temperature and
other physical conditions of the conductor
CURRENT ELECTRICITY remain the same.
charge from one point to another point. conductor known as resistance. Unit of
Electric potential and potential resistance is ohm (W).
difference are physically similar quantities Resistance of a conductor is its ability
having common unit of volt. Electric
to oppose the flow of current. For a
potential determines the direction of flow
ssc
Physics [111]
m
V = Potential difference across
.co
Conductivity (K) conductor.
or
When two or more resistances are heat produced due to the flow of current is
arranged in series i.e. in a common path of electrical energy consumed in a given
flow of current, the net resistance is equal electrical circuit. Thus, the net
to the sum of individual resistance. Hence,
Electrical energy = I2Rt = VIT =
in series, the net resistance becomes larger.
tut
For two resistances R1 & R2 : Rs = R1 + R2 >
R1 or R2. Electrical power
When two or more resistances are
arranged in parallel i.e., between two = I2R =VI
common points of two different paths of Unit of electrical energy is Joule (J) and
am
flow of current, the reciprocal of the net that of power is watt (w). Horse-power is
resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals another unit of power. 1 Horse-power
of individual resistances. Hence, in parallel, (H.P.) = 746 watt. The practical commercial
the net resistance becomes smaller. For two unit of energy is kilowatt hour (KWH).
resistances R1 & R2 in parallel, 1 KWH = 1000 × 60 × 60 = 3.6 × 106
Joule.
ex
.co
of air & a very bright light is emitted by the Electrolysis : When an amount of
gap. This light is called an arc-light. The electric current is passed through a solution
carbon arc lamp is used in electric welding, or melt of an electrolyte, the electrolyte
search lights and cinema projectors. dissociates into positive ions (cations) and
Electric Fuse Wire : Usually it is an negative ion (anions). The cation gets
or
alloy of tin (63%) & lead (37%). It has high deposited at negative electrode (cathode)
resistance and low melting point. It is and the anion gets deposited at the positive
connected in series with the electrical electrode (anode). This phenomenon is
installations. All of a sudden, if strong known as electrolysis. Electrolysis is
explained by the Faraday’s laws of
tut
current flows, the fuse wire melts away,
causing the breakage in the circuit, thereby electrolysis. Faraday constant (F) = 96500
saving the main installations from being coulomb/gram equivalent = charge on one
damaged. Thus, it is capable of saving costly mole of electrons. Electrolysis involves direct
appliances. current (d.c.) only and not a.c.
am
Power Cell Chemsitry
Cell Electrodes Electrolyte Depolariser EM For Voltage
Voltaic Copper and Zinc Dilute solution of Absent and the cell 1.08 Volt
cell rods H2SO4 (sulphuric suffers from polarisation
acid)
Leclanche cell Carbon and zinc rods Ammonium chloride Manganese dioxide 1.45 volt
(NH4Cl) (MnO2)
Dry cell Carbon rod and zinc Ammonium chloride Manganese dioxide 1.5 Volt
pot (NH4Cl) (MnO2). ZnCl2 being
ssc
hygroscopic absorbs
water produced.
Lead-Acid A set of perforated dilute (20%) H2SO4 lead oxide (PbO2) 2.2 volt
Accumulator lead plates with lead Solution with specific
(PbO2) in holes as gravity 1.25. when the
positive and a set of specific gravity of
w.
Physics [113]
m
Applications of Electrolysis : Extraction of Metals from the Ores :
.co
Metals like sodium, aluminium, magne-
Electroplating : The process of deposit-
sium, calcium, zinc, copper etc. are ex-
ing a layer of precious metal like gold,
tracted from their ores by electrolsysis.
silver, nickel and chromium over cheap
metals like iron and copper by electroly- Purification of Metals : It is carried out
sis is called as electroplating. The pre- by using impure metal as the anode,
or
cious metal is taken as anode and cheap pure metal as the cathode and a double
metal as cathode. The electroplating pre- salt of the pure metal as electrolytes
vents corrosion (rusting) and makes the when a current is passed through the
cheap metals attractive. electrolyte solution, pure metal gets
deposited at the cathode. This methode
tut
Anodising : It is the process of coating
is used to purify blister copper.
aluminium with its oxide electrochemi-
cally to protect it against corrosion. In Production of Oxygen and Hydrogen :
dilute sulphuric acid as electrolyte, the Oxygen and hydrogen are manufac-
aluminium article is made the anode. tured commercially by the electrolysis
To give the surface of the article beauti- of acidulated water.
am
ful colours, dyes are mixed in the elec- Manufacture of Chemicals : By the
trolyte. electrolysis of sodium chloride solution,
Electrotyping : It involves the prepara- caustic soda is prepared.
tion of exact copies of metallic type Medical Applications : Electrolysis is
used in the printing work and the en- used for nerve stimulation especially for
graved blocks on the metals by the pro- polio, for removing unwanted hairs on
ex
.co
They are : highly accelerated positively charged
Mercury Cells : EMF or Voltage =1.36 particles under the effect of a strong
volt magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet. Cyclotron is used for
Life : upto 3 years used in a watches,
nuclear works so as to cause nuclear
hearing aids, portable scientific instru-
or
ments. disintegration, etc.
Silver Oxide Cells : EMF = 1.62 volt. Galvanometer : It is based on the
magnetic effect of current. When a coil
Life and uses similar to that of mercury
cells. having electric current is suspended in a
uniform magnetic field, it gets deflected.
tut
Lithium Cells : Life : upto 10 years. This forms the basis of galvanometer. A
Used in quartz watches, mobiles, etc. galvanometer connected in any part of an
Alkali Cells : They are very cheap and electric circuit indicates the flow of current.
environmentally safe. Life shorter. Use It is used to construct devices like Ammeter
similar to other button cell EMF = 1.5 V and Voltmeter.
am
Battery : An arrangement of a no. of Ammeter : It measures the amount of
cells in series to provide higher voltage of electric current in any part of circuit in
direct current (d.c.) is called a battery. series.
Voltameter or Electrolytic Cells : An Voltmeter : It measures potential
arrangement consisting of identical
difference across a circuit in parallel.
electrodes (Anode and Cathode) in an
insulating container with an electrolyte- We can produce high voltage on the
ex
solution to carry out electrolysis is termed human body without getting a shock.
as a voltameter or electrolytic cell. It For this the person must stand on a
consumes electrical power to cause highly insulated platform. Hence with
electrolysis. An electrochemical cell or a high voltage on the body, no charge
common cell produces electric power. will flow to the ground through the
body and the person will not get any
ssc
wound around a soft iron core. When an power line. The actual reason is that a
electric current passes through the coil, the current of the order of 0.05 ampere or
arrangement acts as an electromagnet. even less is enough to bring about a
Electromagnets are used in many disorder in our nervous system. As a
devices like electric-bell, electric horn, result of it, the affected person may
ww
telephone receiver, electric relay, etc. temporarily lose his ability to exercise
Electromagnets fitted on cranes can lift his nervous control to get himself free
heavy iron pieces. from the high power line.
Physics [115]
m
For a given electrical installation, when and is used to produce alternating current
.co
an electrical appliance of high wattage by an a.c. generator.
is switched on it draws more current.
Electric Motor : It converts electrical
Consequently, the voltage across the
energy into mechanical energy. It is based
nearby appliance of lower wattage is
on the fact when a current carrying coil is
lowered for a moment until it is estab- placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
or
lished by the transmission grid. e.g (i) torque that causes rotation of the coils.
When a car-engine starts, the car light Electric motors are used to operate many
gets dimmer for a moment (ii) Light appliances like fans, coolers, mixers,
from a bathroon bulb gets dimmer for a geysers, refrigerators washing machines etc.
moment when the geyser is switched
tut
on. Motor Starter : When a large electric
motor is switched on, its initial current is
When a metallic wire is carrying an very high and that can damage its circuit.
electeric current, it is not charged be- Hence, the initial higher current should be
cause the total no. of electrons and that reduced. A motor starter has a large variable
of protons in any section of the wire
resistance. When an electric motor starts,
remains the same. Hence net charge on
am
the wire is zero. the motor starter automatically goes in to
reduce high current and comes out after
Potentiometer : It is an electrical device switching off the motor. Thus it regulates
used to compare emfs and internal an electric motor at start and stop.
resistence of the two cells.
Choke-Coil : It regulates alternating
Wheatstone Bridge : It measures an current in a given circuit. Its resistance
unknown resistance with accuracy.
ex
induced in the loop. The induced emf Both the generators work on a common
causes flow of induced current in the loop. principle. When a metallic coil rotates in a
This phenomenon is known as magnetic field, an induced em.f. is produced
electromagnetic induction. It can be carried in the coil. However, their constructions
out by (i) moving a magnet towards or are a bit different.
ww
away from the loop (ii) moving a loop Transformer : It converts higher
towards or away from the magnet (iii) alternating current at lower alternating
rotating a loop in front of a magnet. This voltage into lower alternating current at
effect forms the basis of serveral devices higher alternating voltage and vice-versa.
[116] General Science
m
It is of two types viz (i) Step-up with a turbine. In case of a hydroelectricity
.co
transformer : It converts higher a.c. at lower plant, the potential energy of water stored
a.c. voltage into lower a.c. at higher a.c. in a dam is converted into kinetic energy of
voltage. It is used at the power station (ii) the falling water which in turn is converted
step-down transformer : It converts lower into the kinetic energy of the armature of
a.c. at higher a.c. voltage supplied by power the generator. This kinetic energy finally
station into higher a.c. at lower a.c. voltage
or
appears as electrical energy known as
to be used for domestic purposes. It is used hydro electricity. At a thermo-electric plant,
at the colonies. Transformer works on the the function of the falling water is done by
principle of mutual induction, a form of hot-steam coming from boiling water. It
electromagnetic induction. requires heat energy produced by burning
tut
Inverter : It converts D.C. into A.C. For the fuel like coal & petroleum or heat
domestic purposes it is specially designed produced by nuclear reactor.
to convert D.C. from a battery to A.C. & to
charge the battery. When the mains supply DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
is available, it charges the battery (converts
A.C. into D.C.) whereas in absence of the The electric power is supplied to the
am
mains supply, it automotically switches on houses or factories through undergound
the A.C., converted from D.C. supplied by cables or overhead wires on poles. A single
the battery. Thus it fulfils electric supply phase electric line system comprises three
during the power break down. wires, namely phase wire or line wire,
Loudspeaker : It converts electrical neutral- wire and earth-wire. These wires
energy first into mechenical energy and coming from power substation are
then into sound energy. It works on the connected to an electric meter in a house
ex
fact that when a current carrying coil is or a factory. An electric fuse is placed in
placed in a magnetic field, the coil the path of the phase wire before it is
experiences force. This force causes connected to the electric-meter. This fuse is
vibrations in a cone. Consequently sound known as pole-fuse and has a definite
is produced. Its most common type is current rating. If current exceeds this rating
moving coil loudspeaker.
ssc
microphone.
distribution is like the distribution of the
branches of a tree. The power supply of
GENERATION AND
different circuits originates from different
TRANSMISSION OF POWER fuses. So if a particular fuse melts, then the
Electric power generation occurs in two other circuit remain unaffected. Different
ww
forms viz. Hydroelectricity and thermal appliances in a given circuit are connected
electricity. Both of them involve an electric in parallel so that they can be switched on
generator whose armature is connected or switched off independently. The parallel
Physics [117]
m
connection gives equal potential difference hence it is connected with the green or
.co
across each appliance in a circuit. This yellow wire. The remaining two pins are
system is complex and expensive. connected with red or brown (live) wire
(ii) Ring System: In this system the and black or blue (neutral) wire. The earth
three wires namely live, neutral & earth, pin being thicker cannot be inserted in the
start from the main fuse and return to the live of the socket even by mistake.
or
main fuse ofter connecting various Sockets: A socket has three holes. The
appliances. Each appliance has a fuse. So top bigger hole is for the earth, the lower
if a fuse melts due to short circuiting, then right hole is for the live wire and the left
only that appliances is switched off. Other hole is for the neutral wire.
appliance remain unaffected and continue
tut
Switches: An electric switch, is always
to work. This system is easy to install and
connected across the live wire. If a switch
cheaper.
is connected in the neutral wire, the socket
Earthing: It is usually a copper wire remains live even when the switch is in the
whose one end is connected with metal off position. It can cause a shock from the
casing of an electric appliance. The other element of a heater or other appliance even
am
end of the wire is connected to the copper when the appliance is not in use.
plate which is buried deep inside the earth.
When the live wire touches the metal casing The insulation on the wire should be of
of an electric-appliance, it can cause electric high strength so that it may not melt easily
shock on touching the appliance. But in when wires are heated due to a large
the presence of earthing current flows from current flowing through them. Wires
carrying current electricity should not be
the metallic casing to the earth through the
ex
earthing-wire. It produces heat in the circuit touched bare footed. The live wire is at
higher potential and the earth is at zero
that in turn causes the melting of fuse in
the circuit. The circuit is switched off potential. If we touch the live wire bare
footed, a large current will pass through
automatically. It saves the appliance from
burning and a person touching the our body. So we will receive a severe shock.
This shock affects our nervous system and
ssc
.co
iron ore is called Magnetite. Magnetite was will become free of magnetic field. Super
also called ‘lode-stone’ in the sense of conductor also provides perfect magnetic
leading stone to show geographic directions shielding as no magnetic lines pass through
(North-South). the super conductor.
A magnet is made of iron or its alloys. Magnetic shielding is used to protect
or
Each magnet has two equal and opposite costly wrist watches from external
magnetic poles viz. North pole and South- magnetic fields by enclosing them in a soft
pole lying at its ends.
iron core.
When an iron bar is magnetised, the
tut
spins are aligned parallel to the field. Hence,
the length of the bar in the direction of
magnetisation increases. This effect is
known as mangetostriction effect. This effect
is used for producing ultrasonic waves.
am
CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
It we cut a magnet, we get smaller
magnets again, instead of an isolated north (1) Diamagnetic Substances : They are
or south pole of the magnet. Hence the weakly repelled by an external magnetic
magnetic poles always exist in pairs and field, e.g. Bismuth, antimony, copper,
ex
not as a single magnetic monopole. Like gold, quartz, mercury, water, alcohol,
poles repel each other and unlike poles hydrogen.
attract each other. Each magnetic pole can
(2) Paramagnetic Substances : They are
attract small pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt.
weakly attracted by an external
When a magnet is suspended at mid-point
magnetic field e.g. aluminium,
ssc
proper alignment of electron spins. magnetic field e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel
and their alloys like Al Ni, alnico,
MAGNETIC SCREENING OR tinconol vicalloy, steel, perm alloys, mu-
SHIELDING metal, radio-metal, etc.
ww
Physics [119]
m
The ferromagnetic materials used for Geographic Meridian q = Magnetic
.co
coating magnetic tapes in a cassette player declination.
or for building memory stores in a
computer are ferrites. Most common
ferrites used are MFe2O4 where M= Mn,
Fe, Co and Ni.
or
EARTH’S MAGNETISM
Earth acts as a huge magnet. Its
magnetic south pole is at its geographic
tut
north and is located in North-Canada ,
longitude 96° west and latitude 70.5° North. d = Magnetic dip.
Its magnetic north pole is at the geographic H = Horizontal component of the earth’s
south and is located in Antarctica, magnetic field (BE).
longitude 84° east and latitude 70.5° south.
V = Vertical component of BE.
am
Geographic Meridian : An imaginary
vertical plane passing along the axis of When a compass is used by mariners
and others at a place, the magnetic needle
rotation of the earth at a place is known as
of the compass sets itself along the
geographic meridian at that place.
horizontal component of the earth’s
Magnetic Meridian : An imaginary magnetic field in the magnetic meridian.
vertical plane passing along the axis of a By knowing the angle of dip and magnetic
ex
freely suspeneded magnet at a place is declination, the location of the place can
known as magnetic meridian at the place. be determined.
Magnetic Declination (q) : The angle If d = 0° the place is at the equator,
between the geographic and magnetic
meridians at a place is known as magnetic if d = 90° the place is at the poles.
declination at that place. It is in the order
ssc
known as dip-angle or magnetic dip. Its the place is between the pole and the
value is maximum 90° at the poles and equator.
minimum 0° at the equator. Evidences behind the earth’s
Horizontal Component : It is the magnetism :
component of total magnetic field of the
ww
.co
geographic north and vice-versa. logues to temperature in heat is poten-
tial.
(ii) When a soft iron piece is buried below
the earths surface along the north-south The current capacity increases, when
direction, it acquires magnetic the cells are connected in series.
properties after some time.
or
The internal resistance of an ideal cell is
(iii)When we draw field lines of a magnet, zero.
we get neutral points. At these points The resistance of an ideal voltmeter
the net magnetic field due to the magnet should be infinity.
is completely neutralized by the
tut
horizontal component of the earth’s The resistance of an ideal ammeter
magnetic field. should be zero.
Energy is dissipated inside a cell due to
TRIVIA internal resistance.
In the gases, the charge carriers are The potential across a cell in closed
am
electrons and + VE ions. circuit is less than the emf due to its
internal resistance.
Filament of 100 W lamp is thinner than
that of 200 W lamp. Larger the current drawn from a cell,
When two lamps of different wattage smaller is the potential difference across it.
are connected in series, the lamp of Energy dissipated by the cell = Elt,
lower wattage glows more brightly. where E = emf, I = current, t = time.
ex
The power of a heater when connected Energy dissipated in the external circuit
across a power supply of negligible in- of a cell = VIt, where V = potential drop
ternal resistance is P. If the length of across the cell.
the coil is halved, the power of the re-
maining wire is less than 2P. The emf of voltaic cell is 1.08 V, that of
Daniel cell is 1.12 V and that of Leclanche
ssc
Physics [121]
m
The fuse wire is made of an alloy of lead The potential across a cell in closed
.co
and tin. circuit is less than the emf due to its
internal resistance.
The resistance in electricity is analo-
gous to friction in mechanics. Larger the current drawn from a cell,
smaller is the potential difference across it.
The change in the dimensions of a con-
or
ductor has no effect on its conductivity, Energy dissipated by the cell = Elt,
although conductance may change. where E = emf, I = current, t = time.
The quantity in electricity that is ana- Energy dissipated in the external circuit
logues to temperature in heat is poten- of a cell = VIt, where V = potential drop
tial. across the cell.
tut
The current capacity increases, when The emf of voilaic cell is 1.08 V, that of
the cells are connected in series. Daniel cell is 1.12 V and that of Leclanche
cell is 1.45 V.
The internal resistance of an ideal cell is
zero. Acid accumulator is most likely to be
damaged due to short circuiting.
am
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter
should be infinity. Fast charging does not cause sulphation
of acid accumulator, but fast discharg-
The resistance of an ideal ammeter
ing does it.
should be zero.
Thermocouple should not be used to
Energy is dissipated inside a cell due to
measure temperature above the neu-
internal resistance.
ex
tral temperature.
ssc
w.
ww
or
LAWS OF MOTION gravitational unit of force on cgs sys-
tem is gram weight or gram force.
Newton’s three laws of motion form
1N = 105 dyne,
tut
the basis of mechanics: According to
1st law, a body continues to be in its 1g wt. = 980 dyne.
state of rest or of uniform motion along
According to the principle of conserva-
a straight line, unless it is acted upon
tion of linear moment, the vector sum
by some external force to change the
of linear momentum of all the bodies in
state. The law defines force and is also
an isolated system is conserved, and is
am
called law of inertia.
not affected due to their mutual action
According to 2nd law, the rate of change and reaction. An isolated system is that
of linear momentum of a body is directly on which no external force is acting.
proportional to the external force applied Flight of rockets, jet planes, recoiling of
on the body, and this change takes place a gun etc, are explained on the basis of
in the direction of the applied force. This this principle. Newton’s 3rd law of mo-
ex
law gives us a measure of force. tion can also be derived from this prin-
According to third law, to every action, ciple and vice-versa.
there is always an equal and opposite Apparent weight of man in an eleva-
reaction. This law gives us the nature tor is given by :
of force.
W’ = m (g + a), where mg is real weight
ssc
Physics [123]
m
A frame of reference in which Newton’s inertial frame of references. Such a frame
.co
laws of motion hold good is called an is unaccelerated frame of reference.
Energy Equivalence
S.No. Particle Mass Energy equivalent
1. Electron or positron 9.1 × 10-31kg 0.53 MeV
2. Neutron or proton 1 amu = 1.67 × 10-37kg 931 MeV
or
3. Alpha particle 6.68 × 10–27kg 3724 MeV
tut
The acceleration due to gravity (g) is
two bodies of the universle.
related with gravitational constant (G)
Newton’s Law of Gravitation: It states
that the gravitational force of attraction by the relation g where M and R
acting between two bodies of the uni- are the mass and radius of the earth.
verse is directly proportional to the prod-
becomes zero at the centre of earth.
am
uct of their masses and is inversely pro-
portional to the square of the distance Gravitational Field: It is the space around
between them i.e, = Gm1m2/r2; where a material body in which its gravitational
G is the universal gravitational constant. pull can be experienced by other bodies.
The strength of gravitational field at a
Gravitational Constant (G): It is equal
point is the measure of gravitational in-
to the force of attraction acting between
tensity at that point. The intensity of gravi-
two bodies each of unit mass, whose
ex
or
Gravitational potential energy of a body, When the satellite is orbiting close to
at a point in the gravitational field of the surface of earth i.e., H < < R, then
another body is defined as the amount
of work done in bringing the given body
tut
from infinity to that point without ac-
celeration. (ii) Time period of Satellite (T) : It is
Gravitational potential energy = gravi- the time taken by satellite to com-
tational potential × mass of body. plete one revolution around the
earth.
am
Inertial mass of a body is defined as the
force required to produce unit accel- Geostationary Satellite: A satellite
eration in the body. which revolves around the earth with
the same angular speed in the same
Gravitational mass of a body is defined direction as is done by the earth around
as the gravitational pull experienced by its axis is called geostationary or geo-
the body in a gravitational field of unit synchronous satellite.
intensity.
ex
mass of a body remains unaffected by the polar satellite passes through geo-
presence of other bodies near it. graphical north and south poles of earth
one per orbit.
Satellite : A satellite is a body which is
revolving continously in an orbit around Escape Velocity: The escape velocity
a comparatively much large body. on earth is defined as the minimum
velocity with which a body has to be
w.
(i) Orbital velocity of a satellite is the projected vertically upwards from the
velocity required to put the satellite surface of earth (or any other planet) so
into given orbit around earth. Or- that it just crosses the gravitational field
bital velocity of satellite, when it is of earth (or of that planet) and never
revolving around earth at height h returns on its own. Escape velocity ve is
ww
Physics [125]
m
For earth, the value of escape velocity is (ii) Kepler’s Second Law (Law of
.co
11.2 kms–1. Area): The radius vector drawn
from the sun to a planet sweeps out
For a point close to the earth’s surface,
equal areas in equal intervals of time
the escape velocity are related as
i.e, the areal velocity of the planet
around the sun is constant.
or
Weightlessness: It is a situation in (iii) Kepler’s Third Law (Law of Pe-
which the effective weight of the body riod) : The square of the time pe-
becomes zero. riod of revolution of a planet around
the sun is directly proportional to
Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion:
the cube of semi-major axis of the
tut
(i) Kepler’s First Law (Law of Orbit): elliptical orbit i. e., T2 µ R3.
Every planet revolves around the
where R is the semi major axis of the
sun in an elliptical orbit. The sun is
elliptical orbit of the planet around the
situated at one focus of the ellipse.
sun.
am
Conservative and Non-conservative Force
S. Conservative Forces Non Conservative Forces
1. Work done by/against such forces in 1. Work done by/against such forces in
displacing a particle does not depend upon displacing a particle depends upon the path
the path along which particle is displaced. along which particle is displaced.
2. Work done by/against such forces in 2. Work done by/against such forces in
displacing a particle around a closed path is displacing a particle around a closed path is
zero. NOT zero.
ex
.co
three dimensions within the solid. Stress can be of two types :
Examples. Rubber, glass, plastic, (i) Normal stress
cement, paraffin, etc. Crystalline solids
do not have sharp melting point and (ii) Tangential stress.
they are isotropic in behaviour. Strain : It is defined as the ratio of
or
Deforming Force : It is that force which change in configuration of the deformed
when applied, changes the body due to a deforming force on it to
configuration of the body. the original configuration of the body
i.e.,
Elasticity : It is the property of the body
tut
by virtue of which the body regains its
original configuration (length, volume
or shape) when the deforming forces are Strain can be of three types :
removed. (i) Longitudinal strain
Stress : The internal restoring force (ii) Volumetric strain
am
acting per unit area of a deformed body
is called stress i.e., (iii) Shearing stream
2. Rel. vel. of separation after collison = rel. 2. Rel vel. of separation after collision is zero.
vel. of approach before collision.
3. Coeff. of restitution, e = 1 3. Coeff. of restitution e = 0
4. Linear momentum is conserved 4. Linear momentum is conserved
5. K.E. is conserved 5. K.E. is not conserved
Physics [127]
m
is defined as the ratio of normal elastic after effect. It is least for quartz
.co
stress to the volumetric strain within or phosphor bronze.
the elastic limit i.e., Elastic-Fatigue : It is the property of
the elastic body by virtue of which its
behviour becomes less elastic under the
action of repeated alternating deform-
(iii) Modulus of Rigidity (η) : It is de- ing forces.
or
fined as the ratio of tangential stress to Breaking force = breaking stress × area
the shearing strain, within the elastic of cross section of the wire.
limit i.e., Breaking stress is fixed for a material
but breaking force will vary, depend-
tut
ing on area of cross-section of the wire.
Where Shearing strain is defined as the Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched
angle through which a line perpendicu- Wire: Elastic potential energy per unit
lar to the fixed face gets rotated under volume of the stretched wire is,
the effect of a tangential force acting on
am
the opposite face of the body.
The S.I. units of modulus of elasticity of
Y or K or η is Nm–2 or Pa and c.g.s. unit
is dyne/cm2. The dimensional formula
= [M1L–1T–2]. Thrust: The total normal force exerted
by liquid at rest on a given surface in
Ductile Materials : These are those contact with it is called thrust of liquid
ex
not straight line within elastic limit and effect is neglected, the pressure at every
strain produced is much larger than point of liquid in equilibrium of rest is
the stress applied. Such materials have same. Pascal’s law also states that the
no plastic range. Example is rubber. increase in pressure at one point of the
Elastic after Effect : The temporary enclosed liquid in equilibrium of rest is
ww
delay in regaining the original configu- transmitted equally to all other points
ration by the elastic body after the re- of liquid provided the gravity effect is
moval of a deforming force is called neglected.
.co
exerted by atmosphere is called c.g.s unit is dyne/cm. Surface tension
atmospheric pressure. At S.T.P. the is a scalar quantity as it has no specific
value of atmospheric pressure is direction for a given liquid.
1.01×105 Nm–2 or 1.01 × 106 dyne/cm2. Surface energy = surface tension × area
Archimede’s Principle : It states that of the liquid surface.
or
when a body is immersed partly on (i) Excess of pressure inside a liquid
wholly in a liquid at rest it loses some of drop.
its weight, which is equal to the weight p = 2 S/R
of the liquid displaced by the immersed (ii) Excess of pressure inside a soap
part of the body. Observed weight of the bubble,
tut
body in a liquid = true weighh - weight p = 4 S/R
of liquid displaced. where S is the surface tension and R is
Law of Floatation: It states that a body the radius of the drop or bubble.
will float in a liquid if weight of the Angle of Contact : The angle of contact
liquid displaced by the immersed part between a liquid and a solid is defined
am
of the body is atleast equal to or greater as the angle enclosed between the
than the weight of the body. tangents to the liquid surface and the
Molecular Range : It is the maximum solid surface inside the liquid, both the
distance upto which a molecule can tangents being drawn at the point of
exert some measurable attraction on contact of the liquid with the solid. The
other molecules. The order of molecular value of angle of contact is less than 90°
ex
range is = 10–9m in solids and liquids. for a liquid which wets the solid surface
Sphere of Influence : It is a sphere and is greater than 90° if a liquid does
not wet the solid surface.
drawn with molecule as centre and
molecular range as radius. Capillarity : The phenomenon of rise
Surface Film : It is the top most layer of or fall of liquid in a capillary tube is
called capillarity. The height (h) through
ssc
Physics [129]
m
Viscosity : Viscosity is the property of called a laminar flow. In this flow, one
.co
a fluid (liquid or gas) by virtue of which layer slides over the other layer of liquid.
an internal frictional force or viscous The velocity of liquid flow is always less
drag comes into play when the fluid is than the critical velocity of the liquid.
in motion and opposes the relative mo- Turbulent Flow : It is that flow of liquid,
tion of its different layers. The coeffi- in which a liquid moves with a velocity
or
cient of viscosity of liquid is defined as greater than its critical velocity. The mo-
the tangential force (= backward vis- tion of the particles of liquid becomes
cous drag) required to maintain a unit
disorderly or irregular.
velocity gradient between two layers of
fluid each of unit area. Critical Velocity : It is that velocity of
tut
liquid flow, upto which the flow of liq-
Viscous drag F acting between two lay-
uid is a streamlined and above which
ers of liquid each of area A, moving
its flow becomes turbulent.
with velocity gradient dv/dx is given
by Reynold’s Number : It is pure num-
F = – ηΑdv/dx ber which determines the nature of
flow of liquid through a pipe. Quanti-
am
where η is the coefficient of viscosity, and
tatively, Reynold’s number NR is given
its c.g.s unit is poise or dyne cm–2 sec.
by
Stoke’s Law : It states that the back-
ward dragging force F acting on a small
spherical body of radius r, moving
through a medium of viscosity η, with where η is the coefficient of viscosity of
velocity v is given by liquid, g is the density of liquid. D is the
ex
follows exactly the path of its preced- the stream line flow of an ideal liquid,
ing particle and has the same velocity the total energy (the sum of pressure
in magnitude and direction as that of energy, the potential energy and kinetic
its preceding particle while crossing energy) per unit volume remains con-
through that point. A stream line flow stant at every cross-section throughout
ww
.co
or, = another constant gavity through a height h, then W =
mgh.
Here, = pressure head When a body of mass m, moving with a
h = potential head vel. v is made to stop,
or
and = velocity head. If temperature of a body of mass m
rises by ∆T, then Q = m L, where L is
If the liquid is flowing through a hori- latent heat of the body.
zontal tube, then h is constant.
tut
Bernoulli’s Theorem states that Temperature on Celcius Scale: Fahr-
enheit scale, Reumer scale and Kelvin
scale are related as:
= a constant
The Bernoulli’s Theorem, also states that
in a stream line flow of an ideal liquid
am
through a horizontal tube, the velocity
increases where pressure decreases and
vice-versa. Various Thermometers used for mea-
suring unknown temperatures are :
Torricelli’s Theorem : It states that the Jolly’s constant volume air thermom-
velocity of efflux i.e., the velocity with eter; Platinum resistance therometer;
which the liquid flows out of an orifice Thermoelectric thermometer; radiation
ex
The ratio of work done (W) to the of a body as the heat capacity per unit
amount of heat produced (Q) is always mass of the body.
Physics [131]
m
When two substances at different tem- The value of gas constant r for different
.co
perature are mixed together they ex- gases is different.
change heat. If we assume that no heat
Ideal Gas or Perfect Gas: It is that gas
is lost to the surroundings, then ac-
which strictly obeys gas laws. for such
cording to principle of calorimetry,
a gas, the size of the moelcules of a gas
Heat lost = Heat gained. is zero and there is no force of attrac-
or
Specific Heat of Gases : Specific heat tion or repulsion amongst its molecules.
of a gas is the amount of heat required Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of
to raise the temperature of one gram of Gases:
gas through 1°C. As the gas can be
(i) A gas consists of a very large number
tut
heated under different conditions, and
different amounts of heat is required in of molecules which are perfectly elas-
each case, therefore, a gas does not pos- tic spheres and are identical in all
sess one single value of specific heat. respects for a given gas and are dif-
Out of many values of specific heat of a ferent for different gases.
gas, two are important. These are called (ii) The molecules of a gas are in a state of
am
two principal specific heats of a gas : continous, rapid and random motion.
1. Specific heat of a constant volume (cv) (iii) The volume occupied by the molecules
2. Specific heat of a constant pressure (cp) is negligible in comparison to the vol-
ume of the gas.
Boyle’s Law: It states that the volume
V of the given mass of a gas is inversely (iv) The molecules do not exert any force
proportional to its pressure P, when of attraction or repulsion on each other,
ex
the given mass of a gas is directly pro- (vi) Molecular density is uniform through-
portional to its kelvin temperature i.e., out the gas.
V α T if P is constant. (vii) A molecule moves along a straight
Standard gas equation, PV = nRT line between two successive collisions.
where n is the number of moles con- (viii) the collisions are almost instantaneous.
tained in the given ideal gas of volume Pressure exerted by a Gas : It is due to
w.
gas per mole per kelvin i.e., where C is the r.m.s. velocity of gas
molecules.
.co
Cell Profile
Daniel Cell Leclanche Cell Dry Cell
do not exist. Therefore, it possesses no
Positive Copper Carbon rod Carbon rod intermolecular potential energy. Thus
electrode vessel with brass cap internal energy of an ideal gas is wholly
Negative Zinc rod Zinc rod Zinc vessel
electrode kinetic.
Electrolyte dil H2SO4 NH4Cl solution Paste of NH4Cl and
saw dust First Law of Thermodynamics is restate-
or
Depolariser CuSO4 Manganese Manganese
solution dioxide dioxide ment of the principle of conservation of
energy as applied to heat energy. Ac-
Average K.E. per molecule of a gas cording to this law
. It is independent of the dQ = dU + dW
tut
mass of the gas but depends upon the
where dQ is the small amount of heat
temperature of the gas.
energy given to a system, dU is small
Absolute Zero : It is that temperature increase in internal energy of the sys-
at which the root mean square velocity tem and dW is the small external work
of the gas molecules reduces to zero. done by the system.
am
Thermodynamical System : An assem- Thermodynamical Operations : Iso-
bly of extremely large number of par- thermal Changes are the changes in
ticles (such as gas molecules in a con- pressure and volume of the system
tainer) is called a thermodynamical sys- when temperature is kept constant. Free
tem. Such a system has a certain value exchange of heat between the system
of pressure P, volume V and tempera- and the surroundings is allowed. The
ture T and heat content Q. These are container must be perfectly conducting
ex
Physics [133]
m
According to Kelvin, it is impossible to high temperature T 1 °K and Q 2 is
.co
derive a continuous supply of work by amount of heat energy rejected to the
cooling a body to a temperature lower sink at constant low temperature T2°K.
than that of the coldest of its surround-
A Refrigerator or a Heat pump absorbs
ings.
heat Q2 from a sink at lower tempera-
Heat Engines : A heat engine is a de- ture T2°K. The sink is the substance to
or
vice which converts heat energy into
Cell Chemistry
mechanical energy. Efficiency of a heat
In charged Lead Accumulator Alkali Accumulator
engine is the ratio of useful work done Positive Perforated lead Perforated steel
(W) by the engine per cycle to the heat electrode plates coated with plate coated with
energy absorbed from the source (Q1) PbO2 Ni(OH)4
tut
Negative Perforated lead Perforated steel
per cycle. electrode plates coated with plate coated with Fe
pure lead
Electrolyte Dil. H2SO4 20% solution of
KOH + 1% LiOH
where Q2 is the heat rejected to the sink be cooled. Heat absorbed from the sink
am
Power of a steam engine = 2 PLAN is rejected to the source (i.e., surround-
(watt) ing air) at high temperature T1°K. Elec-
tric energy W has to be supplied for this
where P is the pres- purpose Q1 = Q2 + W.
sure of steam measured in Nm–2, L is Coefficient of performance (C.O.P.) of
half the length of the stroke in metre, a refrigerator is the ratio of the heat
A is area of cross section of the piston absorbed from the sink (Q2) to the elec-
ex
in m2 and N is number of strokes per tric energy supplied (W) for this pur-
second. pose per cycle i.e.,
Steam engine is an external combus-
tion engine. There are internal combus-
tion engines like petrol engine and die-
ssc
,
ww
where Q1 is heat energy absorbed from where A is area of hot face, ∆x is dis-
the source maintained at a constant tance between the hot and cold faces,
.co
ducted in a small time (∆x), ∆T is differ- ference is small (= 30°C). i.e., E α (T– T0)
ence in temperature of hot and cold
faces.
ASTRONOMY
Here (∆T/∆x) temperature gradient i.e.,
rate of fall of temperature with dis- It is a branch of science that deals with
tance in the direction of flow of heat. the study of position, composition, mo-
or
All liquids and gases are heated by con- tion and other related facts of heavenly
vection. Heat comes to us from the sun bodies.
by radiation. Windows of Astronomy : The visible
light and radio waves coming from the
tut
Wien’s Displacement Law : It states
that the wavelength (λm) correspond- heavenly bodies are two windows to
ing to which energy emitted by a per- study about the sun, stars i.e., about
fectly black body is maximum is in- the universe, hence called windows of
versely proportional to the temperature the astronomy.
is directly proportional to the fourth the family of sun. Our solar system con-
power of the absolute temperature of sists of sun, nine planets (Mercury, Ve-
the body i.e., E ∝ T4 or E = σ T4 where σ nus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Ura-
is called Stefan’s constant. Its value is σ nus, Neptune, Pluto) orbiting around
= 5.67 × 10–8 watt m–2K–4 the sun, satellites (or moons) orbiting
ssc
fectly black and have relative emissiv- west to east. For Venus and Uranus, the
ity ∈ we, may rewrite. sense of rotation is east to west and is
called retrograde. Our earth rotates about
its north axis to south axis from west to
Newton’s Law of Cooling : It states east in 23 hrs. and 58.1 minutes.
ww
Physics [135]
m
where E is the thermal energy emit- (i) There should be suitable tempera-
.co
ted per second per unit area of the ture range as required for the life to
planet and T is its surface tempera- exist on a planet.
ture, s is the Stefan’s constant.
(ii) There should be proper atmosphere
(ii) Using Wien’s Displacement law. free from poisonous gases.
λmT = b.
or
(iii) There should be plenty of water.
where λm is the wavelength correspond-
These conditions donot exist on any
ing to maximum intensity of radiation other planet except our earth.
emitted from the black body at tem- Hence, the life is not possible on
perature T and b is the Wien’s con- any other planet except earth.
tut
stant.
Sun : It is the nearest star that we can
Existence of Atmosphere on a Planet : see. It is the heaviest body of our solar
The existence of atmosphere on a planet system. It is also known as yellow dwarf
can be decided by two factors : star.
(i) Acceleration due to gravity; and (i) The composition of the material of
am
(ii) Surface temperature of the planet. the sun is 78% hydrogen, about 21%
helium and remaining 2% all other
The planets like Mercury, Mars and heavier elements from lithium to
Pluto have large value of acceleration uranium. The temperature at the
due to gravity but they have high tem- centre of the sun is about 14 × 106K
perature also. With the increase in tem- and on the surface is 6000 0K. The
perature, the average velocity of the density of the material of the sun at
ex
gas molecules increases and becomes the surface is about 10–4kg m–3 and
more than their escape velocities. Due at the centre is 104 kg m–3.
to this, the gas molecules have escaped
one by one and there is no atmosphere. (ii) Surface energy of the sun is due to
fusion process taking place inside
Chemical Composition of Atmosphere:
the sun, in which certain mass dis-
ssc
planet and intensity of the line tells which emits light of its own. After sun
about the relative abundance of the ele- the next nearest star to earth is Alpha
ment. centauri. Its distance is 4.3 light years.
Atmosphere of earth consists of 88% Brightness of a Star : The brightness of
nitrogen, 21% oxygen with some a star is expressed through the system
ww
.co
is the measure of its brightness at 10 interstaller space. This is the death of a
per second distance. star. The core left behind may end in
three ways:
Steller Spectra : The different stars are
of different colours and the spectrum (i) If the original mass of a star is less
of a star is related to its colour. There than two times the mass of the sun,
or
are seven classes of stellar spectra de- a white dwarf is produced. When it
noted by letters O,B, A, F, G, K and M. ceases to emit light, it becomes black
dwarf.
Our sun belongs to G class star.
Birth of a Star : When the interstellar (ii) If the original mass of a star is be-
tut
dust and gas particles come closer to tween 2 to 5 times the mass of the
form a cloud due to gravitational force sun, neutron star is produced.
of attraction between them, the birth of (iii) If the original mass of a star is more
a star begins if the original cloud has a than 5 times the solar mass, the
mass of at least one thousand solar black hole is produced.
masses. As the particles of cloud come
am
closer, the gravitational attraction in- Milky Way or Akash Ganga : It is the
creases. As the contraction of the cloud name of the galaxy to which our earth
continues, the pressure and tempera- belongs. The milky way is the glowing
ture of the cloud continues, the pres- belt of the sky formed by the combined
sure and temperature inside the cloud light of a very large number of stars. It
rise. At a certain stage, the cloud breaks is called milky way or Akash Ganga
up into large number of fragments of because the light from the various stars
ex
smaller size and each fragment contin- together gives the impression of a stream
of milk flowing across the sky.
ues to shrink and its temperature con-
tinues to rise. When the temperature of Milky way is a spiral galaxy. Its mass is
a fragment reaches millions of degrees, 150 solar masses.
nuclear fusion begins to take place due Quasars : These are quasi-stellar Radio
to which the fragment begins to radiate sources. Quasars are situated at very
ssc
light energy from its surface and it be- large distance from our solar system
comes a star. and are further receding away with a
speed of 0.9 times the speed of light.
Death of a Star : In each born star,
during the fusion process, the hydrogen Pulsars : These are radio sources which
is converted into helium. When the con- emit radio signals at extremely regular
tent of hydrogen of a star decreases to a intervals of time. Their origin is due to
w.
Physics [137]
m
Pulse modulation is a system in which
.co
continous wave forms are sampled at
regular intervals. Information regard-
where H is called Hubble’s constant. ing the signal is transmitted only at the
The quantity (l/H) has the dimensions sampling times together with any syn-
of time. Hubble’s law helps us to esti- chronizing pulses that may be required.
mate the age and evolution of the uni- The analog pulse modulation is of two
or
verse. The value of Hubble’s constant is types : pulse amplitude modulation
16 Km-s-1 per million light year. (PAM) and pulse time modulation
(PTM).
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY The digital pulse modulation is also of
tut
two types : pulse code modulation
All modes of long distance communi- (PCM) and pulse delta modulation
cation have been superceded by com- (PDM).
munication through electrical signals, Demodulation is the reverse process of
as they can be transmitted at extremely modulation which is performed in a
high speeds (–3 × 108 m/s). receiver to recover the original modu-
am
A basic communication system consists lating signal. Tuned frequency receiver
of information source, transmitter, re- (TRF) and superheterodyne receives are
ceiver and the link between transmitter commonly used for demodulation.
and receiver. Data transmission is through a modu-
Modulation is the process of super-im- lator and data retrieval is through a
posing an audio frequency signal over demodulator.
ex
.co
ranging from a few kilo hertz to about which when sent at some angle towards
a few hundred mega hertz (i.e., wave- the ionosphere gets reflected from that
length 0.3 m or above) are called radio and returns to the earth.
waves.
Skip Distance : It is the smallest dis-
The radiowaves emitted from a trans- tance from a transmitter along the
or
mitter antenna can reach the receiver earth’s surface, at which a sky wave of
antenna by following any of the fol- a fixed frequency, but more than criti-
lowing modes of propagation : cal frequency is sent back to the earth.
(i) Ground wave or surface wave Fading : It is the variation in the strength
tut
propagation. of a signal at a receiver due to interfer-
ence of waves. Fading is more at high
(ii) Sky wave propagation.
frequencies.
(iii) Space wave propagation.
Space Wave Propagation : The space
The radiowaves which travel through waves are the radio waves of very high
atmosphere following the surface of the
am
frequency (i.e., between 30 MHz to 300
earth are known as ground waves or MHz or more). The space waves can
surface waves. The maximum range of travel through atmosphere from trans-
ground or surface wave propagation mitter antenna to receiver antenna ei-
depends on (i) the frequency of the ra- ther directly or after reflection from
dio waves; and (ii) power of the trans- ground in the earth’s troposphere
mitter. The ground wave propagation region. The space wave propagation is
ex
is suitable for low and medium fre- also known as line of sight propagation.
quency (i.e. upto 2MHz only). The range of space wave propagation
The radiowaves of frequency ranging can be increased by using repeaters at
from 2 MHz to 30 MHz are called sky suitable distances from each other on the
waves. They can propagate through at- surface of the earth. The space wave
propagation is utilizing radio waves of
ssc
Physics [139]
m
Remote Sensing : It is a technique which surrounded by a cladding of material
.co
is used to observe and measure the char- of refractive index slightly less than that
acteristics of the object with respect to of core and a protective jacket of insu-
its location, size, colour, nature, etc. It lating material. There are three types of
is related with measuring some kind of optical fibre configurations:
energy which is emitted, transmitted or (i) Single mode step-index fibre.
or
reflected from the object. Remote sens-
ing systems provide us the data critical (ii) Multi-mode step-index fibre.
to weather prediction, agriculture fore- (iii) Multi-mode graded-index fibre.
casting, resource exploration and envi- Laser: Laser stands for light amplifica-
ronmental monitoring. The Indian re- tion by stimulated emission of radiation.
tut
mote sensing satellites are IRS-1A, IRS The working of laser is based on stimu-
1B and IRS-1C. lated emission of radiation. The follow-
Most commonly used wire communication ing types of laser are used:
lines are : (i) Gas lasers (ii) Liquid lasers (iii) Solid
(i) Parallel wire line, (balanced lines) lasers (iv) Semiconductor lasers.
am
(ii) Twisted pair wire lines; and Light Modulation: It is achieved by two
ways :
(iii) Co-axial wire lines (unbalanced
lines). (i) Direct modulation (ii) Indirect or ex-
ternal modulation. Direct modulation
Energy is dissipated in a transmission suffers from system degradations but
line in three ways : Radiation losses, indirect or external modulation does
ex
1014 Hz. (i.e. 100,000 to 400,000 GHz.). light may or may not pass is called me-
dium.
Optical Fibre: It consists of a central
core made of glass or plastic which is Transparent Medium : A medium
.co
transparent medium.
For example : Air, glass, clean water.
Translucent Medium : A medium Periscope : A periscope is a device used
through which only some parts of light to see the objects from a lower level.
or
can pass is called translucent medium. Concave Mirror : Concave mirror is a
For example : Greased paper, butter pa- part of a hollow sphere whose outer
per, ground glass, paraffin wax, etc. part is silvered and the inner part is
reflecting surface.
Opaque Medium : A medium through
Convex Mirror : Convex mirror is a part
tut
which light cannot pass .
of a hollow sphere whose outer part is
For Examples : Wood, stone, brick, iron, reflecting surface and inner part is sil-
etc. vered.
Ray of Light : A line drawn in the direc- Centre of Curvature : The centre of hol-
tion of propagation of light is called ray low sphere of which the spherical mir-
am
of light. ror forms a part is called centre of curva-
Reflection of Light : The phenomenon ture. It is denoted by C.
of returning of light in the same medium Radius of Curvature : The radius of
after striking a surface is called reflec- hollow sphere of which the spherical
tion of light. mirror forms a part is called radius of
Types of Reflection : curvature. It is denoted by R.
ex
(i) Regular reflection (ii) Irregular reflec- Pole : The mid point of a spherical mir-
tion. ror is called its pole. It is denoted by P.
Reflector : A surface which reflects the Aperture : The part of the spherical mir-
light falling on it is called a reflector or a ror exposed to the incident light is called
reflecting surface. the aperture of the mirror.
ssc
Laws of Reflection : The reflection of Principal Axis : A line joining the cen-
light from a surface obeys certain laws tre of curvature (C) and pole (P) of a
called laws of reflection. spherical mirror and extended on either
side is called principal axis.
(i) Incident angle is equal to the reflected
angle i.e. ∠i = ∠r. Principal Focus : A point on the princi-
w.
right and left side of an object and its dicular to the principal axis and passing
image is known as lateral inversion.
through the principal focus (F) of the
Number of images formed by two plane spherical mirror is called focal plane.
Physics [141]
m
Focal Length: The distance between the light in vacuum or air to the velocity of
.co
pole (P) and principal focus (F) of the light in the medium.
spherical mirror is called the focal length
Principle of Reversibility of Light :
of the mirror.
‘If the path of a ray of light is reversed
Sign Conventions:
after suffering a number of refractions
or
(1) All types of distance are measured from and reflections, then it retraces its path’.
the pole of a spherical mirror. This is known as principle of reversibility
of light.
(2) Distance measured in the direction of
incident light are taken positive. Dis-
tance measured in the direction oppo-
tut
site to that of the incident light are
taken as negative. Total Internal Reflection : The phe-
(3) The upward distances perpendicular nomenon of reflection of total light when
to the principal axis are taken as posi- light travelling in a denser medium falls
tive, while the downward distances on the surface separating the rarer me-
am
perpendicular to the principal axis are dium and the denser medium at an angle
taken as negative. greater than the critical angle is called
total internal reflection.
Mirror Formula: The relation between
u, v, and focal length (f) of the spherical Condition for Total Internal Reflec-
mirror is known as mirror formula. tion :
Linear Magnification: Linear magnifi- Total internal reflection of light takes
ex
and the normal to the surface sepa- one spherical and the other plane such
rating the two media all lie in the that it is thick in the middle and thin at
same plane. the edges is known as convex lens or
(2) The ratio of the sine of the incident converging lens.
angle to the sine of the refracted angle Concave Lens or Diverging Lens : A
ww
is constant for a pair of two media. lens having both spherical surfaces or
Refractive Index (µ) of a medium is one spherical and other plane such that
defined as the ratio of the velocity of it is thin in the middle and thick at the
.co
verging lens. after passing through the lens is called
second principal focus (F2).
Principal Axis : A line joining the cen-
tre of curvature to two spherical sur- Second Focal Plane : A vertical plane
faces forming a lens is called principal passing through the second principal fo-
axis. cus is called second focal plane.
or
Optical Centre : A point in a lens through Second Principal Focal Length : The
which rays of light passes undeviated. It is distance between the optical centre and
denoted by C. the second principal focus is called sec-
ond principal focal length. It is denoted
Principal Focus : A point in the principal
tut
by f2.
axis where all rays of light parallel to the
principal axis meet or appear to meet Sign Conventions :
after passing through the lens is called
(1) All distances are measured from the
principal focus of the lens.
optical centre of a lens.
Focal Length : The distance between the
(2) Distance measured in the direction of
am
principal focus and optical centre of a
the propagation of incident ray of light
lens is known as focal length of the lens.
are taken as positive, while distance
It is denoted by f.
measured in a direction opposite to the
Principal Foci : A beam of light may fall direction of incident ray of light are
on either side of a lens. Therefore, a lens taken as negative.
has two principal foci. They are de-
(3) Upward height with respect to the prin-
ex
Second Principal Focus (F2) : The posi- Monochromatic Light : A light consist-
tion of a point on the principal axis of a ing of only one colour or only one wave-
lens where a beam of light parallel to the length is known as monochromatic light.
Physics [143]
m
.co
Microscope & Telescope
Compound Microscope Astronomical Telescope
1. It is used to observe tiny objects. It is used to observe large and distant
objects.
2. The focal length of the objective The focal length of objective lens is
lens is small. large.
3. The focal length of the eyepiece is The focal length of eyepiece is small.
or
large.
4. The second focal point of objective The second focal point of objective
lens and first focal point of eye- lens coincides with the first focal
piece are separated by the point of the eye-piece.
distance equal to tube length
tut
of the microscope.
other on the screen is called pure spectrum. we get a new pigment known as sec-
ondary pigment.
Persistance of vision is about second.
ELECTRICITY
Pigments : A substance which absorbs
most of the colours of white light and Electric Potential : Work done per unit
ssc
reflects one or more colours is called pig- charge is called electric potential.
ment.
Unit of Potential : S.I. unit of potential
Primary Colours : The colours which is volt.
are never obtained by mixing two or
Potential is a scalar quantity.
more colours are called primary colours.
w.
.co
defined as the amount of charge flowing crease of the temperature.
through any cross-section of a conduc- Resistivity or Specific Resistance : Re-
tor in unit time. sistivity is defined as the resistance of
Units : S.I. unit of electric current is the conductor of unit length and unit
ampere (A). area of cross-section.
or
Ampere (A) : Electric current through a Unit of Resistivity :
conductor is said to be 1 ampere if one In CGS system, unit of resistivity is ohm-
coulomb charge flows through any cross- cm.
section of the conductor in one second.
tut
In SI system, unit of resistivity is ohm-
Electric current is a scalar quantity. metre.
Ohm’s Law : This law states that, ‘the Conductance : Conductance of a con-
electric current flowing in a conductor is ductor is the ability to pass charge or
directly proportional to the potential dif- current through it.
ference across the ends of the conduc-
am
tor, provided the temperature and other Joule’s Law of Heating :
physical conditions of the conductor re- The amount of heat produced in a con-
mains the same’. ductor is
Resistance (R) : Resistance of a conduc- (i) directly proportional to the square
tor is the ability of the conductor to op- of the electric current flowing
pose the flow of charge through it. through it.
ex
of the conductor.
Unit of Power: S.I. unit of power is
(4) Resistivity of metallic conductor in-
watt.
creases with the increase of tem-
Physics [145]
m
Practical unit of power is horse power Cation : When an atom loses electron or
.co
(h.p.) electrons, it becomes positively charged ion
known as cation.
1 h.p. = 746 w
Electrolytic Cell or Voltameter : A ves-
Commercial Unit of Energy : kilowatt-
sel containing electrolyte and electrodes
hour (kWH)
in which electrolysis takes place is called
or
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106J voltameter.
Electrolysis : The process by which a When an electrolyte in a solid state is
substance is decomposed by the passage dissolved in water, it decomposes into
of electric current through it is called ions as the force of attraction between
tut
electrolysis.
ions decrease by a factor of in water.
Electrolytes : Substances which in mol-
ten state or in aqueous solution conduct Faraday’s laws of Electrolysis :
electricity by decomposing into negative
1st Law : The mass of any substance
and positive ions are called electrolytes.
liberated at an electrode is directly pro-
am
Strong Electrolytes : Substances which portional to the charge flowing through
in molten state or in aqueous solution the electrolyte.
completely decompose into negative and
i.e., m ∝ q or m = Zq or m = Zlt
positive ions are called strong electro-
lytes. 2nd Law : If same amount of charge
flows through different electrolytes, the
Weak Electrolytes : Substances which
masses of substances liberated or depos-
ex
.co
cal cell.
Daniel Cell : Electrolyte used is dilute
E.M.F. of a Cell is the potential differ- sulphuric acid. Copper sulphate (CuSO4)
ence between two electrodes when no acts as depolarizer E.M.F. of Daniel cell
current is drawn from the cell. = 1.5V.
or
Terminal Voltage of a Cell is the po- Leclanche Cell : Electrolyte used is am-
tential difference between two electrodes monium chloride solution, MnO2 acts as
when current is drawn from the cell. depolarizer, E.M.F. of Leclanche cell =
1.5V.
Internal Resistance of a Cell is the re-
sistance offered by a cell to the flow of Dry cell is the modified and portable
tut
current through it. form of a Leclanche cell.
Types of Electrochemical Cells: (i) Pri- Primary cells cannot be re-charged while
mary cells (ii) Secondary cells. secondary cells can be re-charged.
Primary Cell converts chemical energy Magnetic Field : The space around a
into electrical energy by irreversible current carrying conductor in which its
am
chemical reactions. magnetic effect can be experienced is
called magnetic field.
Secondary Cell : A cell in which electri-
cal energy is stored in the form of chemi- Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule : If a cork
cal energy and then chemical energy is screw is driven in the direction of cur-
obtained in the form of electrical energy rent passing through the wire, then the
by reversible chemical reactions is called motion of the thumb shows the direction
ex
and copper plates are used as cathode fingers of the hand indicate the direction
and anode. of magnetic field.
Voltaic cell suffers from two defects: (i) Solenoid: A solenoid is a coil of many
local action (ii) polarization turns of an insulated wire closely wound
in the shape of a cylinder.
The value of e.m.f. of voltaic cell = 1.08
w.
.co
nets. the amount of heat produced in a con-
ductor is directly proportional to the-
Electromagnetic Induction : Whenever
magnetic flux linked with a circuit (i) square of the current flowing
changes, an induced e.m.f. is set up across through the conductor.
the circuit. This effect is known as elec-
or
(ii) resistance of the conductor and
tromagnetic induction.
(iii) time for which the current is passed.
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic In-
duction : Electric Power: It is defined as the rate
at which work is done in maintaining
First Law : Whenever magnetic flux
tut
the current in electric circuit.
linked with a circuit changes, induced
e.m.f. is produced across it. This induced Electric power, P = VI = I2R = V2/R
e.m.f. last so long as the change in mag- watt or joule/second-
netic flux continues. Electric Energy : The electric energy
Second Law : The magnitude of the consumed in a circuit is defined as the
am
induced e.m.f. produced in the circuit is total work done in maintaining the cur-
directly proportional to the rate of change rent in an electric circuit for a given
of magnetic flux linked with it. time.
Lenz’s law of Electromagnetic Induc- Electric energy = Vlt = Pt = I2 Rt = V2t/
tion : According to this law, the direc- R
tion of induced current is always such
S.I. unit of electric energy is joule (de-
ex
rent whose magnitude changes with time electroyte and KCl, NaCl are electro-
and direction reverses periodically is lytes in their molten state.
called alternating current. It is denoted
by A.C. Electrodes : These are the two metal
.co
the solution for passing the current through the electrolyte i.e.,
through the electroyte.
m∝q
Anode : The electrode connected to the
or, m = zq
positive terminal of the battery i.e., the
electrode at higher potential, is called where z is the E.C.E. of the substance.
or
anode. Second Law : When same amount of
Cathode : The electrode connected to charge is made to pass through any num-
the negative terminal of the battery i.e., ber of electrolytes, the masses of the sub-
the electrode at lower potential, is called stances liberated or deposited at the elec-
tut
cathode. trodes are proportional to their chemical
Ions : The charged constitutents of the equivalents i.e., where m1, m2 are
electrolyte which are liberated on pass-
ing current are called ions. the masses of the substances liberated or
deposited on electrodes during electroly-
Anions : The ions which carry negative sis and E1 and E2 are their chemical
am
charge and move towards the anode
equivalents.
during electrolysis are called anions.
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis also
Cations : The ions which carry positive
states that E.C.E. of a substance is di-
charge and move towards the cathode
rectly proportional to the chemical
during electrolysis are called cations.
equivalent i.e., z ∝ E.
Voltameter : The vessel, containing elec-
ex
First Law : The mass of the substance reaction which is irreversible. For ex-
liberated or deposited at an electrode ample : Voltaic cell, Daniel cell,
during electrolysis is directly propor- Leclanche cell, dry cell, etc.
Physics [149]
m
Secondary cell is that cell in which the Neutral Temperature : It is that tem-
.co
electrical energy is first stored up as chemi- perature of hot junction for which the
cal energy and when current is drawn thermo e.m.f produced in a thermo-
from the cell, the stored chemical energy couple is maximum. Neutral tempera-
is converted intro electrical energy. The ture depends upon the nature of the
chemical reaction is reversible in this cell. material of a thermocouple but is inde-
or
These cells are also known as storage pendent of the temperature of the cold
cells or accumulators. Examples are Acid junction.
or Lead accumulator and Alkali or Edison
Temperature of Inversion : It is that
cell.
temperature of hot junction at which
Seebeck Effect : It is the phenomenon the thermo e.m.f. produced in a thermo
tut
of generation of an electric current in a couple becomes zero and just beyond, it
thermocouple by keeping its two junc- reverses its direction. The value of tem-
tions at different temperatures. perature of inversion depends upon: (i)
the temperature of the cold junction;
Seebeck found that the magnitude and
and (ii) the nature of materials forming
direction of thermo e.m.f. developed in
am
a thermocouple.
a thermocouple depends upon: (i) the
nature of metals forming a thermo- Sources of energy : Renewable sources
couple; and (ii) difference in and Non-renewable sources.
temeprature of the two junctions.
Solar energy is the energy emitted by
Seeback effect is a reversible effect. It
the sun in the form of heat and light.
means, if hot and cold junctions are
inter-changed, the direction of thermo- Visible light consists of seven colours
ex
.co
called photons. of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of the atom i.e. A = Z + N.
Energy of each photon, E = hv
Isotopes : The atoms of an element hav-
Solar energy is harnessed by solar de- ing same atomic number (Z) but differ-
vices like solar cooker, solar furnance, ent mass numbers (A) are known as iso-
or
solar cell, etc. topes of the element.
Nuclear fusion reactions are the source All isotopes of an element have the same
of energy of the Sun. chemical properties.
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spon-
tut
Nuclear fusion reactions occur at about
10 7°C. taneous emission of invisible radiations
by heavy elements.
German physicist Hans Bethe in 1939,
predicted that nuclear fusion of hydro- Radioactivity was discovered by Henri
gen nuclei in the Sun is the source of Becquerel.
energy of the Sun.
am
The radiations emitted by radioactive
Atom consists of three particles namely elements are alpha particles (2He4), beta
proton (1H1), neutron (on1) and electron particles (–1e0) and gamma rays (γ). These
( –1e 0). radiations are very harmful to the living
organisms.
Nucleus of an atom contains protons
and neutrons and hence is positively Gamma rays have the highest penetrat-
charged. ing power than the other two radia-
ex
tions.
Electrons move around the nucleus in cir-
cular orbits. Radio Isotopes are the isotopes of radio-
active elements.
Number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is equal to the number of electrons Nuclear forces keep the nucleons inside
ssc
revolving around it, so atom is electri- the nucleus. Small nuclei are stable and
cally neutral. big nuclei are unstable.
Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg. Mass of Nuclear fission is the process of splitting
proton = 1.672 × 10–27 kg. a heavy nucleus into two small nuclei of
Mass of neutron = 1.674 × 10–27 kg. middle weight with the release of large
amount of energy.
w.
Physics [151]
m
Nuclear reactor is a device to carry out ter and graphite are the examples of
.co
controlled chain reaction. moderator.
Nuclear fission reaction starts when U- Cadmium rods are used to increase or
235 absorbs a slow neutron. decrease the nuclear fission reactions in
the nuclear reactor.
Moderator is a substance used to slow
or
down fast moving neutrons. Heavy wa-
tut
am
ex
ssc
w.
ww