Structural Engineer's Facade Notes

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
PART I
EUROCODE
PART II
BRITISH STANDARDS
PART III
AMERICAN STANDARDS
ANNEX
DESIGN AIDES
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
DISCLAIMER
This compendium of international building codes and standards for façade construction is compiled as private property for
the purposes of personal notes only. The compiler does not claim ownership specifically where data or content is
referenced to a source.
If this façade notes reaches the hands of another person aside from the compiler, it should not be distributed, copied or
published in any form or manner. If information contained in this notes are used as reference, the compiler does not
guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information nor its usefulness in achieving
any purpose. Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of these notes. The
compiler will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or
relying on information in these notes.
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
nd
PE Board Examination Topnotcher, 2 Place │1998
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering - Saint Louis University │1993 – 1998
Master of Science in Structural Engineering - University of the Philippines │1999 – 2001
______________________
Structural Engineer/Façade Specialist – Structures & Facades, Switzerland │2014 –

Structural Engineer - LINDNER-SCHMIDLIN, Switzerland │2008 – 2014
Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN TSK, Switzerland │2006 – 2008
Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN LLC, Dubai │2005 – 2006
Façade Engineer - ARUP, Singapore │2004 – 2005
Structural Engineer - United Reliance Engineering Pte. Ltd., Singapore │2001 – 2004
Civil Engineering Instructor - Mapua Institute of Technology, Philippines │2001 – 2001
Design Engineer - Sumitomo Construction Co. Ltd., Philippines │1999 – 2001
FAÇADE NOTES
PART I
EUROCODE
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Table of Contents
I-1 LOADS 5
1.1 Dead load (D) 5
1.2 Imposed/live load, (L) 6
1.3 Snow load (S) 12
1.4 Wind load (W) 14
1.5 Load combinations 25
I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 26

2.1 Deflection limits 26
2.2 Structure tolerance 27
I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 31

3.1 Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile) 31
3.2 Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications 32
I-4 STEEL DESIGN 33

4.1 Properties of steel 33
4.2 Properties of stainless steel 35
4.3 Resistance of steel cross-sections 36
4.4 Sheets as diaphragms 39
4.5 Cold-formed members 40
I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 41

5.1 Properties of aluminium structures 41
5.2 Definitions 42
5.3 Protection at metal-to-metal contacts 43
5.4 Cross-sectional properties 44
5.5 Resistance of aluminium cross-sections 47
5.6 Cold formed members 50
I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN 51

6.1 Properties of concrete 51
6.2 Concrete design 52
6.3 Anchorage design 52
I-7 TIMBER DESIGN 53

7.1 Strength grade 53
7.2 Service class 54
7.3 Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL 55
I-8 GLASS DESIGN 59

8.1 Properties 59
8.2 Glass sizes 59
8.3 Glass holes 59
8.4 Structural design of glass 60
PART 1 EUROCODE 3
8.5 Glass stress and deflection 64
8.6 Climatic effects 67
8.7 Structural silicone glazing (SSG) 69
8.8 Safety glass TRAV Requirements 71
8.9 Glass fins 73
I-9 STONE DESIGN 75

9.1 Properties 75
I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING 77

10.1 Testing overview 77
10.2 Weather performance tests 78
10.3 Impact resistance tests 82
10.4 Glass safety tests 84
10.5 Fire classification 85
I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 86

11.1 Bolted connections 86
11.2 Pin connections 93
11.3 Tapping screws and rivets 94
11.4 Stud welds 97
11.5 Weld 98
11.6 Plate bracket resistance 103
11.7 Anchors in Concrete 104
I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS 105

12.1 Thermal Performance 105
12.2 Acoustic Performance 105
12.3 Fire Performance 105
4 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
I-1 LOADS
1.1 Dead load (D)
Density of materials EN 1991-1-1:2010, Table A.3
Group Material Density, γ Group Material Density, γ
[kg/m³] [kg/m³]
Metal Aluminium 2 700 Concrete Normal weight 2 450
Bronze 8 450 Light weight 900 – 2 000
Copper 9 100 Heavy weight > 2 000
Iron, cast 7 400 Natural Stone Granite 2 750 – 3 000
Iron, wrought 7 750 Basalt, diorite, gabbro 2 750 – 3 150
Lead 11 600 Tachylyte 2 650
Steel 7 850 Sandstone, gray wacke 2 100 – 2 750
Stainless Steel 7 850 Dense limestone 2 000 – 2 950
Zinc 7 340 Slate 2 850
Glass Glass (annealed) 2 500 Aggregates Light weight 900 – 2 000
Plastic ETFE film - Normal weight 2 000 – 3 050
PVC-U 250 1 400 Heavy weight > 3 050
Terra Cotta 2 100 Sand 1 400 – 1 950
Insulation Rockwool (Loose) 25 Gravel & sand 1 500 – 2 000
Rockwool (Medium) 51 Wood Timber 350 – 1 100
Rockwool (Dense) 70 Plywood 500 – 700
FRC GRC 2 680 Particle board 700 – 1 200
Fibre board 800 – 1 000
PART 1 EUROCODE 5
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.2 Imposed/live load, (L)
1.2.1 Occupancy live load, LV
Imposed load balconies including floors and stairs EN 1991-1-1:2010
Load Description EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Table 6.2 Table NA.3
qk [kN/m²] Qk [kN] qk Qk
A A1/A2 Single family dwelling units incl. communal areas 1.5 2.0
Domestic A3 Hotels, motels, hospital wards, toilet areas 1.5 – 2.0 2.0 – 3.0 2.0 2.0
and
residential A4 Billiard, snooker rooms 2.0 2.7
activities A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units 2.5 2.0
A6 Balconies in hostel, guests house, residential club 2.5 – 4.0 2.0 – 3.0 3.0 2.0*
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels 4.0 2.0
B B1 General use above ground level 2.5 2.7
Offices 2.0 – 3.0 1.5 – 4.5
B2 Ground level or below 3.0 2.7
C1 C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and
2.0 3.0
Areas with lounges, cafes and restaurants
tables 2.0 – 3.0 3.0 – 4.0
C12 Reading rooms with no book storage 2.5 4.0
C13 Classrooms 3.0 3.0
C2 C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating 4.0 3.6
Areas with C22 Places of worship 3.0 – 4.0 2.5 – 7.0(4.0)
fixed seats 3.0 2.7
C3 C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings not
Areas subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest 3.0 4.5
without houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
obstacles C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not subjected
for moving to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, 3.0 4.0
people residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by
C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional 4.0 4.5
buildings subjected to crowds
C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by
C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional 3.0 – 5.0 4.0 – 7.0 5.0 4.5
buildings subjected to wheeled vehicles, including trolleys
C35 Stairs, landings in all buildings not covered by C31 and
C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings 4.0 4.0
subjected to crowds
C36 Light duty walkways- access for one person, width ≤ 600
3.0 2.0
mm
C37 General duty walkways- regular two-way pedestrian traffic 5.0 3.6
C38 Heavy duty walkways- high density pedestrian traffic incl.
7.5 4.5
escape routes
C4 C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages 5.0 3.6
Physical C42 Drill halls and drill rooms 4.5 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0
activities 5.0 7.0
C5 C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars
5.0 3.6
Susceptible and places of worship
5.0 – 7.5 3.5 – 4.5
to large
C52 Stages in public assembly areas 7.5 4.5
crowds
D D1 General retail shops 4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0(4.0)
Shopping/ D2 Department stores 4.0 3.6
Retail areas 4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0
Note: * Concentrated at the outer edge
6 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.2.2 Barrier loads, LH
Claddings shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic values of the line load qk acting at the height
of the partition wall or parapets but not higher than 1.20 m
Horizontal loads on partition walls and parapets, qk [kN/m] EN 1991-1-1:2010
Category Sub-category examples EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Table 6.12 Table NA.8
A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one dwelling including 0.36
Domestic and stairs, landings etc. but excluding external balconies and edges
residential activities of roofs [see (vii)]
(ii) Residential areas not covered by (i) 0.20 - 1.0 0.74
B and C1 (iii) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and (0.5) 0.74
Offices areas institutional buildings, reading rooms and classrooms including
stairs
(iv) Restaurants and cafes 1.5
C2, C3 & C4 (v) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of the barrier, 1.5
Areas where people balustrade or parapet
may congregate
(vi) Stairs, landings, balustrades, corridors and ramps 0.74
(vii) External balconies and edges of roofs 0.8 – 1.0 0.74
Footways within building curtilage and adjacent to
basement/sunken areas
D (viii) All retail areas 1.5
C5 (ix) Footways or pavements less than 3 m wide adjacent to 1.5
Areas susceptible to sunken areas
large crowds
(x) Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria, shopping 3.0
malls, assembly areas, studios
3.0 – 5.0
Footways or pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent to
sunken areas
(xi) Grandstands and stadia (See requirements of appropriate -
certifying authority)
E (xii) Industrial; and storage buildings except as given by (xiii) 0.74
Storage and and (xiv)
industrial areas
(xiii) Light pedestrian traffic routes in industrial and storage 0.36
0.8 – 2.0
buildings except designated escape routes
(xiv) Light access stairs and gangways not more than 600 mm 0.22
wide
F and G (xv) Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs, landings, 1.5
Garages and ramps, edges or internal floors, footways, edges of roofs See Annex B
vehicle traffic areas
(xvi) Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles See Annex B
PART 1 EUROCODE 7
1.2.3 Maintainance load, LM
Roof live load
Roofs shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic uniformly distributed load qk and concentrated
load Qk acting independently.
Imposed loads on roofs EN 1991-1-1:2010
H EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Roofs not accessible except for Table 6.10 Table NA.7
normal maintenance and repair 2 2
qk,[kN/m ] Qk,[kN] Slope, α qk,[kN/m ] Qk,[kN]
α ≤ 30˚ 0.6
0 – 1.0 0.9 – 1.5
30˚ < α < 60˚ 0.6[(60-α)/30] 0.90
(0.4) (1.0)
α > 60˚ 0
I
Consider appropriate imposed loads according to categories A to D
Roofs accessible by occupants
• Actions during execution – EN 1991-1-6, Table 4.1

2
Working personnel, staff and visitors, with hand tools or other small site equipment shall be min. 1.0 kN/m .
• Roof other than those with roof sheeting – EN 1991-1-1, 6.3.4.2 (4)
Roofs, other than those with roof sheeting, should be designed to resist 1,5 kN on an area based on a 50 mm
sided square. Roof elements with a profiled or discontinuously laid surface, should be designed so that the
concentrated load Qk acts over the effective area provided by load spreading arrangements.
8 PART 1 EUROCODE
BMU Loading
• Definition acc. to EN 1808:1999
1 – Trolley unit
2 – Monorail track
3 – Traversing trolley
4 – Single point suspended platform
5 – Carriage
6 – Fixed davit
7 – Counterweight suspension beam
8 – Suspended platform
9 – Parapet clamp
10 – Suspended chair
Wind loads EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.3.3
Wind load
Description Wind speed Wind pressure Impact energy**
for 3m long BMU*
2
Normal operation (25mph) 11.2 m/s 0.08 kN/m 0.29 kN 280 N·m or J
2
Unrestrained (H ≤ 40 m) 14 m/s 0.125 kN/m 0.46 kN 690 N·m or J
2
Restrained (H > 40 m) 20 m/s 0.25 kN/m 1.00 kN 1400 N·m or J
Notes: * The exposed area of one person standing on a work platform behind
2
an imperforate section of fencing 1 m high is 0,35 m with the centre of area
2
1,45 m above the platform floor. The full area of one person is 0,7 m with the
centre of area 1,0 m above the platform floor.
** Impact energy of the suspended platform when allowed to be drawn
or sucked from façade by negative gust wind pressures acting on the
suspended platform, and then released to impact into façade.
• Minimum restraint force
EN 1808 Cl. 6.7: The mullion guide and anchor points shall be adequately
attached to the building and capable of withstanding the operational and
wind loads imposed upon them with the platform in any position. The
members linking the platform to the mullions or anchor points shall be
capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them.
For the calculation, the minimum value of the effort applied to the
restraint system shall be 1 kN.
• Restraint system
EN 1808 Cl. 7.7.3: The lowest restraint point shall not be more than 40 m above
the lowest working level. The distance between restraints above 40 m shall not
exceed 20 m.
1 – Anchor point
2 – Member linking the platform to the anchor point
3 – Suspension wire ropes
Allowable stresses EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.2.1.1
Condition Allowable Allowable
Load
yield stress, breaking stress,
case
σE/νE σR/νR
1 In service conditions, SAE with RL affected by wind. Fy/1.5 Fu /4.0
Occasional conditions (e.g. static and dynamic tests, Fu /2.2
2 Fy /1.33
tripping of overload detection device)
Extreme conditions (e.g. operation of secondary Fu /1.5
3 Fy
device, out-of-service wind)
PART 1 EUROCODE 9
Fall Arrest – Protection against fall from a height

Anchor Devices EN 795:1997 Cl. 5
Class Diagram Static load Dynamic test
Class A1 - Vertical, horizontal and inclined surface anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.1.1]
1 – Structural
anchors
2 – Anchor point
100 kg mass at a
Class A2 - Inclined roof anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.1.2] maximum of 300
1 – Structural mm horizontal
anchors eccentricity from
the anchor point to
2 – Anchor point
freely fall at a
height of 2500 ±
50 mm.
Class B - Transportable temporary anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.2]

1 – Anchor point
Class C - Horizontal flexible anchor line 6 kN [5.3.4.1] 100 kg mass at a

maximum of 300
1 – Structure mm horizontal
2 – Extremity eccentricity from
structural anchor the anchor point to
3 – Intermediate freely fall
structural anchor Dynamic
4 – Anchor line performance test:
5 – Mobile anchor at a height to
point provide sufficient
fall energy to
develop at least 6
kN.
Class D - Horizontal rigid anchor lines One person: 10 kN
Multiple person:
1 – Anchor rail
10 kN + 1 kN for
2 – Mobile anchor
each additional
point
person. [4.3.4]
Class E - Dead weight anchors

1 – Anchor point
10 PART 1 EUROCODE
Temporary Edge Protection

Temporary edge protection EN 13374:2004
Class Inclination Verification
Static loads: - Maximum lateral deflection of 55mm under All

horizontal loads FT1 & FT2 for boards and FH1 for components
posts are capable of
A < 10° resisting 30 kg
- No material failure under vertical load FD (γF = 1.0)
- No material failure under horizontal loads FH1 & FH2 upward force
(γF = 1.5)
B 10° - 30° Pendulum test: -
≤ 200mm: 1100 J
Rolling Test:
> 200mm: 500 J
C 30° - 60° - 75 kg roller
- Impact points (worst location): midspan and post
Sample of temporary edge protections Class A

Static load
Class B & C Class C

Pendulum Test Rolling Test
PART 1 EUROCODE 11
1.3 Snow load (S)
Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to
EN 1991-1-3 Cl. 5.
Snow load on monopitch roof EN 1991-1-3:2003
Action Values Notes Clause
Data Z Zone Fig. C.1
A Site altitude, [m] through
Characteristic snow load, Sk: C1.13
Region Sk Characteristic snow load on ground,
2
UK [NA.2.8] 0.1Z + 0.2 + ( A − 100 ) 525 [kN/m ] Table C.1
Alpine Region ( 0.642 Z + 0.009 )  1 + ( A 728 ) 

2
 
( 0.264 Z + 0.002 )  1 + ( A 256 ) 

2
Central East
 
Central West 0.164 Z − 0.082 + A 966
Roof α Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] Fig. 5.2

Shape Case (i): Undrifted load (a) Flat or monopitch roof – undrifted
coefficient a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: & drifted load
µ1 = 0.8 Table 5.2
b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:
 60 − α 
µ1 = 0.8  
 30 
c) α > 60˚
µ1 = 0
Case (ii): Drifted load (b) Duopitch Roof – undrifted (case i)
a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: and drifted load (cases ii & iii)
 α  Fig. 5.3
µ2 = 0.8 + 0.8  
 30 
b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: Table 5.2
µ2 = 1.6
c) α > 60˚
µ2 = --
Canopy b1 Width of canopy projection 5.3.6

Shape b2 Width of abutting taller building
coefficient h Differential height
b1 ≤ 5m or { b1 > 5m; h ≤ 1m}:
ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} Fig. B3
µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 5.0}
B4 (d)
B4 (c)
b1 > 5m:
ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m}
Fig. B2
a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚:
µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 8.0}
b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: B3 (3)
 60 − α 
µ3 = min { 2h S k , 2bmax l s , 8.0}   Table B1
 30 
2
Snow load Case (i) Undrifted snow load Characteristic snow load, [kN/m ] 5.2 (3)P
s = Ce · µ1 · sk Exposure coefficient, Ce:
Case (ii) Drifted snow load Topography Ce Table 5.1
s = Ce · µ2 · sk Windswept 0.8
case (iii) Exceptional snow drift
Normal 1.0
s = µ3 · sk
Sheltered 1.2
12 PART 1 EUROCODE
Figure 1.3-1 Characteristic ground snow load map Fig. NA.1 UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-3:2003
PART 1 EUROCODE 13
1.4 Wind load (W)
1.4.1 Relevant dimensions
For low-rise buildings (h/d ≤ 0.25), according to EN 1991-1-4, Table 7.1 the effect of building plan dimension
is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face when the inwind depth “d” is the longer
dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatively assumed unity.
1.4.2 Directional factor, cdir
Directional factor, cdir EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause 4.2
EN 1991-1-4 UK NA [Table NA.1]
Direction - 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
cdir 1.0 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93 1.00 0.99 0.91 0.82
1.4.3 Seasonal factor, cseason

These factors provide the 0.02 probability of exceedence for the period given.
Seasonal factor, cseason EN 1991-1-4:2005 clause 4.2
EN 1991-1-4 UK NA [Table NA.2]
Months
- 1 month 2 months 4 months 6 months
January 0.98
0.98
February 0.83
0.86 0.98
March 0.82
0.83 0.87
April 0.75
0.75 0.83
May 0.69
0.71 0.76
June 0.66
0.67 0.73 0.84
July 0.62
0.71 0.83
August 1.0 0.71
0.82 0.86
September 0.82
0.85 0.90
October 0.82
0.89 0.96
November 0.88
0.95 1.00
December 0.94
1.00 1.00 1.00
January 0.98
0.98 1.00
February 0.83
0.86
March 0.82
1.4.4 Probability factor, cprob

The basic values of wind velocity or the velocity pressure determined using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic
values having annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50
years (it should not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years).
Probability factor EN 1991-1-4:2005 Cl. 4.2
EN 1991-1-4 UK NA [NA.2.8]
Probability of exceeding a given R-return period R L
- p = 1 − (1 − 1 R)
wind speed in L years
1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p )  1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p ) 
Probability factor c prob = =
1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − 1 50 )  1.3343
Return periods for climatic actions EN 1991-1-6:2005, 4.7 Table 3.1

Duration Target return period Probability of exceeding Probability factor Wind load Rec. basic value
of execution L in any one year, p cprob vb’ = cprob · vb
≤ 3 days 2 years 0.40 0.7982 0.64·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s
≤ 1 month 3.5 years 0.25 0.8376 0.70·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s
≤ 3 months 5 years 0.18 0.8622 0.74·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s
≤ 1 year 10 years 0.10 0.9025 0.81·qp -
> 1 year 50 years 0.02 1.0 qp -
14 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.4.5 Calculating peak velocity pressure
Wind load calculation for EU EN 1991-1-4:2005
Data vb,0 Fundamental value of basic wind velocity (10 min. 4.2 (1)P
mean), [m/s]
Factors cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P
cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-]
c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-]
ρ = 1.25 kg/m3 Air density
Basic velocity vb = cprob · cseason · cdir · vb,0 Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 4.5 (1)
pressure qb = ½ρ·vb2 2
Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ]
Peak velocity z Height considered above terrain, [m] 7.2.2
pressure ce(z) [See Figure 1.4-1] Exposure factor, [-] Fig. 4.2
qp(z) = ce(z)·qb 2
Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] 4.5 (1)
Land category:
Land Category
0 Sea or coastal area
I Flat country without obstacles
II Farmland with boundary hedges
III Suburban or industrial areas
IV Densely built-up urban areas
Figure 1.4-1 Exposure factor, ce(z) EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. 4.2
PART 1 EUROCODE 15
Figure 1.4-2 EU Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]
16 PART 1 EUROCODE
Wind load calculation for UK UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005

Data vb,map [see Figure 1.4-3] Basic wind velocity (10 min. mean), [m/s] Fig. NA.1
0.2
 10 
calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A ⋅   Altitude factor for z ≥ 10 m., [-] NA.2.5
 z 
vb,0 = vb,map · calt Fundamental value of basic wind velocity, [m/s]
cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P
cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-]
Factors c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-]
vb = cseason · cdir · cprob · vb,0 Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 4.2 (2)P
Basic velocity
pressure 2
Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ] ρ = 1.226 kg/m
3
4.5(1)P
qb = 0.613 · vb2
Displacement h Building height, [m] A.5 (1)
height have = 15 m (if no available data) Average height of neighbouring structures, [m]
- for Town x Site horizontal distance to other structures, [m]
terrain (IV) values of hdis: Effective height, [m]
hdis (lesser of)
x ≤ 2have 0.8have; 0.6h
2have < x < 6have 1.2have – 0.2x; 0.6h
x ≥ 6have 0
Orography is ce(z) [see Figure 1.4-4] Exposure factor, [-] Fig. NA.7
not significant
a) Country terrain (I & II)
qp = ce(z) · qb Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]
2
NA.2.17
b) Town terrain (III & IV)
Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.8
ce,T [see Figure 1.4-5]
qp = ce(z) · ce,T · qb
Orography is co(z) = vm/vmf Orography factor, [-] A.3
significant z ≤ 50 m
2
 co( z ) + 0.6 
q p =  2
 ce( z ) ⋅ qb Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] NA.2.17
 1.6 
z > 50 m
cr(z) Roughness factor, [-] Fig. NA.3
a) Country terrain (I & II)
vm = co(z) · cr(z) · vb
b) Town terrain (III & IV) Mean wind velocity, [m/s] NA.2.11
cr,T
vm = co(z) · cr(z) · cr,T · vb Roughness correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.4
Iv(z)flat Turbulence intensity for flat terrain, [-] Fig. NA.5

I v ( z ) flat
I v(z) = Turbulence intensity factor, [-] NA.2.16
co( z )
2 3
(
q p = 1 + 3I v( z ) ) ⋅ 0.613 ⋅ v m 2 Peak velocity pressure for ρ = 1.226 kg/m ,
2
NA.2.17
[kN/m ]
PART 1 EUROCODE 17
1.4.6 Factors and coefficients
Figure 1.4-3 UK Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s] UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.1
18 PART 1 EUROCODE
Figure 1.4-4 Exposure factor, ce(z) UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.7
50 70
30
20
5
Figure 1.4-5 Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, ce,T UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.8
5
2
PART 1 EUROCODE 19
1.4.7 Wind load on cladding elements

The coefficients may be applied to non-vertical walls within ±15° of vertical acc. to UK NA.2.27.
Characteristic wind load for walls of rectangular plan buildings UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.2
Data h, b, d Building height, crosswind breadth, inwind depth, [m]
h/d Slenderness ratio, [-]
External e = min{b; 2h} Scaling length, [m] Fig. 7.5

pressure gap Gap to adjacent building, [m]
coefficient values of Cpe: External pressure coeff. for isolated & funnelling, [-]
Side wall Table 7.1
Isolated Funnelling NA.2.27
Zone
≤ 1m² > 1m² b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b
A -1.4 -1.2 - 1.6
Table 7.1
B -1.1 -0.8 - 0.9
C -0.5 -0.5 - 0.9
Windward wall
h/d ≤ 0.25 h/d > 0.25
D
+1.0 +0.7 +1.0 +0.8
Leeward wall
h/d 1 ≥ h/d h/d
E ≤ 0.25 > 0.25 >1
- 0.30 - 0.5 - 0.7
Internal cpi(+) = +0.2 Internal pressure coeff. for uniformly distributed 7.2.9
pressure coeff. cpi(–) = –0.3 opening, [-]
2
Net wind Zones A, B, C & E: Maximum net wind suction, [kN/m ] 5.2
Pressure w = qp [cpe – cpi(+)]
2
Zone D: Maximum net wind pressure, [kN/m ]
w = qp [cpe – cpi(–)]
1.4.8 Pressure on walls with more than one skin

Walls with more than one skin EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.10
Data µ = (area of opening)/(area of skin) Permeability of a skin 7.2.10
Case 1: Permeable outside skin, µo ≥ 0.001: Applicable when extremities of the layer between 7.2.10
w+ = qp (2/3·Cpe+); w– = qp (1/3†·Cpe–) skins are closed
Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001:
w = qp (Cpe – Cpi)
Case 2: Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001:
w = qp (Cpe)
Impermeable more rigid inside skin, µi > µo
w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Case 1 Case 2
Case 3: Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001:
Permeable inside skin, µi ≥ 0.001:
w = qp (1/3·Cpi)
Case 4: Impermeable more rigid outside skin, µo > µi:
Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: Case 3 Case 4
w=0
†
Note: 2/3 according to CWCT 2.2.5.1.
20 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.4.9 Wind load for walls of rectangular plan building in London
Wind Load in London
Building height Pressure Isolated [kN/m²] Funnelling [kN/m²]
LONDON
[m] [kN/m²] Suction Local Suction Local
Low-rise bldg. 10 0,89 -0,77 -1,16 -0,85 -1,39
Intermediate 25 1,15 -1,00 -1,50 -1,10 -1,81
Medium-rise 50 1,31 -1,14 -1,71 -1,25 -2,05
High-rise 100 1,43 -1,25 -1,87 -1,37 -2,24
Skyscraper 200 1,57 -1,37 -2,05 -1,51 -2,46
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
Building Height [m]
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Wind Load [kN/m²]
PART 1 EUROCODE 21
1.4.10 Wind load on free-standing walls
Wind load on free-standing walls EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4
Data h, L Height and length of free-stand wall, [m] Fig. 7.19
φ Solidity ratio, [-] 7.4 (1)
Pressure values of Cp: Table 7.9
coefficients Zone φ = 1.0 φ = 0.8
Without return corners* Fig. 7.19
Cp3 Cp5 Cp10
L/h ≤ 3 L/h = 5 L/h ≥ 10
A 2.3 2.9 3.4
B 1.4 1.8 2.1
1.2
C 1.2 1.4 1.7
D 1.2
With return corners ≥ h
A 2.1
B 1.8
1.2
C 1.4 7.4.2
D 1.2 Fig. 7.20
* Intermediate values of Cp
(
L c p5 − c p 3
3 < L/h < 5 c p5 −  5 − 
)
 h 2

5 < L/h < 10 c p10 −  10 − 
(
L  c p10 − c p5 )
 h 5
φ < 0.8:
Treat as plane lattices acc. to 7.11
Fin features Corner fins: [BRE
cp,net = 2.0 Net pressure coefficient [-] NJCook
Series of fins: cl. 20.8.3]
x Dist. of sheltering upwind fin ≥ h, [m] 7.4.2
ψs Shelter factor, [-] Fig. 7.20
cp,net = max{ψs·cp; 0.4} Net pressure coefficient [-]
Net pressures w = cp,net · qp
Wind load on signboards EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4.3

Data h Height of signboard, [m] Fig. 7.21
b Width of signboard, [m] 7.4 (1)
zg Separation height of signboard from ground, [m]
Net pressure values of cf: Fig 7.21
coefficients zg ≥ h/4 cf = 1.8
b/h ≤ 1 cf = 1.8
zg < h/4 Treat at parapet
b/h > 1 acc. to 7.4.1
Net pressure w = cf · q p
22 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.4.11 Wind load on long elements
Design wind loads on long elements EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.6, 7.7 & 7.8
Data b, d, L Width, depth and length of element, [m] Fig. 7.23
φ Solidity ratio, [-]
Force values of cf,0: Force coefficients, [-] 7.6
coefficient Structural Fig. 7.23
cf,0 = 2.0
(sharp edge) 7.7
Circular cf,0 = 1.0
Fig. 7.28
Rectangular See Fig. 7.23
Square cf,0 = 2.1
Reduction factor for square sections

with radius:
ψr Reduced force coefficient, [-]
Fig. 7.24
End-effect Free-end polygon & sharp edged Effective slenderness ratio, [-] Table 7.16
reduction factorsections:
a) L < 15 m
λ = 2·L/b or 70(lesser of)
b) L ≥ 50 m
λ = 1.4·L/b or 70(lesser of)
Free-end circular sections &
Ends connected to structure:
a) L < 15 m
Fig. 7.36
λ = L/b or 70(lesser of)
b) L ≥ 50 m
λ = 0.7·L/b or 70(lesser of)
values of cf,0:
Structural, End-effect factor, [-]
λ = min
polygon &
Free-end lattice {2L/b;70}
Circular cf,0 = 1.0

Abutted Any See Fig. 7.23
ends section
ψλ
Net pressure w = cf,0 · ψλ · qp Net wind pressure
PART 1 EUROCODE 23
1.4.12 Wind load on parapet attached to curtain wall
δC δC C
max, wparapet min, wparapet a

B
min, wcw max, wcw L
Case-1:
max, wparapet = Cp,A·qs
min, wcw = [Cpe,E – Cpi(-)]·qs
Case-2:
min, wparapet = Cp,D·qs
max, wcw = [Cpe,A – Cpi(+)]·qs
24 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.5 Load combinations
1.5.1 Faming member design
The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered for characteristic
serviceability evaluations.
Vertical facades EN 1990:2005 6.5.3
Serviceability Ultimate limit state Description Occupancy
CO100: D CO200: 1.35D Dead incl. member self-weight all
CO101: D + W p CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p Dead + wind pressure all
CO102: D + W s + 0.7L CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.7·1.5L Dead + wind suction + imposed all
CO103: D + L + *0.6W s CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L + *0.6·1.5W s Dead + imposed + wind suction all
Note: *0.5W s acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1
Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing EN 1990:2005 6.5.3

CO101: D + W p + **0.7S CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + **0.7·1.5·S Dead + wind downforce + snow all
D + W p + 0.7SA Dead + wind downforce + snow drift
CO102: D + S + *0.6W p CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + *0.6·1.5W p Dead + snow + wind downforce all
D + SA + 0.7W p Dead + snow drift + wind downforce
CO103: D + W s CO203: D + 1.5W s Dead + wind uplift all
CO104: D + L CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L Dead + imposed H

Note: *0.5W p for UK NA:2005 Table NA.A1.1
**0.7S for H >1000m a.s.l; 0.5S for H ≤ 1000m a.s.l.
1.5.2 Glass design
Vertical facades TRAV:2003 4.2
Serviceability Description
Single glass
CO301: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO302: D + L + 0.5W Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
Multiple glazing
CO311: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO312: D + L + 0.5W Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO313: D + W p + Hw Dead + wind pressure + winter climate
CO314: D + W s + Hw Dead + wind suction + winter climate
CO315: D + L + Hw Dead + imposed + winter climate
CO316: D + W p + Hs Dead + wind pressure + summer climate
CO317: D + W s + Hs Dead + wind suction + summer climate
PART 1 EUROCODE 25
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS

2.1 Deflection limits
EN 1990:2002 cl. 3.4, states that serviceability requirements are agreed for each individual project.
2.1.1 Primary Structure
Steel and Concrete design EN 1993:2005 & EN 1992:2004

Component Deflection Description EN UK NA
Steel Vertical Carrying brittle finish - L/360
EN 1993-1-1 deflection
Other beams - L/200
Cantilevers - L/180
Horizontal Tops of columns in single-storey buildings except portal
- H/300
deflection frames
In each storey of a building with more than one storey - Hi/300
Concrete Vertical Beam, slab or cantilever under quasi-permanent loads span/250 -
EN 1992-1-1 deflection
Deflection after construction to prevent damage to adjacent
span/500 -
parts of the structure under quasi-permanent loads
Timber design EN 1995-1-1:2004

EN 1995-1-1 Table 7.2 UK NA:2008 Table NA.5
Instantaneous, winst Net final, wnet,fin Final, wfin Net final, wnet,fin
= winst + wcreep - wcamber = winst + wcreep = winst + wcreep - wcamber
No plaster* With plaster*
Simple beam L/300 to L/500 L/250 to L/350 L/150 to L/300 L/150 L/250
Cantilever L/150 to L/250 L/125 to L/175 L/75 to L/150 L/75 L/125
Note: * Roof or floor members with or without a plastered or plasterboard ceiling.
2.1.2 Facade
Curtain wall EN 13830:2003
Component Limit Clause
Frontal deflection under wind load L/200 or 15mm 4.1; EN 13116:’01, 4.3.1
Horizontal framing under vertical loads L/500 or 3mm 4.2
26 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
2.2 Structure tolerance

2.2.1 Concrete Structures
‘Permitted deviation’ is the permitted algebraic differences between the limits of size and the corresponding
reference size (unless ± is stated). See EN 13670:2009 cl. 3.13, also ISO 1803:1997 cl. 3.8.
The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with
a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. A recommended value when applying the
box principle is ± 20 mm.
Tolerances EN 13670:2009
Structure Type Description Permitted Deviation [mm] Clause
Base Plan section Position in plan of a base ∆ = ± 25 G.10.3.a
supports support relative to the
Foundations secondary lines
Vertical section Position in vertical ∆ = ± 20 G.10.3.b

direction of a base support
relative to the secondary
level
Columns and Verticality by storey Inclination of a column or h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.4.a
walls wall at any level
h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
h in mm
Offset between floors Deviation between ∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 30;15} ≤ 30 10.4.b

centrelines at floor level
Curvature between adjacent Curvature of a column or ∆ = max {h 300;15} ≤ 30 10.4.c

floors wall between adjacent
storey levels h in mm
PART 1 EUROCODE 27
Inclination Location of any column,  ∑ hi  10.4.d
wall or floor edge, at any ∆ = min  ; 50 
storey level from any  200 n 
vertical plane through its
H in metres
intended design centre at
base level
Position on plan of a column Position in plane of a ∆ = ± 25 G.10.4.a

column relative to the
secondary lines
Position on plan of a wall Position in plane of a wall ∆ = ± 25 G.10.4.b

relative to the secondary
line
Distance apart Free space between ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 60 G.10.4.c

adjacent columns or walls
Beams and Location of beam to column Measured relative to the ∆ = ± max {b 30;20} 10.5.a
slabs connection column
Bearing Position of bearing axis ∆ = ± max {l 20;15} 10.5.b

support
Straightness of beam Horizontal straightness of ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} G.10.5.a

beams
Distance apart Between adjacent beams, ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 40 G.10.5.b

measured at
corresponding points
28 PART 1 EUROCODE
Inclination of beam or slab Difference in level across a ∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 ) G.10.5.c
beam or slab at
corresponding points in
any direction
Level of adjacent beams Measured at ∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 ) G.10.5.d

corresponding points
Level per storey Level of adjacent floors at ∆ = ± 20 G.10.5.e

supports
Level Level of floors measured H ≤ 20m : ∆ = ± 20 G.10.5.f

relative to the intended H > 20m : ∆ = ± 0.5(H+20) ≤ 50
design level at the
reference level H in metres
Sections Cross-section dimension of Tolerance Class 1 l ≤ 150 : ∆ = ± 10 10.6.a

elements 150<l ≤ 400 : ∆ = 7+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<l < 2500: ∆ = 15+
140
l ≥ 2500 : ∆ = ± 30
Tolerance Class 2 l ≤ 150 : ∆ = ±5
See cl. 10.1(2)Notes 150<l ≤ 400 : ∆ = 2+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<l < 2500: ∆ = 10+
105
l ≥ 2500 : ∆ = ± 30
Location of reinforcement Tolerance Class 1 h ≤ 150 : ∆ = +10 10.6.b
150<h ≤ 400 : ∆ = +7+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<h < 2500: ∆ = +15+
210
h ≥ 2500 : ∆ = +25
Tolerance Class 2 h ≤ 150 : ∆ = +5
150<h ≤ 400 : ∆ = +7+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<h < 2500: ∆ = +10+
210
h ≥ 2500 : ∆ = +20
Lap joints Length of reinforcement ∆ = − 0.06 ⋅ l 10.6.c
Squareness of element Orthogonality of a cross- ∆ = ± max {a 25;10} ≤ ±20 G.10.6.a

section
Surface Flatness Moulded or smoothed l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 9 G.10.7.a

straightness surface
llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 4
PART 1 EUROCODE 29
Not moulded surface l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 15
llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 6
Skewness Skewness of cross-section ∆ = ± a 25 ≤ 30 G.10.7.b

∆ = ±b 25 ≤ 30
Edge straightness Floor slab or element l ≤ 1000 : ∆ = ± 8 G.10.7.c

l > 1000 : ∆ = ± min {8·l;20}
Holes and Holes and conduit inserts Deviation from secondary ∆x , ∆y = ± 25 G.10.8.a
inserts line ∆D = ± 10
Blockout and recesses Deviation from secondary ∆x , ∆y , ∆1 , ∆2 = ± 25 G.10.8.b

line
Anchor bolts and similar Placing of bolts and centre ∆1 = ± 10 G.10.8.c

inserts of a bolt group
Internal distance between ∆2 = ± 3

bolts in a group
Protrusion and inclination ∆3 = +25/ − 5

∆s = max {l3 200; 5}
Anchoring plates and similar Deviation in plane ∆x , ∆y = ± 20 G.10.8.d

inserts
Deviation in depth ∆z = ± 10
30 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING
I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING

3.1 Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile)
Statistical evaluation of test result EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.2
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [kN] D7.2
n Number of measured values [-]
ηd Design value of the conversion factor [-]
γm Partial safety factor of the material [-]
Normal 1 Mean value [kN] D7.2
distribution
mx = ∑ xi
n i
∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )
2
sx = ± Standard deviation [kN]
s
Vx = x Coefficient of variation [-]
mx
X k = m x ( 1 − knV x )
Characteristic value [kN]
Log-normal 1
distribution
my = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i Logarithmic mean value [kN]
Vx is known from previous knowledge:
Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]
(
s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x )
Vx is unknown from previous knowledge:
2
sy = ± ∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 )
Xk = e
( m y − kn s y )
Characteristic value [kN]
5% Fractile values of kn: Values of kn for the 5% characteristic Table D1
n Vx known* Vx unknown* value based on the normal distribution of
1 2.31 - x’s.
2 2.01 -
3 1.89 3.37
4 1.83 2.63
5 1.80 2.33
6 1.77 2.18
8 1.74 2.00
10 1.72 1.92
20 1.68 1.76
30 1.67 1.73
∞ 1.64 1.64
Design value ηd Design value [kN]
Xd = Χ
γm k
Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’
needs to be determined by engineering judgement.
PART 1 EUROCODE 31
DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
3.2 Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications
Statistical evaluation of test result EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.3
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [kN] D7.3
ηd Design value of the conversion factor
which should cover all uncertainties not
covered by the tests [-]
Normal 1 Mean value [kN] D7.3
distribution
mx = ∑ xi
n i
∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )
2
sx = ± Standard deviation [kN]
sx
Vx = Coefficient of variation [-]
mx
X d = ηd m x ( 1 − kd ,nV x )
Design value [kN]
Log-normal 1
distribution
my = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i Logarithmic mean value [kN]
Vx is known from previous knowledge:
Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]
(
s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x )
Vx is unknown from previous knowledge:
2
sy = ± ∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 )
X d = ηd e
( m y − kd ,n s y )
Design value [kN]
0.1% lower value values of kd,n: Values of kd,n for a probability of Table D2
n Vx known* Vx unknown* observing a lower value of about 0.1%
1 4.36 - based on normal distribution of x’s.
2 3.77 -
3 3.56 -
4 3.44 11.4
5 3.37 7.85
6 3.33 6.36
8 3.27 5.07
10 3.23 4.51
20 3.16 3.64
30 3.13 3.44
∞ 3.04 3.04
Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’
needs to be determined by engineering judgement.
32 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STEEL DESIGN
I-4 STEEL DESIGN
4.1 Properties of steel
Material constants of structural steel EN 1993-1-1:2005, Cl. 3.2.6
Form Density, Unit weight, ρ Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ [kg/m³] modulus, E G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 77.0 7 850 210 000 81 000 0.30 12·10
Characteristic values of structural steel (3mm ≤ t ≤ 40mm) EN 1993-1-1:2005, Table 3.1

Form Process Grade Yield strength, Min. tensile Fillet weld Reference
2
fy [N/mm ] strength, correlation
2
ft [N/mm ] factor, βw [-]
3 ≤ t ≤ 16 t ≤ 40
Sections, Non-alloy S235JR/J0/J2 235 225 360 0.80 [EN 10025-2]
plates,
S275JR/J0/J2 275 265 430 0.85
bars and rods
S355JR/J0/J2/K2 355 345 510 0.90
Normalized/ S275N/NL 275 265 370 [EN 10025-3]
Normalized
S355N/NL 355 345 470
rolled weldable
fine grain S420N/NL 420 400 520
S460N/NL 460 440 540
Thermo- S275M/ML 275 265 370 [EN 10025-4]
mechanical
S355M/ML 355 345 470
rolled weldable
fine grain S420M/ML 420 400 520
S460M/ML 460 440 540
Improved S235J0W/J2W 235 225 360 [EN 10025-5]
atmospheric
S355J0W/J2W 355 345 470
corrosion
S355J0WP/J2WP
resistance
Quenched and S460Q/QL/QL1 460 550 [EN 10025-6]
tempered
S500Q/QL/QL1 500 590
S550Q/QL/QL1 550 640
S620Q/QL/QL1 620 700
S690Q/QL/QL1 690 770
S890Q/QL/QL1 890 940
S960Q/QL/QL1 960 980
Hollow sections Hot finished S 235 H 235 235 360 0.80 [EN 10210-1]
S 275 H 275 275 430 0.85
S 355 H 355 355 510 0.90
S 460 NH 460 460 560 1.00
Cold formed S 235 H 235 235 360 0.80 [EN 10219-1]
S 275 H 275 275 430 0.85
S 355 H 355 355 510 0.90
S 460 NH 460 460 550 1.00
PART 1 EUROCODE 33
STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Characteristic values of steel sheets (t ≤ 3mm ) EN 1993-1-3:2006, Table 3.1

Form Process Grade Yield strength, Min. tensile Remarks
fy strength,
2 2
[N/mm ] ft [N/mm ]
Sheets for Pre-galvanized S220GD 220 300 [EN 10346:2009

Constuction superseded EN 10326]
S250GD 250 330
S280GD 280 360
S320GD 320 390
S350GD 350 420
Hot rolled S235JR 210 320 [EN 10025-2:2004]
Hot rolled S275N/NL 220 330 [EN 10025-3:2004]

weldable
Sheets for Pre-galvanized DX51D - 270 [EN 10346:2009

Cold forming Low carbon superseded EN 10327]
mild steel DX52D/53D/55D 140 270
DX54D/56D/57D 120 260
Pre-galvanized HX160YD 160 300 [EN 10346:2009

High strength superseded EN 10292]
HX180YD/BD 180 330/290
HX220YD/BD 220 340/320
HX260YD/BD/LAD 260 380/360/350
HX300YD/BD/LAD 300 390/400/380
HX340BD/LAD 340 440/410
HX380LAD 380 440
HX420LAD 420 470
Pre-galvanized HCT450X 260 450 [EN 10346:2009]

Cold rolled
HCT500X 300 500
HCT600X 340 600
Pre-galvanized HDT450F 320 450 [EN 10346:2009]

Hot rolled
HDT560F 460 560
HDT580X 330 580
Cold-rolled DC01/03/04/05 140 270 [EN 10130:1999]
DC06 120 270
Hot-rolled DD11 170 440 [EN 10111:1998]
DD12 170 420
DD13 170 400
DD14 170 380
34 PART 1 EUROCODE
4.2 Properties of stainless steel
Material constants of stainless steel EN 1993-1-4:2006 Cl. 2.1.3
Microstructure Density, Unit weight, Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ ρ modulus, E G = E/[2(1+ν)] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
Austenitic
195 000
1.4539, 1.4529 & 1.4547
-6
Austenitic 77.0 7 850 77 000 0.30 16·10
200 000
Others
Ferritic 220 000
Characteristic values of stainless steel EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.1

Grade AISI Cold rolled sheet, Hot rolled sheet, Bars, rods Secant Modulus Bend
strip & plates strip & plates & sections Coeff., n radius
t ≤ 6 mm t ≤ 12 mm (≤ 75mm) t ≤ 250 mm [Rolling direction]
fy fu fy fu fy fu
2 2 2 2 2 2 Long. Trans. [EN 1090-2]
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
1.4301 304 230 540 210 520 190 500 6 8 2t
1.4306, 1.4307 304L 220 520 200 520 (500) 175 450 6 8 2t
1.4401 316 240 530 220 530 (520) 200 500 7 9 2t
1.4404, 1.4435 316L 240 530 220 530 (520) 200 500 7 9 2t
1.4462 Duplex 480 660 460 660 (640) 450 650 5 5 2.5t
Note: Fillet weld correction factor, βw = 1.0 for Stainless steel.
Work hardened condition (process route 2H) EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table B.1; EN 10088-2:2005 Table 17
Microstructure Symbol 0.2% proof strength level, Tensile strength level,
2 2
Rp0.2 [N/mm ] Rm [N/mm ]
Austenitic steels +C700 - 700 – 850
+C850 - 850 – 1000
+C1000 - 1000 – 1150
+CP350 350 – 500 -
+CP500 500 – 700 -
+CP700 700 – 900 -
4.2.1 Secant modulus of stainless steel

(E s,1 +E s,2 ) E
E s,ser = E s,i = n
2 E  σi,Ed,ser 
1+0.002  
σ i,Ed,ser  fy 
where: Es,1 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ1 in the tension flange.
Es,2 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ2 in the compression flange.
PART 1 EUROCODE 35
4.3 Resistance of steel cross-sections
4.3.1 Partial safety factors
Partial material safety factors for ultimate limit states
Part Steel Stainless steel
[EN 1993-1-1] UK NA.2.15 [EN 1993-1-4]
Resistance of cross-section whatever class γM0 1.0 1.0 1.1
Resistance of members to instability γM1 1.0 1.0 1.1
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture γM2 1.25 1.1 1.25
4.3.2 General cross-sections

Design resistance of steel structures EN 1993-1-1:2005
Mode Values Notes Clause
Shear V Ed Design shear resistance [kN] 6.2.6
≤ 1.0
Vc ,Rd Shear area, Av:
I, H, C, T Av = hw t w
{
Vc,Rd = min V pl,Rd ; Vc,Rd } Av = A ⋅ h ( b+h )
RHS // to h
Plastic shear resistance
A RHS ⊥ to h Av = A ⋅ b ( b+h )
V pl,Rd = v f y γ M0
3 CHS Av = 2A π
Elastic shear resistance(horizontal shear) Flat bar Av = 0.8A
I·t 1
Vc,Rd = f γ Round bar Av = 0.6A
Q 3 y M0
Torsional shear
TRd =
( It c ) f γ ≥ T
3
y M0 Ed Torsional resistance [kN·m]
Approx. non-linear torsional constant [mm³]
( I t c ) ≈ b 2 t 2 ( 3b + 1.8t ) (refer to design aide formulas for exact value)
Bending Pure bending: 6.2.5(1)
M Ed
≤ 1.0 Design tension resistance [kN·m]
M c ,Rd
{
M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd } 6.2.5(4)
General yielding along the member [kN·m]
M c,Rd =W f y γ M0
Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m] 6.2.5(2)
M u,Rd = Wel,net f u γ M2
Section modulus, W:
Lateral-torsional buckling: Class 1 & 2 W = W pl 6.3.2.1(1)
M Ed
≤ 1.0 Class 3 W = Wel
M b ,Rd 6.3.2.1(3)
Class 4 W = Weff
M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd
Design buckling resistance moment [kN·m]
where:
π EI z GI t Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]
M cr = 6.3.2.2
L
Slenderness [-]
λ LT = W y f y M cr 6.3.2.2
Initial sway inperfection [-]
φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT 
2
Reduction factor for buckling [-] 6.3.2.2
1 Imperfection factor, αLT:
χ LT = ≤ 1.0
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2 a α LT = 0.21
6.3.2.1
Rolled I, h/b > 2 b α LT = 0.34
Welded I, h/b ≤ 2 c α LT = 0.49
Welded I, h/b > 2
d α LT = 0.76
Other sections
36 PART 1 EUROCODE
Design resistance of steel structures EN 1993-1-1:2005

2
Tension A Gross section area [mm ] 6.2.3
Anet 2
Net section area [mm ]
Basis:
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N t ,Rd
Where:
Design tension resistance [kN]
{
N t,Rd = min N pl ,Rd ; N u ,Rd }
N pl,Rd = A f y γ M0 Design plastic resistance of gross section [kN]
N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
Compression Local squashing 6.2.4

N Ed
≤ 1.0
N c ,Rd
Class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections: Design compression resistance [kN]
N c,Rd = A f y γ M0
Class 4 cross sections:
N c,Rd = Aeff f y γ M0
Design buckling resistance of compression 6.3.1.1
member without welding [kN]
Flexural buckling, λ > 0.2 :
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N b ,Rd
N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1
a) Critical flexural buckling:
π EI y π EI z Elastic critical force [kN]
N cr,y = ; N cr,z =
2
( kz L)
2
6.3.1.2
(ky L )
a) Critical torsional buckling:
1  π EI w  yo is the distance from the shear centre to the
N cr,T = 2 2
 GIt +
2 
 centroid of the gross cross section along the y-y
i y + i z + yo  Lcr 2 
axis (zero for doubly symmetric sections)
A⋅ fy
λ =
N cr Slenderness [-] 6.3.1.2
φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
Initial sway inperfection [-] 6.3.1.2
1
χ = ≤ 1.0
φ + φ2 −λ 2 Reduction factor for buckling [-]
Imperfection factor, α: Table 6.2

Effective length factor, k:
0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 RHS, CHS (HF) a α = 0.21
Rolled I, h/b > 1.2
b α = 0.34
L
RHS, CHS (CF)
Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2
c α = 0.49
Welded I
Solid, C, T
Welded I, h/b > 2
d α = 0.76
Other sections
PART 1 EUROCODE 37
4.3.3 Buckling resistance of steel cross-sections
Lateral-torsional buckling EN 1993-1-1:2005
Clause
T
h d y h y
t
M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1 M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1 6.3.2.1

Section modulus: Section modulus:
Section web d/t flange b/2T Wy Section h/b Wy Table 5.2
Class 1 & 2 ≤ 83ε ≤ 10ε W pl , y Class 1 & 2 ≤ 20ε W pl , y = bh 2 4
Class 3 ≤ 124ε ≤ 14ε Wel , y Class 3 ≤ 42ε Wel , y = bh 2 6

6.3.2.2
Buckling factors [kN,cm]: Buckling factors [kN,cm]:
Wy fy L Lc = 1092.8 ⋅b f y
λ LT = 0.00494 Class 1 & 2
Iz It λ LT = 0.00605 f y L / b
Tables
φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − λ LT ,0 ) + βλ LT 2  Lc = 1639.1 ⋅b f y 6.3 & 6.4
Class 3
values of γLT,0: λ LT = 0.00494 f y L / b
γLT,0 = 0.4 6.3.2.2
Rolled Lc = 6556.4 I z I t W y f y φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT 2 
β = 0.75
1
γLT,0 = 0.2 χ LT = ≤ 1.0
Welded Lc = 1638.9 I z I t W y f y φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2
β = 1.0 where:
1 ε = 235 f 6.3.1.3
χ LT = ≤ 1.0 y
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2
Compression buckling EN 1993-1-1:2005

z
Clause
t
h c t h
d
y
y
y
d y
t
N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1 N b,Rd = χ b h f y γ M1 N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1 6.3.1.1

Buckling about y-y: Buckling about y-y: kyL
π EI y kyL λ = 0.009849 fy 6.3.1.2
N cr,y = λ = 0.004265 fy d
2 h
(
ky L ) φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
Buckling about z-z:
Buckling about z-z: k L 1
λ = 0.004265 z fy χ = ≤ 1.0
π EI z b φ + φ2 −λ 2
N cr,z = 2
( kz L) φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
A⋅ fy 1
λ = χ = ≤ 1.0
N cr φ + φ2 −λ 2
φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
values of α:
Hot finished α = 0.21
Cold formed α = 0.49
1
χ = ≤ 1.0
φ + φ2 −λ 2
38 PART 1 EUROCODE
4.4 Sheets as diaphragms

Shear buckling resistance of sheets EN 1993-1-5:2006 Cl. 5
Data hw Height of sheet parallel to direction of shear [mm]
a Width of sheet [mm]
tw Sheet thickness [mm]
E Modulus of elasticity [N/mm ]
2
fyw
Yield strength of sheet [-]
η = 1.2
For steel grades up to S460 5.1 (2)
Shear buckling Criteria for slender web:
hw
> 72
ε Slender web 5.1 (2)
tw η
kτ = 5.34 Shear buckling coefficient [-] A.3 (1)
2
 tw  For plates without transverse and longitudinal stiffeners 5.3 (3) &
2
τ cr = 190 000   kτ Critical shear stress, [N/mm ] A.1 (2)
 hw 
f yw
λ w = 0.76
τ cr Slenderness parameter [-] 5.3 (3)
0.83
χw = Shear buckling factor Table 5.1
λw
hw t w f yw
Vbw ,Rd = χ w Design shear buckling resistance [N] 5.2 (1)
3 1.1
c
hw V V
H
a
2a ( 1+v ) Shear stiffness [mm/kN] BS5950

c =
1000Et w hw Table 9
PART 1 EUROCODE 39
4.5 Cold-formed members
Panel edge stiffeners EN 1993-1-5:2006
Data 235
ε = Yield constant [-]
fy
b t Slenderness [-]
λp =
28.4 ⋅ ε kσ 4.4
Single b = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t )

edge fold Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-] Table 4.1
kσ = 4.0
4.4
λ p − 0.22 Reduction factor for plate buckling [-]
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
Effective width [mm] Table 4.1
b
beff = ρ
2
Grade Approx. beff
S235 28.4t − 354.9 t 2 b
S275 26.2t − 303.2 t 2 b
S280GD 26t − 297.8 t 2 b
S320GD 24.3t − 260.6 t 2 b
c = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t )
kσ = 0.5 Table 4.2
λ p − 0.188 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0 Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]
λp
Table 4.2
ceff = ρ ⋅ c Effective return depth [mm]
Grade Approx. ceff
S235 20.1t − 75.8 t 2 c
S275 18.6t − 64.8 t 2 c
S280GD 18.4t − 63.6 t 2 c
S320GD 17.2t − 55.7 t 2 c
Double d = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t )

edge fold Table 4.2
kσ = 0.43
Buckling factor for uniform
λ p − 0.188 compression, ψ = 1.0 [-] 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
Effective lip [mm] Table 4.2
d eff = ρ ⋅ d
40 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM DESIGN
I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN

5.1 Properties of aluminium structures
Material constants of aluminium EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 3.2.5
Form Density, Unit weight, ρ Modulus of Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Coef. of linear
γ [kg/m³] elasticity, E G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν thermal exp., α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 26.6 2 700 70 000 27 700 0.30 23·10
Aluminium sheet, strip and plate EN 485-2:2007

Form Alloy Temper Thickness Rp0.2 Rm HAZ-factor Bend radius*
2 2
t [mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
ρo,haz ρu,haz 180° 90°
Site 1050A O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 20 65 1 1 0│0.5t│t

formed [Al 99.5]
sheets H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 75 105 t│-│- t│1.5t│2.5t
Pre- 3003 O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 35 95 1 1 0│t│- 0│t│1.5t

formed [AlMn1Cu]
Sheets H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 115 145 2t│-│- t│2t│2.5t
or
5005/5005A O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 35 100 1 1 0.5t│t│- 0│t│1.5t
Plates
[AlMg1]
H22/H32 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 80 125 0.55 0.80 1.5t│-│- t│t│2t
H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 110 145 0.37 0.69 2.5t│-│- t│2t│2.5t
5754 O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 80 190 1 1 t│t│- t│t│2t

[AlMg3]
H24/H34 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 160 240 0.63 0.79 2.5t│-│- 2t│2.5t│3t
6082 T6/T651 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 255 300 0.48 0.60 - 3.5t│4.5t│6t

[AlSi1MgMn]
Plates 5083 O/H111 ≤6│≤25 125 190 1 1 - 1.5t│-

[Al Mg4,5
Mn0,7] H22/H32 ≤6│≤25 215 305 0.72 0.90 - 2.5t│-
H24/H34 ≤6│≤25 250 400 0.62 0.81 - 3.5t│-

Note: * For information only.
Characteristic values of aluminium EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.2
Form Grade Chemical Temper Thickness 0.2% proof Tensile HAZ- HAZ-factor, Buckling
symbol t strength, fo strength, fu factor, ρu,haz class
2 2
[mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] ρo,haz
Extrusion 6060 [AlMgSi] T5 t ≤ 5│≤ 25 120│100 160│140 0.42│0.50 0.50│0.57 B
T6 t ≤ 15 140 170 0.43 0.59 A
T66 t ≤ 3│≤ 25 160│150 215│195 0.41│0.43 0.51│0.56 A
6061 [AlMg1SiCu] T6 t ≤ 20 240 260 0.48 0.67 A
6063 [AlMg0,7Si] T5 t ≤ 3│≤ 25 130│110 175│160 0.46│0.55 0.57│0.63 B
T6 t ≤ 25 160 195 0.41 0.56 A
6005A [AlSiMg] T6 t ≤ 5│≤ 10 225│215 270│260 0.51│0.53 0.61│0.63 A
Open section
10 < t ≤ 25 200 250 0.58 0.66 A
Hollow section t ≤ 5│≤ 10 215│200 255│250 0.53│0.58 0.65│0.66 A
6082 [AlSi1MgMn] T6 t ≤ 5│≤ 15 250│260 290│310 0.50│0.48 0.64│0.60 A
7020 [AlZn4,5Mg1] T6 t ≤ 15│≤ 40 290│275 350 0.71│0.75 0.80 A
Cast 42100 [AlSi7Mg0.3] T6 - 147 203 - - A
42200 [AlSi7Mg0.6] T6 - 168 224 - - A
PART 1 EUROCODE 41
ALUMINIUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.4

Form Grade Chemical symbol Tempering Diameter, 0.2% proof strength Tensile strength
(Designation to d fo fu
2 2
EN28839) [mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
Solid 5019 AlMg5 H111 ≤ 20 110 250
rivets
H14,H34 ≤ 18 210 300
5754 AlMg3 H111 ≤ 20 80 180
H14/H34 ≤ 18 180 240
6082 AlSi1MgMn T4 ≤ 20 110 205
T6 ≤ 20 240 300
Bolts 5754 AlMg3 (AL1) - ≤ 10│≤ 20 230│180 270│250
5019 AlMg5 (AL2) - ≤ 14│≤ 36 205│205 310│280
6082 AlSi1MgMn (AL3) - ≤ 6│≤ 36 250│260 320│310
5.2 Definitions
5.2.1 H Tempers
Work hardening is used extensively to produce strain-hardened tempers of the non-heat-treatable alloys.
HXY
H – Strain hardened by cold working
X = 1 for strain hardened only.
= 2 for strain hardened and partially annealed. The products are strain hardened more than is required to achieve
the desired properties and then are reduced in strength by partial annealing.
= 3 for strain hardened and stabilized. In the strain-hardened condition, these alloys tend to age soften at room
temperature. Therefore, they are usually heated at a low temperature to complete the age-softening process and to
provide stable mechanical properties and improved working characteristics.
Y = 2 for quarter-hard cold work condition.
= 4 for half-hard cold work condition.
= 6 for three-quarter cold work condition.
= 8 for full-hard cold work condition.
= 9 for extra-hard cold work condition.
5.2.2 T Tempers
The complete heat-treatment consists of a solution heat-treatment, a quenching process and subsequent
ageing, where the actual hardening occurs. It must be said that, unlike steel, aluminium alloys are definitely
not hard after quenching.
To get the highest strength values it is important to keep the material for sufficient time at the correct solution
heat temperature and to follow the correct quenching procedure. Depending on the alloy this may be carried
out using water or moving air. Quenching with water produces distortion and residual stresses. Alloys
quenchable with air have some technical and economical advantages, but the most of the high strength
alloys need to be water quenched. If the solution heat-treatment or the quenching process is not properly
executed this will result in lower values with respect to mechanical strength and elongation (ductility).
Symbol Description
T4 = Solution heat-treated and then naturally aged
T5 = Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged
T6 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged
T61, T64 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions in order to improve formability (T64
between T61 and T6)
T66 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged –mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved through special
control of the process 6000 series alloys
T7 = Solution heat-treated and artificially over-aged
42 PART 1 EUROCODE
5.3 Protection at metal-to-metal contacts
Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to take precautions against crevice and galvanic effects.
Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table D.2
Metal to be joined Bolt/rivet Rural Industrial urban
to aluminium material
Dry, unpolluted Mild Moderate Severe
(M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
X
Aluminium Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0/X 0 1
a
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (1) (2) 1 (2)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
Painted steel X
0/X
Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0 a 1
a
Zinc-coated steel z
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (2) 1 (2)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
X
0/X
Stainless steel Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0 a 1
a
z
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (2) 1 (2)
Treatments applied to the contact areas of structural members

Procedure 0
A treatment is usually unnecessary for causes of corrosion
Procedure 0/X
Treatment depends on structural conditions. Small contact areas and areas which dry quickly may be assembled
without sealing (see procedure X)
Procedure X
Both contact surfaces should be assembled so that no crevices exist where water can penetrate. Both contact
surfaces, including bolt and rivet holes should, before assembly, be cleaned, pre-treated and receive one priming
coat, see prEN 1090-3, or sealing compound, extending beyond the contact area. The surfaces should be brought
together while priming coat is still wet. Where assembling pre-painted or protected components sealing of the
contact surfaces might be unnecessary, dependant on the composition of the paint or protection system employed,
the expected life and the environment.
Treatment applied to bolts and rivets

Procedure 0
No additional treatment is usually necessary.
Procedure 1
Inert washers or jointing compound should be applied between the bolt heads, nuts, washers and connected
materials to seal the joint and to prevent moisture entering the interface between components and fixings. Care
should be employed to ensure that load transfer through the joint is not adversely affected by the washers or
jointing compounds.
Procedure 2
Where the joint is not painted or coated for other reasons, the heads of bolts, nuts and rivets should be protected
with at least one priming coat (see prEN 1090-3;), care being taken to seal all crevices.
Note: Similar coating on aluminium and zinc-coated steel parts around the stainless steel bolts is required only for
immersed structures.
Further treatments
Procedure a
If not painted for other reasons it may be necessary to protect the adjacent metallic parts of the contact area by a
suitable paint coating in cases where dirt may be entrapped or where moisture retained.
Procedure z
Additional protection of zinc-coated structural parts as a whole may be necessary
PART 1 EUROCODE 43
5.4 Cross-sectional properties
5.4.1 Section Classification
Classification of cross-sections EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4, 6.1.5
Data b, t Width and thickness of critical part [mm] Fig. 6.1
c Length of reinforcement leg (if any) [mm] Fig. 6.4
yc Dist. to n.a. of more heavily compressed edge [mm] Fig. 6.2
yo Dist. to n.a. of other edge [mm]
fo
Tensile yield strength of alloy [N/mm2] Table 3.2
ε = 250 / f o Yield point constant [-] Table 6.2
Effective slenderness ratio [-] 6.1.4.3
(β ε ) = η ε ⋅b t
Internal Unreinforced: Fig. 6.2

a) uniform compression
η = 1.0
b) stress gradient, yo/yc ≥ –1.0
η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc )
c) stress gradient, yo/yc < –1.0
η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc ) 
Singly-reinforced:
Fig. 6.4
1
η= ≥ 0.5
2
1 + 2.5 ( c t − 1 ) (b t )
yo /yc
Doubly-reinforced:
1
η= ≥ 0.33
2
1 + 4.5 ( c t − 1 ) (b t )
Classification of cross-section part:
Class Local buckling factor 6.1.4.4
(yo /yc)σ
1 β ≤ 11ε
ρc = 1.0 Table 6.2
2 11 < β ≤ 16ε
3 16 < β ≤ 22ε
32 220 Table 6.3
4 β > 22 ρc = –
( ) ( β ε )2
β ε (a) singly-reinforced (b) doubly-reinforced
Outstand Unreinforced: Fig. 6.2

a) yc is free-end/toe
η = 1.0
b) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc ≥ –1.0
η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc )
c) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc < –1.0
η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc ) 
Reinforced:
Fig. 6.4
ce = 3 t c t ⋅ c
1
η = (a) Uniform thickness (b) Non-uniform thickness
2
1 + 0.1 ( ce t − 1 ) Reinforced outstand
Classification of cross-section part: 6.1.4.4
Class Local buckling factor
1 β ≤ 3ε Table 6.2
ρc = 1.0
2 3 < β ≤ 4.5ε
3 4.5 < β ≤ 6ε Table 6.3
10 24
4β > 6 ρc = –
( β ε ) ( β ε )2
t eff = ρ c ⋅ t Effective thickness [mm] 6.1.5
44 PART 1 EUROCODE
5.4.2 Local buckling

The table below is a guide for minimum thickness for a class 3 cross-section part and prevent local buckling.
Non-welded aluminium profile Class 3 minimum thickness EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4
Outstand Internal
peak comp. @ toe peak comp. @ root
ε O0 · · · O1 O2 O3 O5 I0 I1 I2 I3 I5
η = 0.7+0.3(yo/yc) = 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,4 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,4
6060 T5 (t ≤ 5) B 1,44 b/7,2 b/9 b/10,3 b/12 b/18 b/26 b/32,5 b/37,1 b/43,3 b/65
T6 (t ≤ 15) A 1,34 b/8 b/10 b/11,5 b/13,4 b/20 b/29,4 b/36,7 b/42 b/49 b/73,5
T66 (t > 3) A 1,29 b/7,7 b/9,7 b/11,1 b/12,9 b/19,4 b/28,4 b/35,5 b/40,6 b/47,3 b/71
6063 T5 (t > 3) B 1,51 b/7,5 b/9,4 b/10,8 b/12,6 b/18,8 b/27,1 b/33,9 b/38,8 b/45,2 b/67,8
T6 (t ≤ 25) A 1,25 b/7,5 b/9,4 b/10,7 b/12,5 b/18,8 b/27,5 b/34,4 b/39,3 b/45,8 b/68,8
Local buckling factor for class 4 cross-section part EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4
PART 1 EUROCODE 45
5.4.3 Effective section properties of thermally separated profiles
Effective properties of thermally broken profiles EN 14024:2004 Annex C
4
Data A1, I1 Area and moment of inertia of inner profile [mm,mm ]
a1,i Distance of inner profile centroid to inner edge [mm]
4
A2, I2 Area and moment of inertia of outer profile [mm,mm ]
a2,o Distance of outer profile centroid to outer edge [mm]
E Modulus of elasticity of the profiles [N/mm²]
L Length of member [mm]
∆F
c= Elasticity constant determined from test [N/mm/mm] 5.4.3
∆δ ⋅ L
Centroid z =  A1 ⋅ a1,i + A2 ( h − a 2 ,o )  ( A1 + A2 ) Location of centroid [mm] Annex
distances C
a1 = z − a1,i
a 2 = h − z − a 2 ,o
4
Moments I s = I 1 +I 2 +A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 Rigid moment of inertia [mm ] Annex
of intertia C
A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 4
ν = Compound part of the rigid moment of inertia [mm ]
Is
c ⋅ a 2 L2 Effect of elastic connection [-]
λ=
E ⋅ I s ⋅ν ( 1 − ν )
λ2 Partial solution constant [-]
C =
π 2 +λ2
1 −ν
I ef = Is 4
1 −ν ⋅ C Effective moment of inertia [mm ]
Section 1
We,1 = 3
modulus C ( a1 + a1,i ) ( 1 − C ) a1,i Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
+
Is I1 + I 2
1 3
Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
We,2 =
C ( a 2 + a 2 ,o ) ( 1 − C ) a 2 ,o
+
Is I1 + I 2
46 PART 1 EUROCODE
5.5 Resistance of aluminium cross-sections
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 6.1
Part Example EN 1999 UK NA
Resistance of member to instability Bending and overall yielding γM1 = 1.1 γM1 = 1.1
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture Local capacity in net tension γM2 = 1.25 γM2 = 1.25
EN 1999-1-1 clause 1,1,2(1) The following design applies to material thickness not less than 0.6mm, steel
bolts not less than 5mm, rivets and tapping screws not less than 4.2mm.
5.5.2 General cross-sections
Design resistance of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007
2
Shear Av, Ae Shear area and effective shear area [mm ] 6.2.6
Utilization grade: E γ (A.1)
VEd U= k F
≤ 1.0 Rk γ M
VRd
General, hw/tw < 39ε: Design shear resistance for sections containing
VRd = Av 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 shear webs [kN]
values of Av:
Solid bar Av = 0.8· Ae
Round tubes Av = 0.6· Ae
Torsional shear 6.2.7

TRd = ( I t c ) 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 ≥ TEd Design torsional shear resistance [kN]
3
Bending Wel Elastic modulus of the gross section [mm ] 6.2.5
Wnet Elastic modulus of the net section allowing for
3
Pure bending: holes and reduced thickness of ρu,haz [mm ]
M Ed
≤ 1.0
M Rd
{
M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN·m]
M c,Rd = α Wel f o γ M1 General yielding along the member [kN·m]
M u,Rd = W net f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]
values of α:
α = W pl Wel Shape factor [-]
Class 1 & 2
Class 3 & 4 α = 1.0
Table 6.4
Lateral-torsional buckling:
M Ed
≤ 1.0 6.3.2.1
M b ,Rd Design buckling resistance of compression
M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd member without welding
6.3.2.1
where:
Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]
M cr = π EI z GI t L I.1
λ LT = α Wel , y f o M cr Slenderness [-] 6.3.2.3

φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − λ0 ,LT ) + λ LT  Initial sway inperfection [-]
2
6.3.2.1
1
χ LT = ≤ 1.0 Reduction factor for buckling [-]
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 6.3.2.1
values of αLT & λ0,LT:
Imperfection factor [-]
Class 1 & 2 α LT = 0.1 λ0 ,LT = 0.6 6.3.2.1
Limit of the horizontal plateau [-]
Class 3 & 4 α LT = 0.2 λ0 ,LT = 0.4
PART 1 EUROCODE 47
Design resistance of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007
2
Tension Ag Gross section area [mm ] 6.2.3
Anet 2
Net section area [mm ]
Aeff Effective area based on the reduced thickness of
Basis: 2
ρu,haz [mm ]
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N t ,Rd
Where:
{
N t,Rd = min N o ,Rd ; N u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN]
N o,Rd = Ag f o γ M1 General yielding along the member [kN]

N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
N u,Rd = Aeff f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
2
Compression Anet Net section area [mm ]
Aeff Effective area based on the reduced thickness of
2
Local squashing ρu,haz [mm ] 6.2.4
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N c ,Rd
{
N c,Rd = min N c ,Rd ; N u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN]
N c,Rd = Aeff f o γ M1
General yielding along the member [kN]
N u,Rd = Anet f u γ M2
Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
Flexural buckling, λ > λo :
6.3.1.1
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N b ,Rd
Design buckling resistance of compression
N b,Rd = χ Aeff f o γ M1
member without welding [kN]
a) Doubly symmetrical cross-sections:
π EI y π EI z Elastic critical force [kN]
N cr,y = 2
; N cr,z = 2
(
ky L ) ( kz L) I.3
Aeff f o Slenderness [-]

λ =
N cr 6.3.1.2
Initial sway inperfection [-]
φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − λo ) + λ 2 
6.3.1.2
1 Reduction factor for buckling [-]
χ = ≤ 1.0
φ + φ2 − λ 2 6.3.1.2
values of k:
0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Table 6.8
values of α & λ0: Imperfection factor [-] Table 6.6

Class A α = 0.2 λo = 0.1 Limit of the horizontal plateau [-]
Class B α = 0.32 λo = 0.0
See section 5.1 for buckling class
Torsional-flexural buckling, λ T > λo :
See I.3& I.4
48 PART 1 EUROCODE
Combined stresses EN 1999-1-1:2007

Bending and General: 6.2.8
high shear M Ed
≤ 1.0
f o,V ⋅ M Rd
For VEd > VRd/2:
 2
f o,V = f o  1 −  Ed 1  
2V Moment resistance reduction factor [-] (6.38)
VRd −
   
Bending and General:

tension N Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed
+ + ≤ 1.0 Interaction formula (conservative) 6.2.9.1
N Rd M y,Rd M z,Rd
Hollow sections:
0.6
 N Ed 
1.3  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7 
+  
y,Ed
 +
 (6.43)
  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N Rd     z,Rd  
Solid sections:
0.6
 N Ed 
2.0  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7 
(6.43)
+  
y,Ed
   +  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N Rd     z,Rd  
Bending and General: 6.3.3.1

compression Major axis (y-axis) bending:
buckling  N Ed 
0.8
Interaction formula (conservative) (6.59)
M y,Ed
  + ≤ 1.0
 N b,y,Rd  M y,Rd
 
Minor axis (z-axis) bending:
0.8 0.8
 N Ed   M z,Ed  (6.60)
  +   ≤ 1.0
 N b,z,Rd   M z,Rd 
Hollow sections:
0.6
 N Ed 
0.8  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7  (6.62)
+  
y,Ed
   +  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N b,Rd     z,Rd  
Solid sections:
0.6 (6.61)
 N Ed 
2.0  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7 
+  
y,Ed
   +  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N Rd     z,Rd  
Lateral-torsional General: 6.3.3.2

buckling  N Ed 
0.8
 M y,Ed 
1.0
 M z,Ed 
0.8
  + 
M  +
M  ≤ 1.0 Interaction formula (conservative) (6.63)
 N b,z,Rd   b,Rd   z,Rd 
PART 1 EUROCODE 49
5.6 Cold formed members
5.6.1 Effective widths
Panel edge stiffeners EN 1999-1-4:2007
Data bp fo Plate slenderness [-] 5.5.2
λ p ≅ 1.052 ⋅
t Ekσ
Single edge b p = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t )

fold Buckling factor for uniform comp., ψ = 1.0 [-] Table 5.3;
kσ = 4.0
λ p − 0.22 Reduction factor for plate buckling [-] 5.5.2
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
bp
beff = ρ Effective width [mm]
2
Alloy Approx. beff
2
O/H111 112t − 2783 t b p
1050A
H14 58t − 742 t 2 b p
O/H111 42t − 795 t 2 b p

3003
H14 23t − 242 t 2 b p
O/H111 42t − 795 t 2 b p

5005A
H14 24t − 253 t 2 b p
c p = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) EN 1993-1-4

kσ = 0.5 Table 4.2
λ p − 0.188 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
ceff = ρ ⋅cp Table 4.2
Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]
Alloy Approx. ceff
Effective return depth [mm]
O/H111 40t − 297 t 2 c p
1050A
H14 20t − 79 t 2 c p
O/H111 30t − 170 t 2 c p

3003
H14 17 t − 52 t 2 c p
O/H111 30t − 170 t 2 c p

5005A
H14 17 t − 54 t 2 c p
Double d p = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) EN 1993-1-4

edge fold Table 4.2
kσ = 0.43
λ p − 0.188 Buckling factor for 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp uniform compression, ψ
= 1.0 [-] Table 4.2
d eff = ρ ⋅ d p
Effective lip [mm]
50 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONCRETE DESIGN
I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN

6.1 Properties of concrete
Material constants EN 1992-1-1:2004 Cl. 3.1.3
γ [kg/m³] elasticity, Ecm G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν thermal exp., α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
0.3 -6
Normal 24.0 2 450 22 ( f cm 10 ) ≈ 21 000 0.20* 10·10
Lightweight 8.8 – 19.6 900 – 2 000
Heavy weight > 19.6 > 2 000

Note: * Uncracked. 0 for cracked.
Concrete Strength Class EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 3.1
Strength Characteristic Characteristic Mean Mean Characteristic Characteristic Mean
Class cylinder cube cylinder tensile tensile tensile modulus of
strength strength strength strength strength strength elasticity
fck fck,cube fcm fctm fctk,0.05 fctk,0.95 Ecm
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²]
C12/15 12 15 20 1.6 1.1 2.0 27 000
C16/20 16 20 24 1.9 1.3 2.5 29 000
C20/25 20 25 28 2.2 1.5 2.9 30 000
C25/30 25 30 33 2.6 1.8 3.3 31 000
C30/37 30 37 38 2.9 2.0 3.8 33 000
C35/45 35 45 43 3.2 2.2 4.2 34 000
C40/50 40 50 48 3.5 2.5 4.6 35 000
C45/55 45 55 53 3.8 2.7 4.9 36 000
C50/60 50 60 58 4.1 2.9 5.3 37 000
C55/67 55 67 63 4.2 3.0 5.5 38 000
C60/75 60 75 68 4.4 3.1 5.7 39 000
C70/85 70 85 78 4.6 3.2 6.0 41 000
C80/95 80 95 88 4.8 3.4 6.3 42 000
C90/105 90 105 98 5.0 3.5 6.6 44 000
PART 1 EUROCODE 51
CONCRETE DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
6.2 Concrete design
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 2.1N
Design Situations Concrete Steel Prestressing steel
Persistent and Transient γC = 1.5 γS = 1.15 γS = 1.15
Accidental γC = 1.2 γS = 1.0 γS = 1.0
6.3 Anchorage design

Tension anchorage EN 1992-1-1:2004
Type Action Notes Clause
Bond strength f ctd = α ct ⋅ f ctk ,0.05 γ C Design tensile strength [N/mm²] 3.1.6
α ct = 1.0 Long-term and load application effects [-] 3.1.6
f bd = 2.25 ⋅ η1 ⋅ η 2 ⋅ f ctd Ultimate bond stress for ribbed bars [N/mm²] 8.4.2
Coefficients, η
Good bond condition η1 = 1.0
Others & built in slip-form η1 = 0.7
Ø ≤ 32 mm η 2 = 1.0
Ø > 32 mm η 2 = 1.32 − φ 100
Anchorage F Basic anchorage length [mm] 8.4.3

length lb,rqd =
π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd
Ø ≤ 16mm : r ≥ 4Ø
Ø > 16mm : r ≥ 7Ø
cd = min {a 2; c; c1 } Edge distance and spacing 8.4.4
Design anchorage length [mm]

Bent bars:
lb,eq = α 1 ⋅ lb ,rqd
Effect of the form of bars, α1: Table 8.2
cd < 3Ø α 1 = 1.0
cd ≥ 3Ø α 1 = 0.7
Straight bars:
lb,eq = α 2 ⋅ lb ,rqd
α 2 = 1 − 0.15 ( cd − φ ) φ
U bars:
lb,eq = 0.7 ⋅ lb ,rqd
Design Tension
resistance Fbt,Rd = π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd ⋅ lb ,eq α Design bonding tensile resistance [N] 8.4.3
Bearing shear
Fbv,Rd = φ 2 f yk γ s ⋅ f ck γ c Design bearing shear resistance [N] 8.6
52 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES TIMBER DESIGN
I-7 TIMBER DESIGN
7.1 Strength grade
7.1.1 Solid timber
A timber population may be assigned to a strength class if its characteristic values of bending strength and
density equal or exceed the values for that strength class, and its characteristic mean modulus of elasticity in
bending equals or exceeds 95 % of the value for that strength class.
Strength grading of solid timber can be achieved in one of two ways:
Visual method: EN 14081-1.
Machine method: EN 14081-1, EN 14081-2, EN 14081-3 & EN 14081-4.
The characteristic values are defined as the population 5th-percentile values obtained from the results of
tests with a duration of approximately 5 min at the equilibrium moisture content of the test pieces relating to a
temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%.
Timber strength class – Characteristic values EN 338:2009 Table 1
Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Tension Compression Shear
class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2 2
[kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
ρk ρmean E0,mean E0,05 E90,mean Gmean fmean,k* ft,0,k* ft,90,k fc,0,k fc,90,k fv,k
Softwood
1.2ρk - 0.67E0,m E0,m/30 E0,m/16 - 0.6fm,k 0.4 5fm,k0.45 0.007ρk -
(Conifer)
C14 290 350 7 000 4 700 230 440 14 8 0.4 16 2.0 3.0
C16 310 370 8 000 5 400 270 500 16 10 0.4 17 2.2 3.2
C18 320 380 9 000 6 000 300 560 18 11 0.4 18 2.2 3.4
C20 330 390 9 500 6 400 320 590 20 12 0.4 19 2.3 3.6
C22 340 410 10 000 6 700 330 630 22 13 0.4 20 2.4 3.8
C24 350 420 11 000 7 400 370 690 24 14 0.4 21 2.5 4
C27 370 450 11 500 7 700 380 720 27 16 0.4 22 2.6 4
C30 380 460 12 000 8 000 400 750 30 18 0.4 23 2.7 4
C35 400 480 13 000 8 700 430 810 35 21 0.4 25 2.8 4
C40 420 500 14 000 9 400 470 880 40 24 0.4 26 2.9 4
C45 440 520 15 000 10 000 500 940 45 27 0.4 27 3.1 4
C50 460 550 16 000 10 700 530 1000 50 30 0.4 29 3.2 4
Hardwood
1.2ρk - 0.84E0,m E0,m/15 E0,m/16 - 0.6fm,k 0.6 5fm,k0.45 0.015ρk -
(Deciduous)
D18 475 570 9500 8000 630 590 18 11 0,6 18 7.5 3.4
D24 485 580 10000 8500 670 620 24 14 0,6 21 7.8 4
D30 530 640 11000 9200 730 690 30 18 0,6 23 8.0 4
D35 540 650 12000 10100 800 750 35 21 0,6 25 8.1 4
D40 550 660 13000 10900 860 810 40 24 0,6 26 8.3 4
D50 620 750 14000 11800 930 880 50 30 0,6 29 9.3 4
D60 700 840 17000 14300 1130 1060 60 36 0,6 32 10.5 4.5
D70 900 1080 20000 16800 1330 1250 70 42 0,6 34 13.5 5
Note: * For rectangular solid timber, the reference depth in bending or width (max. dim.) in tension is 150 mm. For
depths in bending or widths in tension less than 150 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased
by the factor k h , given in section 0.
B B
PART 1 EUROCODE 53
TIMBER DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
7.1.2 Glulam
A glued laminated member can be assigned to one of the strength classes if its characteristic bending
strength and modulus of elasticity, derived from tests in accordance with EN 408 and EN 1193, equal or
exceed the values for that strength class.
It is assumed that bending specimens have a depth h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. It is assumed
that tension specimens have a width h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. If the cross-section dimensions
are lower than these reference values, the test results shall be multiplied by:
0 ,05 0 ,1
 b   h 
k size =    600 
 150   
Glulam strength class – Characteristic values EN 1194:1999 Tables 1, 2 & A.1
Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Tension Compression Shear
class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2 2
[kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
*
ρg,k E0,g,mean E0,g,0.05 E90,g,m Gg,mean fm,g,k* ft,0,g,k ft,90,g,k fc,0,g,k fc,90,g,k fv,g,k
Homogene 7.0 + 5.0 + 0.2 +

1.1ρl,k 1.05E0,l,m 0.85E0,l,m 0.035E0,l,m 0.065E0,l,m 7.2ft,0,l,k0.45 0.7ft,0,l,k0.45 0.32ft,0,l,k0.8
ous 1.15ft,0,l,k 0.8ft,0,l,k 0.015ft,0,l,k
GL 24h 380 11 600 9 400 390 720 24 16.5 0.4 24 2.7 2.7
GL 28h 410 12 600 10 200 420 780 28 19.5 0.45 26.5 3.0 3.2
GL 32h 430 13 700 11 100 460 850 32 22.5 0.5 29 3.3 3.8
GL 36h 450 14 700 11 900 490 910 36 26 0.6 31 3.6 4.3

7.0 + 5.0 + 0.2 +
Combined 1.1ρl,k 1.05E0,l,m 0.85E0,l,m 0.035E0,l,m 0.065E0,l,m
1.15ft,0,l,k 0.8ft,0,l,k 0.015ft,0,l,k
7.2ft,0,l,k0.45 0.7ft,0,l,k0.45 0.32ft,0,l,k0.8
GL 24c 350 11 600 9 400 320 590 24 14 0.35 21 2.4 2.2
GL 28c 380 12 600 10 200 390 720 28 16.5 0.4 24 2.7 2.7
GL 32c 410 13 700 11 100 420 780 32 19.5 0.45 26.5 3.0 3.2
GL 36c 430 14 700 11 900 460 850 36 22.5 0.5 29 3.3 3.8
Note: * For rectangular glued laminated timber, the reference depth in bending or width in tension is 600 mm. For
depths in bending or widths in tension less than 600 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased
by the factor k h , given in section 0.
B B
7.2 Service class

The service class system is mainly aimed at assigning strength values and for calculating deformations under
defined environmental conditions.
Service classes EN 1995-1-1:2008 Cl. 2.3.1.3
Service Examples Characterised by moisture content EMC = Maximum equilibrium
class acc. to UK NA Table NA.2 corresponding to a temperature of 20°C… moisture content for most
softwoods
…and the relative humidity of the
Warm roofs, intermediate
1 surrounding air only exceeding 65 % for ≤ 12 %
floors, internal walls
few weeks per year
Cold roofs, ground floors,
…and the relative humidity of the
external walls, external
2 surrounding air only exceeding 85 % for ≤ 20 %
member protected from
few weeks per year
weather
External member fully Conditions leading to higher moisture
3 > 20 %
exposed contents than service class 2
54 PART 1 EUROCODE
7.3 Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL
7.3.1 Serviceability
Deflection EN 1995-1-1:2008
Stiffness* E mean Modulus of elasticity [N/mm²] 2.3.2.2
Gmean Modulus of rigidity [N/mm²]
Deflection u fin = u fin,G + u fin,Q1 + + u fin,Qi Total final deformation [mm] 2.2.3
where:
(
u fin,G = uinst,G 1 + k def ) Final deformation due to permanent action [mm]
(
u fin,Q1 = uinst,Q1 1 + ψ 2 ,1 kdef ) Final deformation due to leading variable action [mm]
u fin,Qi = uinst,Qi (ψ 0 ,i + ψ 2 ,i kdef ) Final deformation due to accompanying variable action
Deformation factor, kdef [mm]
Service Table 3.2
Material
class
kdef Deformation modification factor
Solid, 1 0.6
Gluelam 2 0.8
and LVL 3 2.0
Note: * The moduli given in clause 2.3.2.2 are used only for structure with different materials (i.e. different creep).
7.3.2 Ultimate limit state

Stiffness E mean Gmean Mean value of modulus of elasticity & 2.4.1
Ed = ; Gd =
γM γM shear modulus
Resistance Rk Design resistance 2.4.3

Rd = k mod
γM
Material safety factor, γM:
Material γM Material factor Table 2.3
Solid timber 1.3
Glued laminated timber 1.25
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) 1.2
Connections 1.3
Modification factor, kmod: Table 3.1
kmod
Load-duration class Example Service class
1&2 3
Permanent: > 10 yrs self-weight 0.6 0.5
Long term: 0.5-10 yrs storage 0.7 0.55
Medium: 1 wk-6 mos imposed floor 0.8 0.65
Short term: < 1 wk snow, aintenance 0.9 0.7
Instantaneous wind, impact, explosion 1.1 0.9
PART 1 EUROCODE 55
TIMBER DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES

Tension N t,Rd = A· f t ,d Design tension resistance [N]
Parallel to grain
f t ,0 ,k Criteria for design tension stress parallel 6.1.2
2
f t ,0 ,d = k h ⋅ k mod to grain[N/mm ]
γM
3.2,
Depth factor, kh: Depth factor: 3.3,
Material Criteria kh 3.4
Solid h < 150 mm ( 150 h )0.2 ≤ 1.3 h = maximum dimension
Glulam h < 600 mm ( 600 h )0.1 ≤ 1.1

LVL L ≠ 3000 mm ( 3000 l ) s 2 ≤ 1.1
Perpendicular to grain 6.1.3
f t ,90 ,k Criteria for design tension stress parallel
2
f t ,90 ,d = k mod to grain [N/mm ]
γM
Compression N c,Rd = A· f c ,d Design compression resistance [N]

Parallel to grain
f c ,0 ,k Criteria for design compression stress 6.1.4
2
f c ,0 ,d = k mod parallel to grain[N/mm ]
γM
Perpendicular to grain
f c,90,d = kc,90 ⋅ f c ,90 ,d Criteria for design compression stress
2
Load direction factor, kc,90: parallel to grain [N/mm ]
Support kc,90 ≤ 4.0
 l  h  6.1.5
End, a ≤ h/3  2.38 −   1+ Splitting and comp. deformation factor
 250   12l 
Intermit
End, a >h/3 1.0
tent
 l  h
Internal  2.38 − 250   1 + 6l 
   Fig. 6.2
Continu h ≤ 2.5b  l  lef

 2.38 − 250  l
ous &  
discrete lef
support h > 2.5b ;l<h
l
Fig. 6.3
N b,Rd = A· f b ,d Design comp. buckling resistance [N]

Compression buckling
12
λz = k ⋅ L Slenderness ratio [-] 6.3.2
b
λ z f c,0,k Relative slenderness ratio [-]
λrel,z =
π E0.05
1
kc ,z =
kz + k z2 2
− λrel,z
k z = 0.5  1 + β c λrel ,z − 0.3 + λrel

( 2  ) Reduction factor [-]
 ,z 
f b ,d = k z ⋅ f c ,d Compression buckling stress [N/mm²]

values of βc:
Material βc
Solid timber 0.2
Glulam & LVL 0.1
56 PART 1 EUROCODE

Shear A Design shear resistance [N]
VRd = · f v ,d
1.5
f v ,k
f v ,d = k mod Design shear stress [N/mm ]
2
6.1.7
γM
Torsion J Design torsion resistance [N] 6.1.8

TRd = τ tor ,d
r
τ tor ,d ≤ k shape ⋅ f v ,d Design torsional shear stress
2
[N/mm ]
values of τtor & kshape:
Section τ tor kshape
M tor
Circular 1.2
4π D 3
 h M h
Rectangular 3  1 + 0.6  tor2 1 + 0.15 ≤ 2.0
 b  h⋅b b
Bending M Rd = W · f m ,d Design moment resistance [N]

f m ,k 6.1.6
f m ,d = k h ⋅ k mod Design bending resistance [N/mm²]
γM
values of kh:
Allowance for redistribution of
Material Depth kh stresses and the effect of
Solid h < 150 mm ( 150 h )0.2 ≤ 1.3 inhomogeneities in a cross-section 3.2,
3.3,
Gluelam h < 600 mm ( 600 h )0.1 ≤ 1.1 3.4
Depth factor
LVL h < 300 mm ( 300 h ) s ≤ 1.2
Combined Bending and tension 6.1.6

stresses Ft ,Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed Stress redistribution factor, km:
+ + km ≤ 1.0 6.2.3
Ft ,Rd M y ,Rd M z ,Rd Section km
Rectangular 0.7
Ft ,Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed
+ km + ≤ 1.0 Others 1.0
Ft ,Rd M y ,Rd M z ,Rd
Bending and compression 6.2.4
2
 Fc ,Ed  M y,Ed M z,Ed
  + + km ≤ 1.0
 Fc ,Rd  M y ,Rd M z ,Rd
2
 Fc ,Ed  M y,Ed M z,Ed
  + k m + ≤ 1.0
 Fc ,Rd  M y ,Rd M z ,Rd
PART 1 EUROCODE 57
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES GLASS DESIGN
I-8 GLASS DESIGN

8.1 Properties
8.1.1 Glass
Mechanical properties of glass EN 572-1:2004
Form Density, Unit weight, Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ ρ modulus, E G ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 24.5 2 500 70 000 29 166 0.20 9·10
8.1.2 Interlayer
Laminated glass interlayer
Shear Modulus [N/mm²]
Interlayer Thickness [mm] Load Duration
Temp.
3s 1m 10 m 1 hr 24 h 1 mo 10 yr
PVB xx.1 xx.2 xx.3 xx.4 30°C 0.97 0.75 0.5 0.44 0.28 0.07 0.05
Polyvinyl
[mils] 15 30 45 60
Butyral
[mm] 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52 50°C 0.44 0.29 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
30°C 141 110 65* 59.9 49.7 11.6 5.31
SG [mils] 35 60 90 120 50°C 26.4 11.3 4.0* 4.0 2.82 2.18 2.0
Sentryglas [mm] 0.89 1.52 2.28 3.05
60°C 8.18 3.64 2.0* 1.7 1.29 1.08 0.97
80°C 1.32 0.83 0.4 0.32 0.25 0.21 0.18
Note: *According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016.
8.2 Glass sizes
Split sizes are delivered in size ranges 3210mm*×1000mm to 2550mm.
Jumbo sizes are delivered in sizes 3210mm*×4500mm, 5100mm or 6000mm
*The usual width is 3 210 mm. Exceptional production requirements can cause this to be reduced but the
nominal width is never below 3 150 mm
Tolerance on nominal thickness EN 572-2:2004 Table 1
Nominal thickness Tolerances Nominal thickness Tolerances
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ± 0.2 mm 15 ± 0.5 mm
6, 10, 12 ± 0.3 mm 19, 25 ± 1,0 mm
8.3 Glass holes

EN 12150-1:2000 Design rules for loaded holes:
The distance, a, of the edge of a hole to the glass edge should be not less than 2d.
The distance, b, between the edges of two holes should be not less than 2d.
The distance, c, of the edge of a hole to the cor-ner of the glass should be not less than 6d.
PART 1 EUROCODE 59
GLASS DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
8.4 Structural design of glass

8.4.1 Allowable stress design (ASD)
σ max ≤ σ allowable - Principal stress under 10 minute mean wind velocity.
Glass design acc. to TRLV TRLV:2006 Table 2

Four-side supported glass Barrier glass
†
Wind load only With climatic load combination Impact load
Form
Vertical Overhead Vertical glazing Overhead TRAV:2003
glazing glazing A ≤ 1.6m
2
A > 1.6m
2 glazing cl. 6.4.4
Annealed 18 12 22.5 20.7 13.8 80
‡
Annealed Laminated 22.5 15 (25) 28.1 25.8 17.25(28.8) 80
Float Heat strengthened 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120
Toughened with frits 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120
Toughened 50 50 62.5 57.5 57.5 170
Annealed 10 8 12.5 11.5 9.2 -
Cast
Toughened 37 37 46.2 42.5 42.5 -
†
Note: Allowable stresses, for checking under combined wind and climatic loading, can be increased by 15% in
2
general and 25% for float glass for vertical glazing having a surface area of up to 1.6m .
‡
Value in bracket is for the upper ply of the laminated lower pane at the event of upper pane breakage.
8.4.2 Design according to DIN 18008: Limit state design (LRFD)
Glass design acc. to DIN 18008 Leichtbau und Glasbau S-5-01/2007
Design σ Ed ≤ σ Rd
2
σ Ed { Fd } = ∑ γ G ; j Gk ; j + γ Q ;1Qk ;1 + ∑ γ Q ;iψ 0 ;1Qk ;i Design stress, [N/mm ]
Resistance Annealed glass (AN):

2
k ⋅f Design stress resistance, [N/mm ]
σ Rd = mod k
γM
Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG): values of kmod & γM:
f Short-term load (wind) kmod = 0.7 γ
σ Rd = k
γM Medium and long-term load
kmod = 0.4 γ
(dead, snow, climatic load)
Design stress resistance under load combination

2
Design stress resistance, fRd [N/mm ]
Characteristic
With short-duration load
bending tensile No
Float glass Four-side
stress, short-duration
fk [N/mm ]
2
load General supported
vertical glass
Annealed 45 10 17.5 28.64
Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit 45 30 30 40.91
Monlithic
Heat strengthened 70 46.67 46.67 63.64

Toughened with ceramic frit 75 50 50 68.18
Toughened 120 80 80 109.10
Annealed, edge under tension 36 8.8 15.4 -
Annealed 45 11 19.25 31.5
Laminated
Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit 45 33 33 45

Heat strengthened 70 51.33 51.33 70
Toughened with ceramic frit 75 55 55 75
Toughened 120 88 88 120
60 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.4.3 Design acc. to prEN 13474

Glass design to Eurocode prEN 13474-1:1999
Design f g,d [SLS] Calculated unfactored stresses
σ ef,k ≤ f g,d [ULS] or FS [N/mm²]
Resistance fg,k = 45 N/mm2 Generic strength of glass 6.3.1
k A = A0.04 Size factor 6.3.5
Annealed glass (AN):
2
k mod ⋅ f g,k ⋅ γ n Design stress resistance, [N/mm ] 6.3.6
f g,d = ; γn = 1.0 National partial safety factor Table A.1
γ mkA
Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG):
 f b,k − f g,k kmod ⋅ f g,k  Modification factor according to
f g,d =  + γ
 γv γ m k A  n the duration of the dominant action
values of kmod: Table 6
Duration of load Load kmod
Short wind 0.72
Medium snow, climate 0.36
Permanent Selfweight, altitude 0.27
values of γm: Table 5
γm γv
Heat strengthened, Chemically
Glass All
thermally toughened strengthened
ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS SLS
Float and sheet 1.8 1.0 2.3 1.5 2.3 1.5
Enamelled float 1.8 1.0 2.3 1.5 - -
Patterned 2.3 1.3 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0
Enamelled patterned 2.3 1.3 3.0 2.0 - -
Polished wired 2.3 1.3 - - - -
Patterned wired 3.2 1.8 - - - -
Borosilicate glass 1.8 1.0 2.3 1.5 - -
Glass ceramics 1.8 1.0 - - - -
values of fb,k:
Table 4
Heat Thermally Chemically
Glass
strengthened toughened strengthened
Float and sheet 70 120 150
Enamelled float 45 75 -
Patterned 55 90 150
Enamelled patterned 45 75 -
Borosilicate glass - 120 -
2
Allowable stress for panes up to 4.0 m area (kA = 1.057). prEN 13474-2:2000 Table 2
2
Glass Allowable stress for uniformly distributed load, fg,d [N/mm ]*
Short duration loads Medium duration Permanent loads
Type Process (Wind) (Snow, climate) (Selfweight, altitude)
ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS SLS
Annealed (AN) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5
Float and Heat strengthened (HS) 27.9 47.3 19.4 32.0 17.3 28.2
sheet Thermally toughened (FT) 49.6 80.7 41.1 65.3 39.0 61.5
Chemically strengthened (CS) 62.7 100.7 54.2 85.3 52.0 81.5
Heat strengthened (HS) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5
Enamelled
Thermally toughened (FT) 30.1 50.7 21.6 35.3 19.4 31.5
Note: * SLS values have to be reduced by appropriate safety factors.
PART 1 EUROCODE 61
8.4.4 Design of single glass
Design of Single Glass prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E
Data a, b Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm]
Fd, Fk 2
Design and characteristic load, [kN/m ]
Monolithic hef,σ = hef,w = h Effective glass thickness, [mm]
Laminated Shear transfer coefficient, Γ =0:

glass Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of Table F.1
h3 ∑ i
individual pane, [mm]
i
hef ,σ j =
hj F.2
Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation,
hef ,w = 3 ∑ hi 3 [mm]
i
Laminated Short duration loads, Γ =1: Effective glass thickness with full composite action,
safety glass hef,σ = hef,w = Σ(hi) [mm]
Other loads, Γ =0:
∑ hi 3 Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of
i individual pane, [mm]
hef ,σ j =
hj Table F.1
Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation,
hef ,w = 3 ∑ hi 3 [mm] F.2
i
Load combinations**
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress criteria
Vertical glazing
1.5W W
1. 5(W + 0.7L) (W + 0.7L) σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
1.5L L
Sloped glazing
1.35D D σ ef ≤ f g ,d (permanent )
1.35D + 1.5(S + *0.6Wp) D + (S + *0.6Wp) σ ef ≤ f g ,d (medium duration)
1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.5S) D + (Wp + 0.5S)

1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.7L) D + (Wp + 0.7L)
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
1.35D + 1.5(L + *0.6Wp) D + (L + *0.6Wp)
D + 1.5Ws D + Ws
Note: **Load combinations are according to EN 1990. Factors in prEN 13474 are according to the obsolete draft
ENV 1991-1.
*0.5W p acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1
62 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.4.5 Design of IGU

Design of Insulated Glass Unit prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E
Data h1, h2 Glass thickness, [mm]
Insulating h1 3
glass δ1 = Stiffness of outer pane 1, [-] 8.3.1

h1 + h2 3
3
h2 3 Stiffness of inner pane 2, [-]

δ2 =
h1 3 + h2 3
0.25
 
s ⋅ h1 3 h2 3 Characteristic length of the unit, [mm] 8.3.2
a* = 28.9  
k h 3 + h 3 
 5 1 ( 2 ) 
1 Insulating unit factor, [-]
φ= 4
 a 
1+  
 a* 
Vertical glazing
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress criteria Remarks
Design of outer pane 1:
1.5Wp(δ1+φδ2) Wp(δ1+φδ2) - φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5Ws(δ1+φδ2) Ws(δ1+φδ2) + φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5[Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0.7L] [Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Live load on outer pane
1.5L L - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Design of inner pane 2:
1.5Wp(1-φ)δ2 Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 + φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5Ws(1-φ)δ2 Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5[Ws(1-φ)δ2 + 0.7L] [Ws(1-φ)δ2 +0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Live load on inner pane
1.5L L - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Note: Net wind load is assumed acting on the outer pane only (i.e., including internal pressure).
Sloped glazing
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress
Design of outer pane 1:
1.35D1(δ1+φδ2) +1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 D1(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (permanent )
[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+S+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (medium)
[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+Wp+0.5S)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+Wp+0.7L)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
f g ,d (short)
[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+L+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
(D1+1.5Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + 1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1+ φ(pH +0.9pC)
Design of inner pane 2:
1.35D1(1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) D1(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (permanent )
[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+S+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2 +D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (medium)
[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+Wp+0.5S)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)] (1-φ)δ2 +1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+Wp+0.7L)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)
f g ,d (short)
[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+L+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)
(D1+1.5Ws) (1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+Ws)(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC)
PART 1 EUROCODE 63
8.5 Glass stress and deflection

Calculation of glass stress and deflection and cavity volume change prEN 13474-2:2000
Data a, b Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm]
Fd 2
Design load, [kN/m ]
Stress and λ = a/b Aspect ratio, [-] B.1
deflection a 4 Fd
p* =
hef 4 E Normalised load, [-]
a2 Maximum tensile stress, [N/mm ]

2
σ max = k1 2
Fd
hef ,σ
a2 2
σ ef = k 2 2
Fd Effective glass stress, [N/mm ]
hef ,σ
a4 Fd
w max = k 4 3 Maximum glass deflection, [mm]
hef ,w E
a 5 b Fd
V = k5 3
hef ,w 3 E Insulating glass change of cavity volume, [mm ]
8.5.1 Coefficients for two-edge supported rectangular glass

k1 = 0.75
k2 = 0.699
k4 = 0.148
8.5.2 Coefficients for three-edge supported rectangular glass
64 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.5.3 Coefficients for four-edge supported rectangular glass

The coefficients in the table below are valid for a Poisson number in the range 0.20 to 0.24. For small
deflections (linear theory) the values for p* = 0 apply.
Figure 8.5-1 Calculation of maximum stress, k1 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.1
Figure 8.5-2 Calculation of effective stress, k2 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.2
PART 1 EUROCODE 65
Figure 8.5-3 Calculation of maximum deflection, k4 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.3
Figure 8.5-4 Calculation of volume change, k5 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.4
66 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.6 Climatic effects

8.6.1 IGU Internal actions
Insulating glass TRLV:2006
2
Data W Wind load [kN/m ]
c1 = 0.34 kPa/°K Thermal unit pressure
∆T Temperature difference from glass production to site [°K]
c2 = 0.012 kPa/m Altitude unit pressure
∆H
Altitude difference from glass production to site [m]
Glass production altitudes:
Producer Location Altitude
Sunglass (Guardian) Villafranca, Italy + 20 m
Polypane (Guardian) Temse, Belgium + 23 m
Interpane (AGC) Lauenförde, GErmany + 98 m
Schöllglas Nossen, Germany + 273 m
Isochoric p0 = c1 ⋅ ∆T − ∆ pmet + c2 ⋅ ∆ H
pressure
Recommended isochoric pressure TRLV:2006 Table 1 & Annex B1

Condition Site Production Isochore
pressure
Temp. pmet Temp. pmet ∆T ∆pmet ∆H p0
2 2
[°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ] [°C]
2
[kN/m ] [m]
2
[kN/m ]
Summer Glass absorptance ≤ 30% +39 101 +19 103 +20 -2 +600 +16.0
30% < absorptance ≤ 50% +48 +29 +19.0
absorptance > 50% +57 +38 +22.0
Internal sunscreen (ventilated) +48 +29 +19.0
Internal sunscreen (non-ventilated) +57 +38 +22.0
Shadow box panel +74 +55 +28.0
Winter Heated building +2 103 +27 99 -25 +4 -300 -16.0
Unheated building -10 -37 -20.0
Recommended isochoric pressure* prEN 13474-1:1999 Table 1 & Table B.1

2
Condition Site Production Climatic Altitude action pH,0 [kN/m ]
action
Temp. Met. pressure Temp. Met. Pressure ∆T ∆pmet pC,0 Site altitude Site altitude
2 2
[°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ] [°C]
2
[kN/m ] [kN/m
2
] ≤ 400m ≤ 700m
Summer +45 100 +18 103 +27 -3 +12.0 +3.6 +8.4
Winter +3 104 +30 98 -27 +6 -15.0 -3.6 -8.4

Note:
*These recommendations can be used when exact values of internal loads cannot be determined provided that:
1) The IGU is manufactured from clear glass or has an overall absorptance not exceeding 35%;
2) Heat build up by other structure elements or sun protection devices is prevented; and
3) If the altitude of the place of production (final sealing) is unknown.
PART 1 EUROCODE 67
8.6.2 Thermal stress/shock

Glass can break as a result of excessive thermal stress. Thermally induced stress within a pane of glass
results from a temperature differential between two areas of the pane. For instance, in hot weather, the
centre of the glass warms up faster than the edge, because the edge is within the glazing rebate and shaded
from direct solar radiation. Assuming the area of glass within the frame is insignificant compared with that
exposed to solar radiation, as the centre of the pane expands due to the increase in temperature, the edge
will be forced to expand by a similar amount inducing a tensile stress.
Thermal induced stress
Action Values Notes
Data L Glass original length [mm]
E 2
Glass modulus of elasticity [N/mm ]
α Glass coefficient of thermal expansion [-]
∆T Temperature difference between the edge and centre of the pane [°K]
Thermal ∆L = α ·L·∆T Expansion of glass [mm]

2
stress σT = (∆L/L)·E Induced stress [N/mm ]
68 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.7 Structural silicone glazing (SSG)

Properties of structural sealant ETAG 002-1:2001
Sealant Elastic Shear Allow. Short term load Long term load, γc = 10
modulus* modulus* strain
Tension, Shear, Tension, Shear,
†
E0 G0 ε σdes Γdes σ∞ Γ∞
2 2 2 2 2 2
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [%] [kN/m ] [kN/m ] [kN/m ] [kN/m ]
Structural Two- Sika SG 500 140 105 14 10.5

glazing part
DC 993 0.47 10 140 110 14 11.0
One- Sika SG 20 1.05 0.35 12.5 170 128 17 12.8

part
DC 995 15
Sika SG 18 12.5 170 95 17 9.5
DC 895
Insulating Two- Sika IG 25 140 101 14 10.1

glass part
Sika IG 25H 150 83 15 8.3
DC 3362
One- Sika IG 16
part
DC 3793
Note: * Modulus tangential to the origin.
†
Design stress is based on the Ru,5 value with a safety factor of 6. The Ru,5 value is the probability at 75% that
95% of the population will have a breaking strength above this value.
8.7.1 Types of SSG
Type 1: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to
the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The
structural seal transfers all other actions. Devices are used
to reduce danger in the event of a bond failure.
Type II: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to
the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The
structural seal transfers all other actions and no devices are
used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure.
Type III: The structural seal transfers all actions including
the self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and
thence to the structure. Devices are used to reduce danger
in the event of a bond failure.
Type IV: The structural seal transfers all actions, including
self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and
thence to the structure. No devices are used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure.
EN 13022-1:2006 Retaining devices may be required by national regulations. SSGS types III & IV may be
forbidden by national regulation for laminated glass and laminated safety glass.
ETAG 002-1:2001 Types III and IV SSGS are only applicable for single glass units. For insulating glass units
or laminated glass, each pane of glass must be supported (type I or II).
PART 1 EUROCODE 69
8.7.2 Structural silicone design (ASD)

Structural glazing ETAG 002-1:2001
Data b, h Glass width and height [m]
2
γg Unit weight of glass [kN/m ]
W 2
Wind load [kN/m ]
ε Allowable strain [%]
Types I, II & III Structural bite
Supported min {b; h} ⋅ W Structural bite, minimum [mm] A2.3.1
system hc ≥ ≥ 6mm
2σ des
Sealant thickness
1 2 Expansion length [mm] A2.3.2
S = b + 4h 2
2
∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0  S Differential expansion [mm]
( ) ( )
values of α & ∆T: 4.4.4.1
α Condition Tf,g – T0 [°C] Coefficient of thermal expansion of
[/°K] ETAG SIKA frame and glass
-6
Alu. 24·10 Internal 55 - 20
-6
Temperature difference
Steel 12·10
-6 Exposed 80 - 20 60
S/S 16·10
-6
Glass 9·10 Clear 55 - 20 30
Opaque 100 - 20 -
 ∆ ⋅ G ∆S  Sealant thickness, minimum [mm]
e ≥ min  S ; ; 6mm 
 Γ des
2
2ε + ε 
IGU hermetic seal* Seal height in non-stepped IGU [mm] A2.3.4
min {b; h} ⋅ W
r ≥ ⋅ β ≥ 6mm
2 σ des
values of β:
Glass thickness β
do ≤ di 0.5
do ≤ di 1.0
Type IV Structural bite

Unsupported b ⋅γ g Structural bite, minimum [mm] A2.4.3
system hc ,min = ≥ 6mm
2 Γ∞
Sealant thickness
1 2 Expansion length [mm] A2.4.2
S = b + h2
2
∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0  S Differential expansion [mm]
( ) ( )
 ∆ ⋅ G ∆S  Sealant thickness, minimum [mm] A2.4.1
e ≥ min  S ; ; 6mm 
 Γ des 2ε + ε 2

Relationship e ≤ hc ≤ 3 ⋅ e A2.3.3
Note: * For small units or non-rectangular shapes climatical effects must be taken into account.
70 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.8 Safety glass TRAV Requirements

8.8.1 Categories [TRAV:2003 cl.6.2.2 & Appendix A]
Category A (VSG or ESG) Category B (VSG only)

Pendulum height = 900mm Impact area Pendulum height = 700mm
Category C1 (VSG or ESG) Category C2 (VSG or ESG) Category C3 (VSG or ESG)

Pendulum height = 450mm Pendulum height = 450mm
8.8.2 Balustrade construction (Category B)

Handrail design features
Cl. 5.5.1 - The continuous handrail should be attached to the glass in such a manner
that, should a glass panel fracture, the handrail will remain in position and will not fail if
the design load is applied across the resulting gap, transferring the loads to adjacent
glass panes, end posts or anchorage to building.
- Handrail with structural or non-structural capping integrated with structural U-profile
- Prevent glass-to-metal contact by inserting u-profile non-flammable elastomeric strip
(distance 200 to 300 mm)
- Filler in the gap between the handrail u-profile and glass shall be sealant in
accordance with DIN 18545-2 Group E
- Glass rebate in the u-profile ≥ 15 mm
Support design features
- Clamping height ≥ 100 mm
- Clamping steel plate ≥ 12 mm
- Clamping fastener spacing ≤ 300 mm
- Setting block at the bottom of glass
- Bush sleeve around fasteners
- Glass holes (25 to 35 mm) centred to the clamping plate
- Non-compressible elastomer filler along the glass-to-metal contacts
- The clamping may also be rigidly fixed to the supporting structure.
PART 1 EUROCODE 71
8.8.3 Balustrades - Free-standing balustrades or juliet balconies

Deflection of free-standing glass balustrade is limited to L/100 or 15 mm, whichever is smaller in relation to
TRLV:2006. Glass design tensile stress resistances in accordance with DIN 18008.
Barrier loads are combined with half wind loads in accordance with TRAV:2003 cl. 4.2.
Maximum cantilever height of barrier [m] TRAV:2003
Barrier load ( ≤ 10 min. duration load)
Glass Barrier[kN/m] 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0
Wind [kN/m²] ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0
Laminated glass with PVB interlayer (G = 0.5 N/mm² @ 30°C)*
12.76 mm HS 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.57 0.52 0.48
6/0.76/6 FT 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.63 0.63 0.63
17.52 mm AN 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.21 0.21 0.20
8/1.52/8 HS 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.81 0.81 0.79
FT " " " " " 0.80
21.52 mm AN 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.33 0.75 - - -
10/1.52/10 HS 1.14 1.13 1.13 1.04 1.03 1.03 0.72 0.67 0.64
FT " " " " " " 0.77 0.76 0.76
25.52 mm AN 0.66 0.59 0.54 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.24 0.24 0.23 - - -
12/1.52/12 HS 1.39 1.38 1.37 1.27 1.26 1.25 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.66 0.63 0.60
FT " " " " " " " " " 0.79 0.79 0.78
31.52 mm AN 1.08 0.92 0.82 0.86 0.76 0.69 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.25 0.25 0.24
15/1.52/15 HS 1.78 1.76 1.74 1.62 1.61 1.60 1.20 1.20 1.19 1.01 1.01 1.00
FT " " " " " " " " " “ “ “
Laminated glass with Sentryglas interlayer (G = 65.0 N/mm² @ 30°C)*
17.52 mm AN 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.23 0.22 0.22 - - -
8/1.52/8 HS 1.19 1.18 1.18 1.11 1.10 1.09 0.78 0.74 0.71 0.54 0.52 0.51
FT " " “ " " 1.10 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.77 0.77 0.76
21.52 mm AN 0.79 0.72 0.67 0.67 0.62 0.58 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.23 0.22 0.22
10/1.52/10 HS 1.46 1.45 1.44 1.36 1.35 1.35 1.08 1.07 1.01 0.80 0.77 0.75
FT " " " " " " “ 1.08 1.08 0.94 0.94 0.94
22.28 mm AN 0.84 0.76 0.70 0.71 0.65 0.61 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.24 0.23 0.23
10/2.28/10 HS 1.51 1.50 1.49 1.41 1.40 1.39 1.12 1.11 1.07 0.85 0.82 0.80
FT " " ” " " " “ “ 1.11 0.97 0.97 0.97
25.52 mm AN 1.06 0.95 0.87 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.33 0.33 0.32
12/1.52/12 HS 1.73 1.72 1.71 1.61 1.60 1.59 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.11 1.06 1.02
FT " " " " " " " " “ 1.12 1.12 1.12
26.28 mm) AN 1.11 0.99 0.90 0.95 0.87 0.80 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.34 0.34 0.33
12/2.28/12 HS 1.78 1.77 1.75 1.66 1.65 1.64 1.32 1.32 1.31 1.15 1.12 1.07
FT " " " " " " " " “ “ 1.15 1.15
31.52 mm AN 1.50 1.30 1.18 1.30 1.16 1.07 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.51 0.50 0.49
15/1.52/15 HS 2.14 2.12 2.10 1.99 1.93 1.93 1.59 1.58 1.58 1.39 1.39 1.38
FT " " " " " " " " “ “ “ “
31.52 mm AN 1.55 1.35 1.22 1.35 1.20 1.11 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.53 0.52 0.51
15/2.28/15 HS 2.18 2.16 2.14 2.03 2.02 2.00 1.62 1.61 1.61 1.41 1.41 1.41
FT " " " " " " " " “ “ “ “
Note: * According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016. Temperature is limited to
30°C since high temperature does not occur at the same time with maximum barrier or wind load.
72 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.9 Glass fins

8.9.1 Glass fin design
Structural Glass Fins – Dr. -Ing. Tobias Holberndt Fraunhofer-Informationszentrum Raum und Bau IRB:2006
Data H Glass fin unsupported span [mm]
d Glass fin depth [mm]
t = tef,w Glass fin effective thickness [mm]
E, G Modulii of elasticity and rigidity of glass [N/mm²]
fg,k Glass fin characteristic resistance [N/mm²]
Criteria My,d Design bending moment [kN·m] (5.2)

M y ,d (5.1)
≤ 1.0
M b ,Rd Criteria
Buckling Wel , y = t ⋅ d 2 6 Elastic section modulus of glass fin [mm³]

reduction
factor
M el , y = Wel , y ⋅ f g ,k Bending moment resistance [kN·m] (5.4)
4
I z = d ⋅ t 3 12 Moment of inertia about strong axis [mm ] (5.6)
dt  3
t t  5
4
IT =  1 − 0.63 + 0.052 5  Torsional inertia [mm ] (3.5)
3  d d 
χ = E ⋅ d 3t 3 ( 192 H 2
G ⋅ IT ) (4.2)
Reduction Wind pressure (-h/2) <<- more critical! Uniformly loaded beam:
factor k = 3.59 − 4.35 χ 0.37 Euler constant [-] (4.3)
Wind suction (+h/2)
k = 3.56 + 18.5 χ 0.58
k Critical buckling moment [kN·m] (4.1)

M cr = E ⋅ I z G ⋅ IT
H
λ LT = M el , y M cr Slenderness [-] (3.1)
for λ LT < 1.1 :

5 Moment reduction factor due to buckling [-] (5.5)
κ LT = 1 (
1 + λ LT − 0.12 ) + 0.05 λ LT
for λ LT ≥ 1.1 :
2
κ LT = 0.87 λ LT (5.5)
Buckling M el , y Buckling moment design resistance [kN·m] (5.1)

moment M b ,R d = κ LT ⋅
1.5
PART 1 EUROCODE 73
8.9.2 Glass fin design

Glass fin Fraunhofer-Informationszentrum Raum und Bau IRB:2006
LAMINATED GLASS FIN
18
16
14
12
SINGLE GLASS FIN
74 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STONE DESIGN
I-9 STONE DESIGN

9.1 Properties
9.1.1 Testing
Tests for stone panels
Test Units Test/calculation method
2
Water absorption [g/m ; %] [EN 1925; 13755]
Uniaxial compressive strength [MPa] [EN 1926]
3
Density and porosity [kg/m ; %] [EN 1936]
Frost resistance - [EN 12371]
Flexural strength under concentrated load [MPa] [EN 12372]
Flexural strength under constant moment [MPa] [EN 13161]
Breaking load at dowel hole [N] [EN 13364]
Static elastic modulus [MPa] [EN 14580]
Linear thermal expansion coefficient [/°C] [EN 14581]
9.1.2 Flexural strength test

Statistical evaluation of test result EN 13161:2001 / EN 12372:1999 Annex A
2
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [N/mm ] A.2
2
1 Logarithmic mean value [N/mm ]
xln = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i
2
sln = ±
∑  ln ( xi ) − xln  Logarithmic standard deviation [N/mm ]
2
n−1
2
Flexural strength x − k ⋅s  Lower expected value [N/mm ] Table A.1
E = e  ln s ln 
Fractile factor ks*:
Quantile or fractile factor [-]
n ks n ks
3 3.15 10 2.10
*Corresponding to 5% fractile for a
4 2.68 15 1.99 confidence level of 75%
5 2.46 20 1.93
6 2.34 30 1.87
7 2.25 40 1.83
8 2.19 50 1.81
9 2.14 ∞ 1.64
9.1.3 Tolerances
Stone tolerances EN 1469:2004
Measurement Thickness [mm] Length or width [mm] Tolerance Reference
Thickness 12 < t ≤ 30 ± 10 % Table 1
30 < t ≤ 80 ± 3 mm
t > 80 ± 5 mm
Length or width t* ≤ 50 L or b < 600 ± 1 mm Table 2
L or b ≥ 600 ± 1.5 mm
t* > 50 L or b < 600 ± 2 mm
L or b ≥ 600 ± 3 mm
Note: * Sawn edge thickness
PART 1 EUROCODE 75
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CURTAIN WALL TESTING
I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING

10.1 Testing overview
10.1.1 Curtain walling product standard [EN 13830]
Curtain wall tests BBSEN 13830:2003 Cl. 5.2.3
No Test Test/calculation method Requirement/classification
2
1 Resistance to wind load Pressure [kN/m ] [EN 12179] - [EN 13116]
2
2 Dead load Unit weight [kN/m ][EN 1991-1-1] -
3 Resistance against Internal, [EN 12600] cl.5 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 [EN 14019]
impact drop height [mm] (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950)
4 External, E0 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
drop height [mm] (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950)
5 Air permeability Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12153] A1 A2 A3 A4 AE [EN 12152]
(150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)
6 Watertightness Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12155] R4 R5 R6 R7 RE [EN 12154]
(150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)
7 Airborne sound insulation Rw [dB] [EN ISO 140-3] - [EN ISO 717-1]
2
8 Thermal transmittance UCW [W/m K] [EN 13947] -
9 Fire resistance E [min] [EN 13501-2] E15 E30 E60 E90
10 Integrity and insulation EI [min] EI15 EI30 EI60 EI90
11 Equipotentiality Ω [EN 13830] A -
12 Resistance to horizontal Force at height [EN 1991-1-1] -
loads [kN @ m]
10.1.2 Windows and doors performance tests

Door and window tests EN 14351-1:2005
Test/calculation method Requirement/classification
Test
Window External pedestrian door Window External pedestrian door
Resistance to wind load EN 12211 EN 12210
Reaction to fire EN 13501-1 - EN 13501-1 -
External fire performance EN 1187 - EN 13501-5 -
Watertightness EN 1027 EN 12208
Impact resistance EN 13049 EN 13049
Resistance to static torsion EN 14609 EN 948 -
Acoustic performance EN ISO 140-3; EN ISO 717-1 -
Thermal transmittance EN ISO 10077-1; EN ISO 12567 -
Air permeability EN 1026 EN 12207
Operating forces EN 12046-1 EN 12046-2 EN 13115 EN 12217
Mechanical strength EN 947; EN 948;
EN 14608 EN 13115 EN 1192
EN 949; EN 950
Bullet resistance EN 1523 EN 1522
Explosion resistance EN 13124-1; EN 13124-2 EN 13123-1; EN 13123-2
Resistance to repeated
EN 1191 EN 12400
opening and closing
Burglar resistance EN 1628; EN 1629; EN 1630 EN 1627
PART 1 EUROCODE 77
CURTAIN WALL TESTING STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
10.2 Weather performance tests
10.2.1 Weather performance test sequence [EN 13830]
Weather resistance tests are interdependent on each other. The following groups of tests carried out in
sequence shall be considered as a single weather test. All tests shall be carried out strictly in sequence, as
follows
Weather resistance sequence of testing BBSEN 13830:2003 cl. 5.2.3
Requirement/
Test Purpose Test method
Classification
a Air permeability for classification EN 12153 EN 12152
b Watertightness under static for classification EN 12155 EN 12154
pressure
c Resistance to wind load serviceability EN 12179 EN 13116
d Air permeability repeat to confirm wind resistance EN 12153 EN 12152
classification
e Watertightness repeat to confirm wind resistance EN 12155 EN 12154
classification
f Resistance to wind load increased wind resistance test - safety EN 12179 EN 13116
Note: Where specifically required, an additional supplementary watertightness test under dynamic wind conditions
can be carried out, in accordance with ENV 13050, on completion of test sequence a) to e).
No test in the sequence shall be carried out unless all previous tests have been passed to the acceptance
criteria.
78 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.2.2 Air permeability [EN 12153:2000]
Air permeability class BBSEN 12152:2002 Tables 1 & 2

Based on overall area [A] Based on fixed joint length [L]
Air permeability
class Maximum test pressure Air permeability Maximum test pressure Air permeability
3 2 3
Pmax [Pa] Q/A [m /h/m ] Pmax [Pa] Q/L [m /h/m]
A1 150 1.5 150 0.5
A2 300 1.5 300 0.5
A3 450 1.5 450 0.5
A4 600 1.5 600 0.5
AE > 600 1.5 > 600 0.5
3 2
Note: Specimens which leak air > 1.5 m /h/m at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified.
3 2
Specimens which leak air < 1.5 m /h/m at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional).
PART 1 EUROCODE 79
10.2.3 Watertightness [EN 12155:2000]
Water tightness BBSEN EN 12154:2000 Tables 1 & 2

Class Maximum test pressure Pressure steps and test duration Water spray rate
2
Pmax [Pa] P/T [Pascal/minutes] [li/min/m ]
R4 150 0/15; 50/15; 100/5; 150/5 2
R5 300 (as in R4); 300/5 2
R6 450 (as in R5); 450/5 2
R7 600 (as in R6); 600/5 2
RE xxx > 600 (as in R7); +150 Pa steps for 5 minutes duration 2
Note: Specimens with water leakage at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified.
Specimens without water leakage at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional).
For class RE xxx the exceptional test pressure should be taken as a minimum of 0.25 of the design wind
pressure (where design wind pressure is > 2400 Pa)
80 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.2.4 Resistance to wind load [EN 12179:2000]
Resistance to wind load BBSEN EN 13116:2001 Cl. 4

Performance Requirements
under
Design load The frontal deflection shall not exceed 1/200 of the span of the framing member, measured
- both positive and between points of structural support, or 15 mm whichever is less
negative pressure
The frontal deflection shall be temporary deformation only, and shall recover after the removal
of load by a minimum of 95% within a time period of 1 h.
Frontal displacement of fixings of framing members at their connections to the building structure
or other structural components shall be limited to less than 1 mm and this shall be allowed as
residual deformation. This limit shall be taken from an assessed neutral position.
The positive difference between the air permeability measured at maximum pressure in the first
3 2 3
and second tests, should not differ by more than 0.3 m /h/m (0.3 m /h/m length of joint).
Increased load No permanent damage shall occur to framing members, infil panels, opening units, fasteners or
- both positive and anchors.
negative pressure
Panels, glazing beads and decorative capping pieces shall remain securely held and gaskets
shall not be displaced.
If a pane of glass breaks during the increased load test, then it may be replaced and the test
continued only if, following close examination, the cause of breakage is not attributable to any
fault in the glazing technique or the supporting frame.
PART 1 EUROCODE 81
10.3 Impact resistance tests
10.3.1 Framing - Impact resistance [EN 14019:2004]
Its criteria is targeted to safety in use and integrity of curtain wall in the
event of sudden impact forces on the curtain wall surfaces.
It applies to those areas of curtain walling which face onto areas of
human activity, either internally or externally and takes account of
accidental impacts brought on by people going about their normal daily
activities and impacts brought about by equipment and similar devices
for maintenance, cleaning, repair and similar occasional activities.
The specimen shall be tested in accordance with EN 13049 with one
impact for any single position.
Impact loads normal to the plane of the curtain wall are to be applied in
the following positions:
1. Centre mullion height between fixings (external only).
2. Centre width (external, internal at sill height).
3. Crossing mullion and transoms.
4. Centre of spandrel unit.
Glass products used as or incorporated in infill components shall be assessed in accordance with EN 12600.
Impact classification BBSEN EN 14019 :2004 Tables 1 & 2
Internal impact External impact Requirements
Class Drop height Class Drop height
[mm] [mm]
I0 Not applicable E0 Not applicable The curtain wall shall safely absorb the impact loads and shall
retain its integrity in fulfilling the following criteria :
I1 200 E1 200
a) no parts shall fall down;
I2 300 E2 300 b) any holing shall not occur;
c) any breakage shall not occur;
I3 450 E3 450
d) any infilling panel shall remain in its position and come off
I4 700 E4 700 only when removed;
e) any permanent deformation of curtain wall component shall
I5 950 E5 950 be accepted.
10.3.2 Windows - Soft and heavy body impact resistance [EN 13049]
The test applies to all infill of whatever materials including glass. It is intended to assess the interactions
between all components of a window with particular regard to safety in use.
The impactor as specified in EN 12600 shall be mounted on a horizontal or vertical axis, as best befits the
requirements of access to the impact point.
Tests shall be performed separately, one impact on each test specimen. Select, e.g. by means of pre-tests or
calculations, the most dangerous impact point to strike the following:
the centre of the infill or
a corner of the infill or
the centre of the longest edge of the largest area of the infill.
Impact level/drop heights BBSEN EN 13049:2003 Table 1
Class Drop height [mm] Requirements
1 200 a) Any opening shall not allow the ellipsoid, as specified in ENV 1630, to pass;
2 300
b) The impact shall not detach or dislodge any casement or sash of the test
3 450 specimen nor disconnect any hardware or infill retaining components, nor shall any
of its composite parts become dislodged or shattered in a dangerous manner;
4 700
5 950 c) The mass of any dislodged part shall not exceed 50 g.
82 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.3.3 Glass - Pendulum impact test [EN 12600:2002]
The test shall be carried out at each drop height on four
pieces 876mm×1938mm of identical structure and the
same nominal thickness.
For asymmetric materials that are intended for
installation where the risk of impact is from both sides,
carry out the test on both sides.
Performance classification:
Classification α (β) Φ
α - highest drop height class at which the product either
did not break or broke in accordance with a) or b) of
clause 4 requirements
β - mode of breakage;
Φ - highest drop height class at which the product either
did not break or when broke, broke in accordance with
a) of clause 4 requirements.
When a glass product breaks at a drop height of 190 mm and the breakage is not in accordance with a) of
clause 4 requirements then the value of Φ quoted shall be zero.
Drop height class BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Table 1, Cl. 4 & 6.2
Class Drop height Clause 4 Requirements
[mm]
Each test piece shall either not break or shall break as defined in one of the following ways:
3 190 a) Numerous cracks appear, but no shear or opening is allowed within the test piece
through which a 76 mm diameter sphere can pass when a maximum force of 25 N is
applied (Annex A). Additionally, if particles are detached from the test piece up to 3 min
2
after impact, they shall, in total, weigh no more than a mass equivalent to 10 000 mm of
2 450
the original test piece. The largest single particle shall weigh less than the mass equivalent
2
to 4 400 mm of the original test piece;
b) Disintegration occurs and the 10 largest crack-free particles* collected within 3 min after
1 1200 impact and weighed, all together, within 5 min of impact shall weigh no more than the mass
equivalent to 6 500 mm² of the original test piece.
Note: *The particles shall be selected only from the portion of the original test piece exposed in the test frame. Only
the exposed area of any particle retained in the test frame shall be taken into account in determining the mass
equivalent.
Mode of breakage BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Cl. 6.3; Annex C
Type Mode of breakage Typical breakage
Numerous cracks appear forming - Annealed glass (EN 572-1)
A separate fragments with sharp edges, - Heat strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 1863-1)
some of which are large - Chemically strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 12337-1)
Numerous cracks appear, but the - Laminated safety glass (EN ISO 12543-1)
B fragments hold together and do not - Wired glass (EN 572-1), polished wired glass (EN 572-3)
separate - Film backed annealed glass
Disintegration occurs, leading to a - Thermally toughened soda lime silicate safety glass (EN 12150-1)
C large number of small particles that
are relatively harmless
• Sphere penetration test [EN 12600]

The probe assembly has a 76 ± 1 mm diameter sphere with a force
measuring device. It is pushed horizontally into any opening formed in
the test piece. The weakest point of resistance shall be selected.
The requirement is to achieve a maximum force of 25 N without
penetration by the sphere.
PART 1 EUROCODE 83
10.4 Glass safety tests
Sample glass classifications EN 12600 :2002 & EN 356:2000
Laminated glass EN 12600 (Impact safety) EN 356 (Manual Attack)
(PVB) Class* Drop height [mm] Class Height [mm] Number of throws**
33.1 = 6.38mm 2(B)2 450 -
44.1 = 8.38mm
55.1 = 10.38mm 1(B)1 1200 -
33.2 = 6.76mm P1A 1500 3
44.2 = 8.76mm P2A 3000 3
55.2 = 10.76mm
66.2 = 12.76mm
88.2 = 16.76mm
44.4 = 9.52mm P4A 9000 3
66.4 = 13.52mm
44.6 = 10.28mm P5A 9000 9
66.6 = 14.28mm
Tempered glass Class Drop height [mm]
4, 6 & 8 mm 1(C)2 450
10 & 12 mm 1(C)1 1200
Note: * See section 10.3 for classification to EN 12600 ** Test with steel ball of 4.1 kg.
Safety and burglar resistance EN 12600:2002 & EN 356:2000
Resistance to impact (EN 12600) Resistance to manual attack (EN 356)
Class Glass type Drop height [mm] Class Test method Drop height [mm] No. of drops
1A1 Monolithic 1200 P1A Steel ball 1500 3
annealed 4.11 kg
2A2 450 P2A 3000 3
dropped
3A3 190 P3A to form an 6000 3
equilateral
1B1 Laminated 1200 P4A 9000 3
triangle
annealed
2B2 450 P5A 9000 3×3
3B3 190 Class Test method No. of hits
1C1 Monolithic 1200 P6B Hammer 30 to 50 hits (axe)
tempered and axe
2C2 450 P7B 51 to 70 hits (axe)
impacts
3C3 190 P8B ≥ 71 hits (axe)
Bullet and explosion resistance EN 1063:2000

Resistance to bullet attack (EN 1063) Resistance to explosion
Class Firearm type No. of impacts Class Pressure [kPa] Duration [ms]
BR1 Rifle – 0.22 LR 3 ER1 50 to 100 20
BR2 Handgun – 9mm Luger 3 ER2 100 to 150 20
BR3 Handgun – 0.357 Rem. Magnum 3 ER3 150 to 200 20
BR4 Handgun – 0.44 Rem. Magnum 3 ER4 200 to 250 20
BR5 Rifle – 5.56 ×45 3
BR6 Rifle – 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 175mm) 3
BR7 Rifle - 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 254mm) 3
SG1 Shotgun – Cal. 12/70 1
SG2 Shotgun – Cal. 12/70 3
84 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.5 Fire classification
∆T, ∆m, tf – Temperature rise [K], mass loss [%] and duration of sustained flaming [s], respectively
PCS - gross calorific potential [MJ/kg or MJ/m²]
FIGRA - fire growth rate index used for classification purposes [W/s]
LFS – lateral fire spread [m]
THR - total heat release during the evaluation period [MJ]
Fs – Fire spread during the evaluation [mm]
SMOGRA – smoke growth rate [m²/s²]
TSP - total smoke production during the evaluation period [m²]
Classes of reaction to fire performance EN 13501-1:2007 Table 1
Test Classification Additional classification (EN 13823:2010)
Class
methods criteria Smoke production
f
Flaming droplets/particles
A1 EN ISO 1182 ∆T ≤ 30 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 %; & - -
& tf = 0 (i.e. no sustained flaming)
abce
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ/kg ;& - -
2 d
PCS ≤ 1.4 MJ/m
a
A2 EN ISO 1182 ∆T ≤ 50 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 % & - -
or tf ≤ 20 s
ad
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 3,0 MJ/kg & - -
2 bc
& PCS ≤ 4,0 MJ/m
EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ; s1 = d0 =
2 2
LFS < edge of specimen & SMOGRA ≤ 30m /s & No flaming droplets/
2
THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ TSP600s ≤ 50m particles within 600 s;
B EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ;
& LFS < edge of specimen & s2 = d1 =
2 2
THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ SMOGRA ≤ 180m /s & no flaming droplets/
2
i
TSP600s ≤ 200m particles persisting
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s longer than 10 s within
Exposure = 30 s s3 = not s1 or s2 600 s;
C EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 250 W/s ;
g
& LFS < edge of specimen & d2 = not d0 or d1.
THR600s ≤ 15 MJ
i
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150mm within 60 s
Exposure = 30 s
D EN 13823 & FIGRA ≤ 750 W/s
i
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s
Exposure = 30 s
i h
E EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 20 s -
Exposure = 15 s
F No performance determined
a
For homogeneous products and substantial components of non-homogeneous products.
b
For any external non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
c
Alternatively, any external non-substantial component having a PCS ≤ 2,0 MJ/m2, provided that the product
satisfies the following criteria of EN 13823: FIGRA ≤ 20 W/s, and LFS < edge of specimen, and THR600s ≤ 4,0 MJ,
and s1, and d0.
d
For any internal non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
e
For the product as a whole.
f
In the last phase of the development of the test procedure, modifications of the smoke measurement system have
been introduced, the effect of which needs further investigation. This may result in a modification of the limit values
and/or parameters for the evaluation of the smoke production.
g
Ignition of the paper in EN ISO 11925-2 results in a d2 classification
h
Pass = no ignition of the paper (no classification); Fail = ignition of the paper (d2 classification).
i
Under conditions of surface flame attack and, if appropriate to the end–use application of the product, edge flame
attack.
PART 1 EUROCODE 85
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS

11.1 Bolted connections
11.1.1 Properties of bolts
Characteristic values of fasteners EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.1, EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.2
Grade Yield strength, Tensile strength, Min. clear thread protrusion*
2 2
fyb [N/mm ] fub [N/mm ] [pitch]
Steel 4.6 240 400 1
4.8 320 400 1
5.6 300 500 1
5.8 400 500 1
6.8 480 600 1
8.8 640 800 3
10.9 900 1000 5
Austhenitic 50 210 500 1
A1, A2, A4
70 450 700 1
80 600 800 1
Note: *DIN 78 requires 2P.
Metric screw threads EN ISO 724:1993
Height of fundamental triangle
3
H = P sin(60°) = P ≈ 0.866254P
2
Basic minor diameter
5 5 3
d 1 = D1 = d − H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P
4 8
Basic pitch diameter
3 3 3
d 2 = D2 = d − H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P
4 8
Nominal stress area (EN ISO 898-1)
2
π  d 2 +d 3  2
As = ≈ 0.7854 ( d − 0.938194 P )
4  2 

where:
1
d3 = d1 − H ≈ d – 1.2269P
6
Size Pitch Major Minor Pitch Nominal

diameter diameter diameter stress area
2
P [mm] d, D [mm] d1, D1 [mm] d2, D2 [mm] As [mm ]
M4 0.70 4.0 3.242 3.545 8.78
M5 0.80 5.0 4.134 4.480 14.18
M6 1.00 6.0 4.917 5.350 20.12
M8 1.25 8.0 6.647 7.188 36.61
M10 1.50 10.0 8.376 9.026 57.99
M12 1.75 12.0 10.106 10.863 84.27
M16 2.00 16.0 13.835 14.701 156.67
M20 2.50 20.0 17.294 18.376 244.79
M24 3.00 24.0 20.752 22.051 352.50
M30 3.50 30.0 26.211 27.727 560.59
M36 4.00 36.0 31.670 33.402 816.72
86 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
11.1.2 Nominal clearances for fasteners

Nominal clearances give the diameter of the hole when added to the diameter of the bolt.
Nominal clearances [mm] EN 1090-2:2008 Table 11
Nominal bolt or pin diameter, d [mm] M12 M16 M20 M24 ≥ M27
Normal round holes 1* 2 2 2 3
Oversized round holes 3 4 4 6 8
Short slotted holes (on the length) 4 6 6 8 10
Long slotted holes (on the length) 1.5 d
Note: *M12 and M14 bolts may also be used in 2 mm clearance holes provided that the design resistance of the
bolt group based on bearing is greater or equal to the design resistance of the bolt group based on bolt shear. In
addition for class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9 bolts the design shear resistance Fv,Rd should be taken as 0,85 times
the value given in Table 3.4.
11.1.3 Minimum distances
Minimum distances EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.2
Minimum Maximum
Steel or Aluminium not
Aluminium exposed to
exposed weather
Normal Edge // to load e1 ≥ 1.2d0 4t + 40 max{12t; 150}
hole distance
⊥ to load e2 ≥ 1.2d0 4t + 40 max{12t; 150}
Spacing // to load p1 ≥ 2.2d0 min{14t; 200} min{21t; 300}
⊥ to load p2 ≥ 2.4d0 min{14t; 200} min{14t; 200}
Slotted Edge // to load e3 ≥ 1.5d0

hole distance
⊥ to load e4 ≥ 1.5d0
Spacing // to load p3 ≥ 2.0d0

⊥ to load p4 ≥ 2.0d0
11.1.4 Washers
Generally, washers are not required for use with non-preloaded round holes. The use of washers can reduce
local damage to metal coatings (washer to be placed under nut or bolt head, whichever is rotated)
Plate washers shall be used for connections with long slotted and oversized holes. They shall not be
thinner than 4 mm
Taper washers shall be used if the surface is at an angle to a plane perpendicular to the bolt axis of more
than 1/20 (d≤20mm) or 1/30 (d>20mm)
Washers acc to EN 14399-5 (plain) shall only be used under nuts
Washers acc to EN 14399-6 (chamfered) shall be used under heads of preloaded bolts and positioned
with the chamfer towards the bolt head.
For preloaded 8.8 bolts a plain washer (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under the bolt head or
the nut, whichever is to be rotated
For preloaded 10.9 bolts plain washers (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under both the bolt
head and the nut
PART 1 EUROCODE 87
11.1.5 Bolt design
Design resistance for individual fasteners subjected to shear and/or tension
Design resistance of fasteners EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4 and EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Data d Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm]
P Pitch of thread [mm]
A 2
Cross-sectional area of the fastener [mm ]
As 2
Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ]
fub 2
Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]
Shear a) rivets and shear through shank of bolts: Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f ub 1.25
b) shear through thread of bolts:
Fv,Rd = α v ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25
Reduction factor or packing:
(
β p = 9d 8d + 3t p ≤ 1.0 ) 3.6.1 (12)
values of αv:
0.6 class 4.6, 5.6 & 8.8
class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 10.9,
0.5
stainless steel & aluminium
Bearing Fb,Rd = α b ⋅ k1 ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 Bearing resistance of connected part [N]
t Thickness of the connected part [mm]
k For countersunk head screws, the effective
t´ = t − thickness should have a reduction of half the
2
countersinking.
Single lap joints:
Fb,Rd ≤ 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 Limiting bearing resistance for single lap joint with 3.6.1 (10)
only one bolt row [N] Fig. 3.3
Reduction factor slot holes βR:
1.0 Nominal size hole
Oversized holes
0.8
Short slot, axis ⊥ to load Slot holes:
0.8
Long slot, axis ⊥ to load Short: length ≤ 1.5d0
0.65 Fig. 3.1
[EN 1999-1-1] Long: 1.5d0 < length ≤ 2.5d0:
0.6 Slotted holes [EN 1993-1-8]
values of αb:
values of αb for slot holes:
e1 f end bolts:
, ub or 1.0 e3 + d 2 end bolts:
3d 0 fu e1 < 3d0
3 ( d + 1) ( e3 + d 2 ) < 3 ( d+1 )
p1 1 f inner bolts:
− , ub or 1.0 p3 + d 1 inner bolts:
3d 0 4 f u p1 < 3d0 −
3 ( d + 1) 4 ( p3 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )
values of k1:
values of k1 for slot holes:
e edge bolts:
2.8 2 − 1.7 or 2.5 e +d 2 edge bolts:
d0 e2 < 1.5d0 2.8 4 − 1.7
d+1 ( e4 + d 2 ) < 1.5 ( d+1 )
p2 inner bolts:
1.4 − 1.7 or 2.5 p +d inner bolts:
d0 p2 < 3d0 1.4 4 − 1.7
d +1 ( p4 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )
Tension Ft,Rd = k 2 ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25 Tension resistance [N]
values of k2:
0.60 rivets
0.63 countersunk steel bolts
0.90 steel bolts
0.50 aluminium bolts
Punching F p,Rd = 0.6 π ⋅ d m ⋅ t p ⋅ f u 1.25 Punching shear resistance [N]
Interaction Ft,Ed Fv,Ed Combined tension & shear

+ ≤ 1.0
1.4Ft,Rd Fv,Rd
88 PART 1 EUROCODE
11.1.6 Design slip resistance

Slip resistant bolts using 8.8 or 10.9 EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.9.1
Data d Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm]
n Number of friction surfaces [-]
As 2
Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ]
fub Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]
2
Preload F p,C = 0.7 As ⋅ f ub Preloading force [kN] 3.9.1 (2)

force values of Fp,C [kN]:
Grade M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36
8.8 47 88 137 198 314 458
10.9 59 110 173 247 393 572
Slip- Fs,Rd = k s ⋅ n ⋅ µ ⋅ F p,C 1.25 Design slip-resistance [kN] 3.9.1 (1)
resistance values of k :
s Table 3.6
1.0 Normal holes
0.85 Oversized holes
0.85 Short slot, axis ⊥ to load
0.76 Short slot, axis // to load
0.70 Long slot, axis ⊥ to load
0.63 Long slot, axis // to load
values of slip factor, µ:
µ Class of friction surface Table 3.7
0.5 A – surfaces blasted with shot or grit with
loose rust removed, not pitted
B – Surfaces blasted with shot or grit:
a) spray-metallized with an alu. or zinc
0.4 based product;
b) with alkali-zinc silicate paint with a
thickness of 50 µm to 80 µm
0.3 C – Surfaces cleaned by wire-brushing or
flame cleaning, with loose rust removed
0.2 D – Surfaces as rolled
Combined Design slip-resistance at ultimate [kN] 3.9.2 (1)
tension
(
Fs,Rd = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed ) 1.25
and shear
(
Fs,Rd,ser = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed ,ser ) 1.0 Design slip-resistance at serviceability [kN]
11.1.7 Thread pull-out

Thread stripping resistance (Simplified) Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005
Data t Thickness of screw thread engagement [mm]
2
fyB Yield strength of bolt [N/mm ]
2
fyM Yield strength of threaded part [N/mm ]
Strip-off α M = β B f uB ( β B f uB + β M f uM ) Material factor for threaded part [-] Dose
diameter
d τ = d 2 +(α M − 0.5 ) 3P ≤ d
Strip-off diameter [mm]
values of βB:
0.5574 4.6 Shear stress factor for screw [-]
0.5774 8.8, 10.9 & Stainless steel
values of βM:
Schwarz
0.58 Steel Shear stress factor for threaded part [-]
0.77 Stainless steel Dose
0.44 Aluminium
Resistance Fo,Rd = α M β M π d τ t ⋅ f uM 1.25 Pull-out resistance of screw [kN] Dose
PART 1 EUROCODE 89
11.1.8 Bolt design tables

Shear resistance of bolts EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Fv,Rd = αv·As·fub/1.25 [kN]
Thread Shank Stainless steel Steel
As [mm2] A [mm2] A2-70 A2-80 4.6 8.8 10.9

2
fub [N/mm ] 700 800 400 800 1000
αv 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6
M4 8.78 12.57 2.46 4.22 2.81 4.83 1.69 2.41 3.37 4.83 3.51 6.03
M5 14.18 19.63 3.97 6.60 4.54 7.54 2.72 3.77 5.45 7.54 5.67 9.42
M6 20.12 28.27 5.63 9.50 6.44 10.86 3.86 5.43 7.73 10.86 8.05 13.57
M8 36.61 50.27 10.25 16.89 11.72 19.30 7.03 9.65 14.06 19.30 14.64 24.13
M10 57.99 78.54 16.24 26.39 18.56 30.16 11.13 15.08 22.27 30.16 23.20 37.70
M12 84.27 113.1 23.60 38.00 26.97 43.43 16.18 21.72 32.36 43.43 33.71 54.29
M16 156.7 201.1 43.88 67.56 50.14 77.21 30.09 38.60 60.17 77.21 62.68 96.51
M20 244.8 314.2 68.54 105.56 78.34 120.64 47.00 60.32 94.00 120.64 97.92 150.80
M24 352.5 452.4 98.70 152.00 112.80 173.72 67.68 86.86 135.36 173.72 141.00 217.15
M30 560.6 706.9 156.97 237.50 179.39 271.43 107.64 135.72 215.27 271.43 224.24 339.29
Note: Values in black are for shear through threaded part; values in gray are for shear through shank
Tension resistance of bolts EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Ft,Rd = k2·As·fub/1.25 [kN]
Stainless steel Steel
As [mm2] A2-70 A2-80 4.6 8.8 10.9
fub [N/mm2] 700 800 400 800 1000

k2 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63
M4 8.78 4.43 3.10 5.06 3.54 2.53 1.77 5.06 3.54 6.32 4.43
M5 14.18 7.15 5.00 8.17 5.72 4.08 2.86 8.17 5.72 10.21 7.15
M6 20.12 10.14 7.10 11.59 8.11 5.79 4.06 11.59 8.11 14.49 10.14
M8 36.61 18.45 12.92 21.09 14.76 10.54 7.38 21.09 14.76 26.36 18.45
M10 57.99 29.23 20.46 33.40 23.38 16.70 11.69 33.40 23.38 41.75 29.23
M12 84.27 42.47 29.73 48.54 33.98 24.27 16.99 48.54 33.98 60.67 42.47
M16 156.7 78.96 55.27 90.24 63.17 45.12 31.58 90.24 63.17 112.80 78.96
M20 244.8 123.37 86.36 141.00 98.70 70.50 49.35 141.00 98.70 176.25 123.37
M24 352.5 177.66 124.36 203.04 142.13 101.52 71.06 203.04 142.13 253.80 177.66
M30 560.6 282.54 197.78 322.90 226.03 161.45 113.01 322.90 226.03 403.62 282.54
Note: Values in black are for hexagonal and socket head bolts; values in gray are for countersunk head bolts
90 PART 1 EUROCODE
Moment resistance of bolts

Mpl,Rd = d13/6·fyb/1.25 [N·m]
Steel fasteners
d1 [mm] W el [mm3] A2-70 A2-80 4.6 8.8 10.9
fyb [N/mm2] 450.0 600.0 240.0 640.0 900.0
M4 3.24 5.67 2.04 2.72 1.09 2.90 4.08
M5 4.12 11.7 4.20 5.59 2.24 5.97 8.39
M6 4.92 19.8 7.15 9.53 3.81 10.16 14.29
M8 6.65 49.0 17.64 23.53 9.41 25.09 35.29
M10 8.38 98.1 35.31 47.08 18.83 50.22 70.62
M12 10.11 172.2 62.00 82.67 33.07 88.18 124.00
M16 13.84 441.8 159.06 212.08 84.83 226.22 318.12
M20 17.29 861.5 310.12 413.50 165.40 441.07 620.25
M24 20.75 1489.0 536.05 714.73 285.89 762.38 1072.10
M30 26.21 3000.9 1080.32 1440.43 576.17 1536.45 2160.64
Bearing resistance of bolts on single lap joint per mm EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.6.1(10)
Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per (t)
Aluminium Stainless steel Steel
EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 T6 - - - - -
fu [N/mm 2] 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 430 510
M4 0.480 0.696 0.912 1.152 0.816 1.248 1.392 2.592 2.544 1.728 2.064 2.448
M5 0.600 0.870 1.140 1.440 1.020 1.560 1.740 3.240 3.180 2.160 2.580 3.060
M6 0.720 1.044 1.368 1.728 1.224 1.872 2.088 3.888 3.816 2.592 3.096 3.672
M8 0.960 1.392 1.824 2.304 1.632 2.496 2.784 5.184 5.088 3.456 4.128 4.896
M10 1.200 1.740 2.280 2.880 2.040 3.120 3.480 6.480 6.360 4.320 5.160 6.120
M12 1.440 2.088 2.736 3.456 2.448 3.744 4.176 7.776 7.632 5.184 6.192 7.344
M16 1.920 2.784 3.648 4.608 3.264 4.992 5.568 10.368 10.176 6.912 8.256 9.792
M20 2.400 3.480 4.560 5.760 4.080 6.240 6.960 12.960 12.720 8.640 10.320 12.240
M24 2.880 4.176 5.472 6.912 4.896 7.488 8.352 15.552 15.264 10.368 12.384 14.688
M30 3.600 5.220 6.840 8.640 6.120 9.360 10.440 19.440 19.080 12.960 15.480 18.360
PART 1 EUROCODE 91
Punching-shear resistance EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Fp,Rd = 0.6π·dm·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per tp
dm [mm] Aluminium Stainless steel Steel
EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 T6 - - - - -
2
fu [kN/cm ] 10.0 14.5 19.0 24.0 17.0 26.0 29.0 54.0 53.0 36.0 43.0 51.0
M4 7 1.056 1.531 2.006 2.533 1.794 2.744 3.061 5.700 5.595 3.800 4.539 5.383
M5 8 1.206 1.749 2.292 2.895 2.051 3.137 3.498 6.514 6.394 4.343 5.187 6.152
M6 10 1.508 2.187 2.865 3.619 2.564 3.921 4.373 8.143 7.992 5.429 6.484 7.691
M8 13 1.960 2.843 3.725 4.705 3.333 5.097 5.685 10.586 10.390 7.057 8.430 9.998
M10 17 2.564 3.717 4.871 6.152 4.358 6.665 7.434 13.843 13.587 9.229 11.023 13.074
M12 19 2.865 4.154 5.444 6.876 4.871 7.449 8.309 15.472 15.185 10.314 12.320 14.612
M16 24 3.619 5.248 6.876 8.686 6.152 9.410 10.495 19.543 19.181 13.029 15.562 18.457
M20 30 4.524 6.560 8.595 10.857 7.691 11.762 13.119 24.429 23.977 16.286 19.453 23.072
Thread pull-out resistance per (t) Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005
Fo,Rd ≈ αM·βM·π·d2·fuM/1.25 [kN/mm] per t αM = βBfyB/(βBfyB+βMfyM)
d2 [mm] P A2-70 screw
fuB [N/mm2] 700
βB 0.5774
Threaded EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
Temper O/H111 H14/H24 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 - - - - -
2
fuM [N/mm ] 100 145 190 240 170 250 520 530 360 430 510
βM 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.77 0.77 0.58 0.58 0.58
αM 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.84 0.79 0.50 0.50 0.66 0.62 0.58
M4 3.55 0.70 0.399 0.552 0.687 0.821 0.628 0.846 1.794 1.808 1.293 1.430 1.562
M5 4.48 0.80 0.499 0.690 0.859 1.028 0.786 1.060 2.266 2.285 1.627 1.800 1.969
M6 5.35 1.00 0.598 0.828 1.031 1.233 0.943 1.270 2.707 2.728 1.947 2.153 2.354
M8 7.19 1.25 0.798 1.104 1.375 1.646 1.258 1.697 3.636 3.666 2.607 2.886 3.158
M10 9.03 1.50 0.997 1.381 1.720 2.059 1.574 2.123 4.566 4.603 3.266 3.618 3.961
M12 10.86 1.75 1.197 1.657 2.065 2.473 1.889 2.549 5.495 5.540 3.926 4.350 4.764
M16 14.70 2.00 1.596 2.210 2.758 3.307 2.521 3.410 7.436 7.499 5.278 5.857 6.426
M20 18.38 2.50 1.995 2.763 3.447 4.134 3.151 4.263 9.295 9.373 6.597 7.322 8.032
M24 22.05 3.00 2.393 3.315 4.136 4.960 3.781 5.115 11.153 11.248 7.917 8.786 9.638
M30 27.73 3.50 2.992 4.145 5.174 6.208 4.729 6.402 14.024 14.143 9.928 11.026 12.104
92 PART 1 EUROCODE
11.2 Pin connections
Pin connections with no rotation may be designed as single bolted connections.
Design resistance of pin connections EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.10, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.13
Data d Diameter of pin [mm]
A 2
Cross-sectional area of pin [mm ]
Wel 3
Elastic section modulus of pin cross-section [mm ]
fup 2
Tensile strength of pin [N/mm ]
fy
Lower of the yield strengths of the pin and the
2
connected part [N/mm ]
Shear Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f up 1.25 Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Bearing Permanent pin: Bearing resistance of the connection [N]

Fb,Rd = 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0
Replaceable pin:
Fb,Rd,ser = 0.6 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0 ≥ Fb,Ed,ser
Bending  t + 4e + 2t 2  Design bending moment in pin [N·mm] Fig. 3.11

M Ed = FEd ⋅  1 
 8 
Permanent pin: Bending resistance of

M Rd = 1.5 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0 pin [N·mm]
Replaceable pin:
M Rd,ser = 0.8 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0 ≥ M Ed,ser
Interaction  Fv,Ed 
2
M 
2 Combined shear & bending
 +  Ed 

≤ 1.0
 Fv,Rd   M Rd 
Design of pin ended members EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.9, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.12
Given FEd ⋅ γ M 1 2d 0 Table 3.9
a ≥ +
thickness 2 t ⋅ fy 3
FEd ⋅ γ M 1 d 0
c ≥ +
2 t ⋅ fy 3
Given 1.0FEd Table 3.9

geometry t ≥ 0.7
fy
d0
≥
2.5
PART 1 EUROCODE 93
11.3 Tapping screws and rivets
Spaced thread
Size Pitch Major Thread root Shank Tensile Plastic section Tightening
diameter diameter area Stress area modulus tourque
2 2 3 3
P [mm] dmin [mm] d1,min [mm] Ab [mm ] As [mm ] W pl = d1 /6 [mm ] [N·m]
ST 3.5 1.3 3.35 2.51 4.95 4.95 2.64 2.7
ST 3.9 1.3 3.73 2.77 6.03 6.03 3.54 3.4
ST 4.2 1.4 4.04 2.95 6.83 6.83 4.28 4.4
ST 4.8 1.6 4.62 3.43 9.24 9.24 6.73 6.3
ST 5.5 1.8 5.28 3.99 12.50 12.50 10.59 10.0
ST 6.3 1.8 6.03 4.70 17.35 17.35 17.30 13.6
11.3.1 Minimum distances

Minimum distances EN 1993-1-3 :2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-4:2007 Fig. 8.1
Steel sheet Aluminium sheet
(EN 1993-1-3) (EN 1999-1-4)
Screw Rivets Screw & rivet
Edge e1, // to load 3d 1.5d 2d or 20mm
distance
e2, ⊥ to load 1.5d 1.5d 1.5d or 10mm
Spacing p1, // to load 3d 3d 4d or 30mm

p2, ⊥ to load 3d 3d 2d or 20mm
11.3.2 Design resistance of self-tapping screws

Design resistance of self-tapping screws
Mode EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2 EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.3 Conditions
Material - Self-tapping screws to EN ISO 1479, 1481 or ISO 7049
Self-drilling screws to EN ISO 15480 or 15481
Shear by test Fv,Rd = As 380 1.25 -
Bearing tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.43d tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;
Fb,Rd = 3.2 t d f u ,min 1.25 - d ≥ 5.5mm
Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
Otherwise (also for timber support): Otherwise (also for timber support):
Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25 Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
Net section Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25 Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25 -
Tension by test Ft,Rd = As 560 1.25 -
Pull-through F p,Rd = 0.5 d w t f u 1.25 Steel or stainless steel washer: - fu ≤ 260 N/mm2;
(punching) F p,Rd = 6.1 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25 - t ≤ 1.5mm;
- dw ≥ 14 mm; tw ≥ 1 mm
Aluminium washer:
F p,Rd = 4.88 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25
Pull-out tsup < P: - fu ≤ 260 N/mm2;

Fo,Rd = 0.95 d t sup 3 f u ,sup 1.25
(thread strip) Fo,Rd = 0.45 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25 - d = 6.3 mm;
tsup ≥ P: - tsup >6 mm; fu,sup > 250 N/mm2
- tsup >5 mm; fu,sup > 400 N/mm2
Fo,Rd = 0.65 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25
Combined Ft,Ed Fv,Ed Ft,Ed Fv,Ed

+ ≤ 1.0 & + ≤ 1.0
1.4Ft,Rd Fv,Rd {
min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd } {
min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd }
94 PART 1 EUROCODE
Diameter of predrilled holes [mm] EN 1090-3:2008 Table E.1

Substructure Aluminium Steel
thickness
t [mm] ≤ 3.0 >3≤4 > 4.0 ≤ 0.75 > 0.75 ≤ 1.5 > 1.5 ≤ 3.0 > 3 ≤ 5.0 > 5.0 ≤ 7.0 > 7.0
ST 6.3 3.3 3.5 4.1 3.3 3.5 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.0
11.3.3 Screw design tables

Shear, tension and moment resistance of screws EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3
Screw As Wpl Fv,Rd = As·380/1.25 Ft,Rd = As·560/1.25 MRd = W pl·450/1.25
[mm 2] [mm 3] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm]
ST 2.9 3.40 1.50 1.03 1.52 0.54
ST 3.5 4.95 2.64 1.50 2.22 0.95
ST 3.9 6.03 3.54 1.83 2.70 1.27
ST 4.2 6.83 4.28 2.08 3.06 1.54
ST 4.8 9.24 6.73 2.81 4.14 2.42
ST 5.5 12.50 10.59 3.80 5.60 3.81
ST 6.3 17.35 17.30 5.27 7.77 6.23
Bearing resistance of screws per mm EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3.2.1

Screw Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm]
1050 5005 5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S355
O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 T6 T6 T6 - - - -
2
fu [N/mm ] 65 100 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 510
ST 4.2 0.328 0.504 0.504 0.731 0.958 1.210 0.857 1.310 1.462 2.722 2.671 1.814 2.570
ST 4.8 0.374 0.576 0.576 0.835 1.094 1.382 0.979 1.498 1.670 3.110 3.053 2.074 2.938
ST 5.5 0.429 0.660 0.660 0.957 1.254 1.584 1.122 1.716 1.914 3.564 3.498 2.376 3.366
ST 6.3 0.491 0.756 0.756 1.096 1.436 1.814 1.285 1.966 2.192 4.082 4.007 2.722 3.856
PART 1 EUROCODE 95
11.3.4 Resistance of rivets
Design resistance of blind rivets
Mode EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2 EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.2 Conditions
Material - EN ISO 15973, 15974, 15977, 15978, 15981 &15982
Shear Fv,Rd = Anet ⋅ f u 1.25 Fv,Rd = 38 d 2 1.25 - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;
- 2.6mm ≤ d ≤ 6.4mm
Bearing tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.34d tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d
Fb,Rd = 3.6 d t min 3 f u ,min 1.25 Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
≤ e1 1.2 t f u /1.25 Otherwise:
Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25
Net section Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25 Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25
Tension by test Ft,Rd = 47 d 2 1.25 -
Pull-through by test F p,Rd = 2.35 α E t f o 1.25 - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;

(punching) - t ≤ 1.5mm;
- dw ≥ 9.5mm
Pull-out by test Steel sheet: - fy ≤ 350 N/mm2;
(Slip through) Fo,Rd = 0.47 d t sup f y 1.25 - tsup ≤ 6mm
Aluminium sheet:
Fo,Rd = 0.20 d t sup f o 1.25
Combined Ft,Ed Fv,Ed Ft,Ed Fv,Ed

+ ≤ 1.0 ; + ≤ 1.0
1.4Ft,Rd Fv,Rd {
min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd } {
min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd }
Breaking load of blind rivets (Goebel) ISO 14589

Type Material Tension, Ft [kN] Shear, Fv [kN]
Ø3.0 Ø4.0 Ø5.0 Ø6.0 Ø3.0 Ø4.0 Ø5.0 Ø6.0
Sleeve/Mandrel
Ø3.2 Ø4.8 Ø6.4 Ø3.2 Ø4.8 Ø6.4
Open ISO 15981 AlMg2.5 / Alu 0.67 1.025 1.42 - 0.535 0.845 1.15 -
- AlMg5 / A2 0.87 1.6 2.5 3.9 0.68 1.2 2.0 3.0
ISO 15983 A2 / A2 (A4 / A4) 2.0 3.8 6.5 8.85 1.6 3.1 5.0 6.5
ISO 15979 Steel / Steel 1.125 1.99 3.255 5.0 0.915 1.55 2.575 4.0
- AlMg5 / A2 0.98 1.6 2.25 - 0.76 1.2 1.7 -
ISO 15984 A2 / A2 2.0 3.8 6.5 - 1.6 3.1 5.0 -
ISO 15980 Steel/Steel 1.125 1.99 3.255 - 0.95 1.55 2.575 -
Closed ISO 15975 Al99.5 / Alu 0.49 0.82 1.12 - 0.45 0.58 0.9 -
- AlMg5 / A2 1.245 2.24 3.1 - 1.07 1.7 2.2 -
ISO 16586 A2 / C1(S/S) 2.5 4.0 5.5 8.7 2.0 3.0 4.5 6.8
ISO 15976 Steel / Steel 2.2 2.5 3.8 - 1.6 2.3 2.9 -
- Al99.5 / Alu 0.49 0.82 1.12 - 0.45 0.58 0.9 -
- AlMg5 / A2 1.245 2.24 3.1 - 1.07 1.7 2.2 -
96 PART 1 EUROCODE
P 15 PS 45 PS 25
Blind nut bearing resistance per mm EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.2.2.1

Rivet Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm]
1050 5005 5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S355
Ø O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 T6 T6 T6 - - - -
fu [N/mm 2] 65 100 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 510
4.0 0.312 0.480 0.480 0.696 0.912 1.152 0.816 1.248 1.392 2.592 2.544 1.728 2.448
4.8 0.374 0.576 0.576 0.835 1.094 1.382 0.979 1.498 1.670 3.110 3.053 2.074 2.938
5.0 0.390 0.600 0.600 0.870 1.140 1.440 1.020 1.560 1.740 3.240 3.180 2.160 3.060
6.0 0.468 0.720 0.720 1.044 1.368 1.728 1.224 1.872 2.088 3.888 3.816 2.592 3.672
6.4 0.499 0.768 0.768 1.114 1.459 1.843 1.306 1.997 2.227 4.147 4.070 2.765 3.917
11.4 Stud welds

Suitability of base and stud materials ISO/TR 15608:2000
Stud Group 1 – 6, 11.1 Group 8 Group 31 - 37 Group 21, 22
Pure copper Aluminium*
Steel Galvanised Austenitic
Material Grade and lead-free (1xxx, 3xxx &
(≤ 0.35% C) steel (≤ 25µm) stainless steel
copper alloys 5xxx)
S235 a b a b -
Steel
4.8 a b b b -
1.4301 a b a b -
Stainless steel
A2-50 b b a b -
Copper CuZn37(CW508L) b b b a -
EN AW-1050A - - - - b
Aluminium
EN AW-5754 - - - - a
Note: * Pure aluminium and non-heat treatable alloys.
a: very suitable
b: weldable to a certain extent
-: not suitable for welding
PART 1 EUROCODE 97
11.5 Weld
11.5.1 Weld Symbols to EN 22553:1994 (ISO 2553:1992)
1 – weld size (a) throat (z) nominal

(Arrow side)
2 – weld symbol (fillet)
3 – supplementary symbol (concave face)
4 – number of welds × length of each weld
5 – symbol for staggered intermittent weld
6 – weld spacing
7 – welding process reference
(Other side) 8 – weld class
98 PART 1 EUROCODE
Weld examples – hollow sections
PART 1 EUROCODE 99
Weld examples – full penetration butt welds EN 1011-11998
100 PART 1 EUROCODE

11.5.2 Design resistance of welds for steel design
Intermittent fillet welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of :
• 12×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in compression or shear.
• 16×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in tension.
Design resistance of steel welds EN 1993-1-1:2005 4.5
Directional fu Nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined 4.5.3.2
method σ⊥, τ⊥, τ∥ Factored normal stress in-plane , perpendicular and
parallel to the throat,
2
respectively [N/mm ] Fig. 4.5
(
σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2 )
Interaction fu
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2 ≤
1.25 β w
Simplified s Size of fillet weld [mm]

method l Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm] 4.5.1
a = 0.707·z Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm] Fig. 4.3
a fu
Fw,Rd = l ⋅ ⋅
3 1.25 β w Design weld resistance [N] 4.5.3.3
values of βw:
class βw Correlation factor [-] Table 4.1
S235 0.8
S275 0.85
S355 0.9
S420 & S460 1.0
11.5.3 Design resistance of welds for aluminium design

Clause 1.1.2 (1): Welded components shall not have thickness less than 1.5mm.
Design resistance of aluminium fillet welds EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.3
2
Directional fw Characteristic strength of weld metal, [N/mm ] Table 8.8
2
method σ⊥ Factored normal stress in the plane of the throat, [N/mm ] 8.6.3.3
2
τ⊥ Factored shear stress perpendicular to the throat, [N/mm ]
τ∥ Factored normal
stress parallel to the Fig. 8.18
Interaction (
σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2 ) throat [N/mm ]
2
fw
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2 ≤
1.25
values of γMw:
EN 1999-1-1 γMw = 1.35
UK NA γMw = 1.35
Simplified s Size of fillet weld [mm]

method l Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm]
a = 0.707·z Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm]
a) Longitudinal load Design weld resistance [N]
a f Fig. 8.19 &
Fw,Rd = l ⋅ ⋅ w
0.7 γ Mw 8.20
b)Transverse load
a f
Fw,Rd = l ⋅ ⋅ w
0.85 γ Mw
a) Longitudinal load b) Transverse load
PART 1 EUROCODE 101

Design resistance of fillet and butt welds in HAZ EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.4

2
Directional fu Characteristic strength of welded parts [N/mm ] Table 8.8
method ρu,haz Reduction factor for HAZ [-] 8.6.3.3
2
Design normal stress perpendicular to weld axis [N/mm ]
σhaz 2
Design shear stress parallel to weld axis [N/mm ]
τhaz
f u ⋅ ρ u ,haz
σ haz 2 +3τ haz 2 ≤
γ Mw
Fillet weld check F & T F = HAZ in the fusion boundary Fig. 8.21
T = HAZ in toe of the weld, full
cross-section
Butt weld check T Fig. 8.21
102 PART 1 EUROCODE

11.6 Plate bracket resistance
Plate bracket resistance EN 1993-1:2005; EN 1999-1:2007
Plate Properties EN AW-6005A T6 EN AW-6082 T6 S235 S355
t b A I NRd VRd MRd NRd VRd MRd NRd VRd MRd NRd VRd MRd
2 4
[mm] [mm] [mm ] [mm ] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm]
10 200 2000 1667 363.6 168.0 909.1 472.7 218.3 1181.8 470.0 217.1 1175.0 670.0 309.5 1675.0
10 225 2250 1875 409.1 189.0 1022.7 531.8 245.6 1329.5 528.8 244.2 1321.9 753.8 348.1 1884.4
12 200 2400 2400 436.4 201.5 1309.1 567.3 262.0 1701.8 564.0 260.5 1692.0 804.0 371.4 2412.0
12 225 2700 2700 490.9 226.7 1472.7 638.2 294.8 1914.5 634.5 293.1 1903.5 904.5 417.8 2713.5
12 250 3000 3000 545.5 251.9 1636.4 709.1 327.5 2127.3 705.0 325.6 2115.0 1005.0 464.2 3015.0
12 275 3300 3300 600.0 277.1 1800.0 780.0 360.3 2340.0 775.5 358.2 2326.5 1105.5 510.6 3316.5
15 225 3375 4219 613.6 283.4 2301.1 797.7 368.5 2991.5 793.1 366.3 2974.2 1130.6 522.2 4239.8
15 250 3750 4688 681.8 314.9 2556.8 886.4 409.4 3323.9 881.3 407.0 3304.7 1256.3 580.2 4710.9
15 275 4125 5156 750.0 346.4 2812.5 975.0 450.3 3656.3 969.4 447.7 3635.2 1381.9 638.3 5182.0
15 300 4500 5625 818.2 377.9 3068.2 1063.6 491.3 3988.6 1057.5 488.4 3965.6 1507.5 696.3 5653.1
15 325 4875 6094 886.4 409.4 3323.9 1152.3 532.2 4321.0 1145.6 529.1 4296.1 1633.1 754.3 6124.2
15 350 5250 6563 954.5 440.9 3579.5 1240.9 573.2 4653.4 1233.8 569.8 4626.6 1758.8 812.3 6595.3
PART 1 EUROCODE 103

11.7 Anchors in Concrete
Design resistance of metal anchors (Method A) ETAG 001:2010 Annex C
Steel Tension
1.2
γ Ms = ≥ 1.4 Material partial safety factor [-] 3.2.2.2
f yk f uk
N Rd ,s = As f uk γ Ms
Design tensile resistance of metal anchor [kN] 5.2.2.2
Shear
γMs Condition
1.0 fuk ≤ 800 N/mm²
≥ 1.25 and Material partial safety factor [-] 3.2.2.2
f yk f uk
fyk/fuk ≤ 0.8
fuk > 800 N/mm²
1.5 or
fyk/fuk > 0.8
a) No lever arm, mortar thickness ≤ d/2: Design tensile resistance of metal anchor [kN] 5.2.3.2
V Rd ,s = 0.5 As f uk γ Ms
b) With lever-arm: Lever arm [mm] 4.2.2.4
l = a 3 + e1
Bending moment resistance [N·m] 5.2.3.2
(
M Rk ,s = 1.2Wel f uk 1 − N Sd / N Rd ,s )
V Rd ,s = α M M Rk ,s l Design shear resistance of metal anchor [kN]
Fixture restraint, αM:
αM Fixture Rotation
1.0 Free
2.0 Fixed
Concrete: γ Mc = 2.1 Material partial safety factor (low installation safety) 3.2.2.1
Tension Pull-out failure (concentric load):
0 1.5
N Rk ,c = 7.2 f ck ,cube hef Char. res. of single anchor in cracked concrete [kN] 5.2.2.4
Ac ,N Actual total area of concrete cone 1:1.5 slope [mm²]
Ac0,N = 9hef 2 Concrete cone area for single anchor [mm²]
ψ s ,N = 0.7 + 0.2 c hef ≤ 1.0 Edge distance factor [-]
ψ re ,N = 0.5 + hef 200 ≤ 1.0 Shell spalling factor [-]
Ac ,N 0
N Rd ,c = ⋅ψ s ,N ⋅ψ re ,N ⋅ N Rk ,c γ Mc
Ac0,N Design pull-out resistance (cracked concrete) [kN]
Splitting failure:
hef ≤ h/2 to avoid splitting failure 5.2.2.6
Concrete: γ Mc = 1.5 Material partial safety factor 3.2.2.1

Shear Pry-out failure:
V Rd ,cp = 2 ⋅ N Rk ,c γ Mc Pry-out failure for hef ≥ 60mm. [kN] 5.2.3.3
Pry-out failure (concentric load):
0.5
(
α = 0.1 l f c1 ) ; β = 0.1 ( d c1 )0.2 lf is the effective anchor depth for shear [-] 2.4
0
V Rd = 1.7 d hef α β
f ck ,cube c1 1.5 Char. res. of single anchor in cracked concrete [kN] 5.2.3.4
,c
Concrete cone area for single anchor [mm²]
Ac0,V = 4.5c1 2
Actual total area of concrete cone 1:1.5 slope [mm²]
Ac ,V
Edge distance factor [-]
ψ s ,V = 0.7 + 0.3 c2 c1 ≤ 1.0
Member thickness factor [-]
ψ h,V = 1.5c1 h ≥ 1.0
Ac ,V 0
V Rd ,c = ⋅ψ s ,V ⋅ψ h ,V ⋅ V Rk ,c γ Mc Design pry-out resistance (cracked concrete) [kN]
Ac0,V
Concrete: (NSd/NRd,s) 2 + (VSd/VRd,s)2 ≤ 1.0 Steel failure interaction 5.2.4

Combined NSd/NRd,c) 1.5
+ (VSd/VRd,c) 1.5
≤ 1.0 Concrete failure interaction
104 PART 1 EUROCODE

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES BUILDING PHYSICS
I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS

12.1 Thermal Performance
12.1.1 Thermal transmittance (U-value)
EN ISO 10077-2 – Software validation
CWCT - Guidance
EN ISO 12631 – Calculation
EN ISO 10211-1 – Linear and/or point thermal transmittance
Part L2A cl. 4.12 & 5.1 to 5.8 – developing construction details
12.1.2 Condensation
EN ISO 13788 – Boundary conditions
CWCT – Guidance
EN 15927 – External conditions
12.1.3 Solar and light performance
EN 410 – Method
Part L – G-values
ASTM C 1649 & C1650 – Colour in reflection and transmission
CIE technical report 130/1998 – Measurements of reflectance and transmission
12.2 Acoustic Performance
12.2.1 Airborne sound insulation
EN ISO 10140 – Min. sound reduction indices
12.2.2 Vertical flanking sound
EN ISO 10848 – Laboratory measurement
EN ISO 717-1 – Weighted average
12.2.3 Horizontal flanking sound
EN ISO 10848 – Laboratory measurement
EN ISO 717-1 – Weighted average
12.2.4 Noise control
EN 61672-1 – Sound level meters
12.3 Fire Performance
Part B – Materials
12.3.1 Fire and smoke stopping
Part B – Materials
BS 476-20,22 – Fire stop
EN 12101-1 – Fire stop
12.3.2 Fire rating
PART 1 EUROCODE 105

FAÇADE NOTES
PART II
BRITISH STANDARDS
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
Table of Contents
II-1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 5
1.1 Materials for patent glazing construction 5
1.2 Corrosion 6
1.3 Corrosion protection 7
II-2 LOADS 9
2.1 Definitions 9
2.2 Dead load (D) 9
2.3 Imposed load (L) 10
2.4 Snow load (S) 12
2.5 Wind load (W) 14
2.6 Thermal load (T) 24
2.7 Seismic load (E) 25
2.8 Blast load, BL 25
II-3 SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE 27

3.1 Deflection 27
3.2 Common structural movements 28
3.1 Cutain wall accommodation of structural movements 29
3.2 Structural tolerance 32
II-4 STEEL DESIGN 39

4.2 Steel mullion moment of inertia 40
4.3 Steel transom moment of inertia 41
II-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 43

5.2 Minimum profile thickness to prevent local buckling 44
5.3 Aluminium mullion moment of inertia 46
5.4 Aluminium transom moment of inertia 47
II-6 GLASS DESIGN 49

6.1 Properties of glass 49
6.2 Structural sealant glazing (SSG) 49
6.3 Overhead glazing 49
6.4 Safety glass 49
6.5 Balustrades 50
6.6 Glass fins 52
II-7 STONE DESIGN 55

7.1 Properties 55
7.2 Design of thin stone for cladding 56
BRITISH STANDARDS 3
MATERIAL PROPERTIES STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
II-8 CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS 57

8.1 CWCT test methods for building envelopes 57
8.2 Impact Resistance of Wall Components [BS 8200] 58
8.3 Windows and Vents 59
II-9 RAINSCREEN CLADDING 61

9.1 Pressure-equalised system 61
9.2 Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) 61
9.3 Subframes 61
II-10 ROOFS 62
10.1 Minimum Slope of Roofs and their Gutters [BS 6229 Cl. 7.3] 62
II-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 63

11.1 Fastening bolts and screws 63
11.2 Weld 66
11.3 Guide to welding 68
11.4 Bracket 70
4 BRITISH STANDARDS
Structural Engineer’s Façade Notes MATERIAL PROPERTIES
II-1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

1.1 Materials for patent glazing construction
Patent glazing are self-draining and ventilated system of dry glazing that does not rely entirely for its water-
tightness upon external glazing seals.
Materials for patent glazing construction BS 5516-1:2004
Material Use Material Grade & treatment Finish
Aluminium Architectural Extrusion, - 6060 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997 - Anodised to BS 3987
members bars & rods - 6063 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997 - Liquid organic coated to
(e.g. mullion, BS 4842
transom, fin, beam, - Polyester powder
capping, etc.) coating to BS 6496
Structural members Extrusion, - 6005A, 6061, 6082 or 7020 T6 to BS

(e.g. Backet, sword, bars & rods EN 755-2:1997
crimping angle,
glass support, etc.)
Flashing Site formed - 1050 O/H111 to BS EN 485-2:2007
sheets
Preformed - 1200, 3103, 5005 or 5251 to BS EN
sheets 485-2:2007
Fasteners Bolt or screw - 5056A H4 to BS 1473
Steel Structural members Hot rolled - S355 to BS EN 10025-2:2004 - Hot dipped galvanized
sections to BS EN ISO 1461
- Zinc sprayed to BS EN
Hot rolled - S355 orS460 to BS EN 10210:2006
22063
hollow
- Organic coated to BS
sections
6497
Plates & Flats Hot rolled - S235or S355 to BS EN 10025-2:2004
- S460 to BS EN 10137-1:1996
Sheets for cold Hot rolled - DD11 to BS EN 10111:2008 ???
bending
Cold formed - D01 to BS EN 10130:2006 ???
Fasteners Bolt or screw - Gr. 4.6, 8.8 or 10.9 to BS 4190 - Electroplating with zinc
- HSFG to BS 4395 or cadmium to BS 3382
- Chromate passivated
and sealed to BS 6338
Stainless
steel
Fasteners Bolt or screw - A2 or A4 to BS EN 3506
BRITISH STANDARDS 5
MATERIAL PROPERTIES STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.2 Corrosion
1.2.1 Bimetallic/glavanic corrosion
When two different metals are in electrical contact and are also bridged by water containing an electrolyte
(e.g. water containing salt, acid, combustion product), current flows through the solution from the anodic or
baser metal to the cathodic or nobler metal. As a result, the nobler metal tends to be protected, but the base
metal may suffer great corrosion.
Bimetallic corrosion CWCT TN 24:2000
Electro negative, anodic, baser, active Zinc
Aluminium
Steel
Cast irons
Cast irons (austenitic)
Stainless steel
Electro positive, cathodic, nobler, passive
Bimetallic corrosion of metals in contact BS PD 6484:1979

Corrosion of… Zinc Aluminium Steels Cast irons Cast irons Stainless steel*
(carbon and low (austenitic or
alloy) nickel cast iron)
Rural
Rural
Rural
Rural
Rural
Rural
Industrial/urban
Marine
Industrial/urban
Marine
Industrial/urban
Marine
Industrial/urban
Marine
Industrial/urban
Marine
Industrial/urban
Marine
coupled
with…
Zinc ░ ░ ░ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Aluminium 0 0-1 0-1 ░ ░ ░ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Steels (carbon
0-1 1 1-2 1 1 3 ░ ░ ░ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0-1
and low alloy)
Cast irons 0-1 1 1-2 0 1 2 0-1 0-1 2 ░ ░ ░ 0 0 0 0 1 -
Cast irons
0-1 1 1-2 1 (2) (3) (0-1) (0-1) (0-2) 0 0-1 1 ░ ░ ░ - (0) -
(austenitic)
Stainless steel 0-1 0-1 0-1 0 1 2 1 - 2-3 0-1 1-2 1-2 0 0 (1) ░ ░ ░
Key
0 - Metal will suffer either no bimetallic corrosion, or at most only very slightly, usually tolerable in service.
1 - Metal will suffer slight or moderate bimetallic corrosion which may be tolerable in some circumstances.
2 - Metal may suffer fairly severe bimetallic corrosion and protective measures will usually be necessary
3 - Metal may suffer severe bimetallic corrosion and contact should be avoided.
() Ratings in brackets are based on very limited evidences and hence are less certain.
* Effect depends on relative areas. If the area of the stainless steel is small in relation to that of the coupled metal
there may be considerable extra corrosion.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS
Structural Engineer’s Façade Notes MATERIAL PROPERTIES
1.2.2 Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion occurs in crevices and recesses, or under deposits of dirt or corrosion products, where
there is localised depletion of dissolved oxygen. Such conditions can initiate corrosion of some normally
resistant metals (e.g. aluminium and stainless steel) by preventing the formation of the natural protective
oxide film. Crevice corrosion can be particularly damaging as it is both localised and likely to occur for
relatively long periods as by its nature it takes place at locations that do not dry out rapidly.
Surfaces located below projections are not rainwashed, enabling dirt to accumulate and moisture to be
retained at the metal surface, underneath which crevice corrosion can begin. Water can also become trapped
at many details and interfaces, for example:
Between lap joints of sheeting, or between sheets and support rails,
Between bolted plates and underneath bolt heads,
Where sheets project into gutters,
Within small welding imperfections or furrows across the surface of polished metal panels.
Crevice corrosion may be prevented by using non-absorbent gaskets, by removing accumulated deposits
frequently and avoiding details that trap water.
1.2.3 Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion is another form of very localised corrosion in which small anodic areas in contact with large
cathodic areas corrode to form pits or holes. They ordinarily penetrate from the top of a horizontal surface
downwards in a nearly vertical direction. A pit may be initiated by a localised surface defect such as a scratch
or a slight variation in material composition.
In steel it is an extremely insidious type of corrosion, often going undetected as the volume of corrosion
product is small. In aluminium the volume of corrosion product is very much greater than the volume of the
pit. The corrosion reaction can therefore be inhibited by selfsealing of the pit.
1.3 Corrosion protection
1.3.1 Zinc coating
BRITISH STANDARDS 7
II-2 LOADS
2.1 Definitions
Definition of loading capacities IRATA
Category Load/strength Definition
Ultimate limit state Tensile strength the force required (usually minimum or average) to a member to the
(factored loads) point where it breaks
Characteristic strength value of the strength below which only 5% of all test results would be
expected (probability) to fail
Yield strength The load at which a member experiences a specified amount of
permanent deformation
Proof load the greatest load applied without straining it beyond the elastic limit
(no evidence of deformation)
Service load Rated capacity the minimum load a complete assembly can withstand before failure
(non-factored in a laboratory pull test when the product is NEW
loads)
Breaking load the lowest breaking force when tested to destruction
Working load limit the maximum load, specified by the manufacturer following an
(WLL) assessment by a competent person, authorized to support when the
product is new and when the pull is applied in-line, unless noted
otherwise, with respect to the centreline of the member
Safe working load the breaking load divided by an appropriate factor of safety (usually
(SWL) ≥ 2.0) giving a ‘safe’ load that could be lifted or be carried. No
additional safety factors required. Ceased to be used in American,
ISO and European standards because of legal implications.
Devices with Maximum rated load maximum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to
counter-mass be used with, as specified by the manufacturer
Minimum rated load minimum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to
be used with, as specified by the manufacturer
2.2 Dead load (D)

2.2.1 Permanent attachements
Typical loads supported from internal surfaces BS 8200:1985 Table 5
Fixtures Description Load
Cupboard Well loaded, 1.2 x 0.7 x 0.3 m 2.5 kN
Washbasin 1.5 kN
Bookshelves Per meter of shelf 0.60 kN/m
2
Per square metre of wall face 2.0 kN/m
BRITISH STANDARDS 9
2.3 Imposed load (L)

2.3.1 Occupancy live load
Vertical load
Internal ledges and framing members shall carry a vertical load of 1.0 kN or a distributed load of 0.6 kN/m²,
whichever is onerous, according to CWCT Cl. 2.3.3. & BS 6399-1 Cl. 10.
Barrier loads
Horizontal loads applied either as a line acting at a height 1100mm above the finished internal floor level, or
a distributed or point load on infill panels below this level.
Minimum horizontal loads on barriers BS 6399-1:1996 Table 4
Occupancy Specific use Horizontal Uniform Infill Point load,
Line load, ILL load, ILQ ILP
2
[kN/m] [kN/m ] [kN]*
A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one single 0.36 0.5 0.25
Domestic and family dwelling including stairs, landings, etc. but
residential activities excluding external balconies and edges of roofs
(see C3 ix)
(ii) Other residential, (but also see C) 0.74 1.0 0.5
B and E (v) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office 0.74 1.0 0.5
Offices and work and institutional buildings also industrial and
areas not included storage buildings except as given above
elsewhere including
storage areas
C (vi) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of 1.5 1.5 1.5
Areas where people the barrier, balustrade or parapet
may congregate
C1/C2 (vii) Restaurants and bars 1.5 1.5 1.5
Areas with tables or
fixed seating
C3 (ix) External balconies and edges of roofs. 0.74 1.0 0.5
Areas without Footways and pavements within building
obstacles for curtilage adjacent to basement/sunken areas
moving people and
not susceptible to
overcrowding
D (xiii) All retail areas including public areas of 1.5 1.5 1.5
Retail areas banks/building societies or betting shops. For areas
where overcrowding may occur, see C5
Note: * Clause 5.1.3: When used for the calculation of local effects such as crushing and punching, the
concentrated loads should be assumed to act at a position and over an area of application appropriate
to their cause.
Where this cannot be foreseen, a square contact area with a 50 mm side should be assumed.
Minimum barrier heights BS 6180:1999 Table 1
Use Position Height [mm]
Single family dwelling Barriers in front of a window 800
Stairs, landings, ramps, edges of internal floors 900
External balconies, juliet balconies, edges of roofs 1100
All other uses Barriers in front of a window, balconies and stands, etc. 800
having fixed seating within 530mm of the barrier
Stairs 900
Other positions including juliet balconies 1 100
10 BRITISH STANDARDS
Balcony live load
Minimum Imposed Load on Balconies BS 6399-1:1986 Table 1
Load Description Uniformly distributed Concentrated Load,
load, [kN]
2
[kN/m ]
A Single dwelling units 1.5 1.4
Domestic and residential activities
Guests houses, clubs 3.0 1.5kN/m on outer edge
Hotels and motels 4.0 1.5kN/m on outer edge
B, C and E Balconies 4.0 1.5kN/m on outer edge
Offices and work areas not included
elsewhere, areas where people may
congregate, including storage areas
2.3.2 Roof live load

Minimum Imposed Roof Loads BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4
Live Load Description Slope, α Load Reference
2
Roof with access Uniformly distributed load - 1.5 kN/m BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4.2
Concentrated load - 1.8 kN
2
Roof with no access Uniformly distributed load α ≤ 30˚ 0.6 kN/m BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4.3.1
2
30˚ < α < 60˚ 0.6[(60-α)/30] kN/m
60˚ < α 0
Concentrated load - 0.9 kN
Note: “access” means access in addition to that necessary for cleaning and repair.
“no access” means access for cleaning and repair only.
2.3.3 Maintainance load

Other Loads
Live Load Description Load Reference
Maintenance crew Man leaning against the wall 0.4 kN BS 8200:1985 Cl. 6.5
Man on ladder 0.5 kN BS 8200:1985 Cl. 6.5
Cradle/Man/Ladder Horizontal load on square of 100mm sides 0.5 kN CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.3
1
On Patent glazing Perpendicular to Sloping patent glazing 0.695 kN · cos(α) BS 5516-1:2004 Ann. D
Horizontal load on Vertical patent glazing 0.172 kN
Industrial type Occasional access - inspection or 1.5 kN/m² or 1.0 kN* BS4592-0:2006 Table 1
flooring/walkways maintenance by one person
Light duty – regular one way pedestrian 3.0 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*
General duty – regular two way pedestrian 5.0 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*
Heavy duty – high density pedestrian 7.5 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*
1
Note: Maintenance load should never be carried directly by the infilling (glass or panel). See BS 5516-1:2004
Annex D
* Concentraled load over an area of 300mm × 300mm.
BRITISH STANDARDS 11
2.4 Snow load (S)

Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to
BS 6399-3 Cl. 5.
Snow load calculation BS6399-3:1988
2
Data Sb Basic snow load, [kN/m ] Figure 1
A Site altitude, [m] 6.2
α Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] 7.2.2
2
Site snow load S alt = 0.1S b + 0.09 Altitude correction, [kN/m ] 6.2
 A - 100  2
S o = S b + S alt   Altitude correction, [kN/m ] 6.2
 100 
Roof Case-1: Uniform Load (a) Flat or Monopitch Roof (b) Duopitch Roof
Shape a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚:
coefficient µ1 = 0.8 Figure 2
b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:
 60 - α  Figure 3(a)
µ1 = 0.8  
 30 
c) α > 60˚
µ1 = 0
Case-2: Asymmetric Load

a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 15˚:
µ1 = 0 Figure 3(b)
b) 15˚ < α ≤ 30˚:
 α - 15 
µ1 = 0.8 + 0.4  
 15 
c) 30˚ < α < 60˚:
 60 - α 
µ1 = 1.2  
 30 
d) α > 60˚
µ1 = 0
Canopy b1 Width of canopy projection 7.4.5

Shape b2 Width of abutting taller building 7.4.5
Coefficient ho1 Differential height 7.4.5
Case-1: b1 ≤ 5 m Figure 2
ls1 = 5ho1 or b1 (lesser)
Figure 9
2h o1 2b
µ1 = or or 5 (least)
So l s1
Case-2: b1 > 5 m
ls1 = 5ho1 or b1 or 15m (least)
2h o1 2b
µ1 = or or 8 (least) Figure 6
So l s1
2
Design snow S d = µ1 ⋅ S 0 Design snow load, [kN/m ] 5
load
2
Basic snow load on the ground, Sb in kN/m BS 6399-3 Fig. 1
2.5 Wind load (W)

2.5.1 Minimum wind load
2
CWCT 2.2.4 Table 2.1: the minimum wind load for design should be 0.80 kN/m .
2.5.2 Relevant dimensions in BS 6399-2:1997
For low-rise buildings (H < D), according to Table 5, the effect of building plan dimension is more severe on
the positive pressure of the windward face (front) when the inwind depth “D” is the shorter dimension. Albeit,
the directional factor is conservatibely assumed at unity.
However, for high-rise buildings (H ≥ D), according to section 2.4.1.4, funnelling is more critical when the
crosswind breadth “B” is the smaller dimension.
2.5.3 Horizontal zoning
CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.2.3: Under normal circumstances there shall be no horizontal zoning of wind pressure to
give lower design loads on the envelope nearer the ground.
CWCT TN4:2000: For tall buildings the wind load at the top will be greater than that near ground level due to
the increase in wind speed with height. BRE Digest 436 states that this variation in pressure with height only
applies to the positive wind pressure on the windward face and is not applicable to suction loads on the side
and rear faces.
2.5.4 Probability factor
The wind map in BS 6399 gives wind speeds that has an annual risk of being exceeded of Q = 0.02 (it should
not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years).
To vary the basic wind speed for other such annual probabilities the basic wind speed should be multiplied
by:
5-ln[-ln(1-Q)]
Sp = - Probability factor
5-ln[-ln(0.98)]
where:
R
 1 L
Q = 1-  1-  - Risk of exceedence of a given R-return period wind speed in L
 R
years
Examples:
Sp = 0.749; Q = 0.632 - Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 1 year
Sp = 0.905; Q = 0.096 - Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 10 years
2.5.5 Calculating dynamic pressure
Below is an outline to calculate the dynamic pressure for buildings qs, using standard method
Wind load calculation BS6 399-2 :1997
Data Vb Basic wind speed, Figure 6 [m/s] 2.2.1
∆s Site altitude above mean sea level, [m] 2.2.2.2
Factors Sa = 1 + 0.001∆s Altitude factor, [-]

Sd = 1.00 (conservatively) Directional factor, Table 3 [-] 2.2.2.3
Ss = 1.00 (for permanent buildings) Seasonal factor, Table Annex D.1 [-] 2.2.2.4
Sp = 1.00 (for normal applications)
Probability factor, Annex D.1 [-] 2.2.2.5
Site Wind
speed Vs = Vb · Sa · Sd · Ss · Sp
Site wind speed, [m/s] 2.2.2.1
Data H Building height, [m]
Hr Reference height for coefficient definition, [m] 1.7.3.1
Ho Obstruction height, [m] 1.7.3.3
Xo Upwind space, [m] 1.7.3.3
Determine a) for Xo ≤ 2Ho, greater of:
Effective height, [m] 1.7.3.4
Effective He = Hr - 0.8Ho
1.7.3.2
height He = 0.4Hr
b) for 2Ho < Xo < 6Ho, greater of:

He = Hr - 1.2Ho + 0.2Xo
He = 0.4Hr;
c) for Xo ≥ 6Ho
He = Hr
Standard a) for He ≤ 20 m
Method Sb Terrain and building factor, Table 4 [-] 2.2.3.3
b) for He ≤ 100 m
Sb
Ve = Vs · Sb
Effective wind speed, [m/s] 2.2.3.1
Directional c) for He > 100m
Method Site in country:
Sc Fetch factor, Table 22 [-]
St Turbulence factor, Table 22 [-]
Sh = 0.0 (conservatively) Topograhic increment, [-] 3.2.3.3.4
gt = 3.44 (for cladding & their fixing)
Gust peak factor, [-] 3.2.3.3.3
Sb = Sc[1+ Sh + (gt · St)]
Terrain and building factor, [-] 3.2.3.2.2
Site in town:
Sc·Tc Fetch factor, Table 22 & 23 [-]
St·Tt Turbulence factor, Table 22 & 23 [-]
Sh = 0.0 (conservatively) Topograhic increment, [-]
gt = 3.44 (for cladding & their fixing) Gust peak factor, [-] 3.2.3.3.4
3.2.3.3.3
Sb = Sc·Tc [1+ Sh + (gt · St·Tt)] Terrain and building factor, [-]
Effective wind 3.2.3.2.3
speed Ve = Vs · Sb Effective wind speed, [m/s]
2.2.3.1
2 2
Pressure qs = 0.613 Ve Dynamic pressure, [N/m ] 2.1.2
2.5.6 Factors and coefficients

Basic wind speed, Vb in UK BS 6399-2:1997 Fig. 6
Terrain and building factor, Sb for He < 20m BS 6399-2:1997 Table 4

1.9
Country: ≤ 10km from sea
1.8
Country: 50km from sea
1.7 Country: ≥ 100km from sea

Terrain & bulding factor, Sb
1.6
1.5
1.4
Town: ≤ 10km from sea
1.3
Town: 50km from sea

1.2
Town: ≥ 100km from sea

1.1
1.0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Effective height, H e [m]
Terrain and building factor, Sb for He ≥ 20m BS 6399-2:1997 Table 4
2.10
2.05
2.00
Terrain & bulding factor, S b
1.95
Country/Town: ≤ 10km from sea

1.90
1.85 Country/Town: 50km from sea
1.80
Country/Town: ≥ 100km from sea
1.75
1.70
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Effective height, He [m]
Fetch factor, Sc and Adjusted, Sc·Tc BS 6399-2:1997 Table 22 & 23
1.8

1.7
b) Town Terrain: Adjusted fetch factor, S c ·T c
Country: ≥ 100km from sea

a) Country terrain: Fetch factor, S c
1.6
1.5
1.4 Town: ≤ 10km from sea
Town: 50km from sea

1.3
1.2
100 150 200 250 300
Effective height, He [m]
Turbulence factor, St and Adjusted, St·Tt BS 6399-2:1997 Table 22 & 23
0.180

b) Town Terrain: Adjusted turbulence factor, S t·Tt
0.160 Town: 50km from sea

a) Country terrain: Turbulence factor, S t
Town: ≤ 10km from sea

0.140
0.120
0.100
Country: ≥ 100km from sea

0.080

0.060
100 150 200 250 300
Effective height, H e [m]
2.5.7 Wind load on claddings
Design wind loads on vertical walls BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.4
Data B, D Crosswind breadth and inwind depth of building, [m] 2.4.1.3
D/H Slenderness ratio, [-] 2.4.1.2
b = lesser of B or 2H Scaling length, [m] 2.4.1.1
External External pressure coefficients,
Pressure Side wall External pressure coefficient [-] Table 5
Coefficient Funnelling
Zone Isolated
b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b
A -1.3 - 1.6
B -0.8 - 0.9
C -0.5 - 0.9
Windward wall
D/H ≤ 1 1 < D/H < 4 D/H ≥ 4
0.85 0.85-12(D/H-1) 0.6
Leeward wall
-0.5
Internal Cpi(+) = +0.2 Internal pressure coefficient for enclosed building, 2.6.1
Pressure Coef. Cpi(-) = -0.3 Table 16 [-]
2
Net surface Pw = qs [CpeW – Cpi(-)] Wind pressure on windward wall, [kN/m ] 2.1.3.3
2
Pressure PL = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)] Wind suction on leeward wall, [kN/m ]
a) Zone A (local), 0.2b:
PA = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)]
b) Zone B, b-0.2b:
PB = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)]
c) Zone C, D-b:
PC = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)]
Wind Load in London

Building height Pressure Isolated [kN/m²] Funnelling [kN/m²]
LONDON
[m] [kN/m²] Suction Local Suction Local
Low-rise bldg. 10 0.89 -0.77 -1.16 -0.85 -1.39
Intermediate 25 1.15 -1.00 -1.50 -1.10 -1.81
Medium-rise 50 1.31 -1.14 -1.71 -1.25 -2.05
High-rise 100 1.43 -1.25 -1.87 -1.37 -2.24
Skyscraper 200 1.57 -1.37 -2.05 -1.51 -2.46
200 Pressure
Funnelling-lo
Isolated-local
Funnelling-suc
Isolated-suctio
150
Building Height [m]
cal
n
tion
100
50
0
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Wind Load [kN/m²]
2.5.8 Pressure on rainscreen acc. to CWCT:2005 Cl.2.2.5

Drained and ventilated envelope: q·Cpe
Pressure-equalised rainscreen panel complying to CWCT Cl. 2.2.6: 2/3·q·Cpe
2.5.9 Wind load on long elements

Design wind loads on long elements BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.7
Data B, L Width and length of element, [m] 2.7.2.2
Circular section: 2.7.3
Cp = 1.2 Table 20
Net Pressure Sharp-edged sections:
Coefficient Cp = 2.0
Reduction a) for element with free ends 2.7.3

factor effective = L/B Fig. 25
b) for one end fixed to a plane
effective = 2L/B
c) for both ends fixed to opposite planes
κ = 1.0
Net Pressure P = qs·Cp· κ 2.1.3.3
2.5.10 Wind load on free-standing solid wall and cladding fins

Design wind loads on free-standing solid walls BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.8.1
Data h, L Height and length of free-stand wall, [m] Fig. 26
Without return corners:
Cp,A = 3.4; Cp,B = 2.1 Table 21
Net Pressure CpC = 1.7; CpD = 1.2
Coefficient With return corners ≥ h:
Cp,A = 2.1; Cp,B = 1.8
CpC = 1.4; CpD = 1.2
Reduction a) for L/h ≤ 3 Table 21a
factors κ = 0.6
b) for 3 < L/h ≤ 5
κ = 0.6 + (L/h – 3)/20
c) for 5 < L/h ≤ 10
κ = 0.7 + (L/h – 5)/25
d) for 10 < L/h ≤ 15
κ = 0.9 + (L/h – 10)/50
e) for L/h > 15
κ = 1.0
Net Pressures a) Zone A (local), 0.3h: 2.1.3.3
PA = qs·CpA· κ
b) Zone B, 2h-0.3h:
PB = qs·CpB· κ
c) Zone C, 4h-2h:
PC = qs·CpC· κ
d) Zone D, L-4h:
PD = qs·CpD· κ
2.5.11 Wind load on sign boards

Design wind loads on sign boards BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.8.2
Action Values Clause
Data h, B Fig. 28
Net Pressure Requirement: Gap ≥ h/2
Coefficient Cp = 1.8 2.8.2
Net Pressure P = qs·Cp 2.1.3.3
2.5.12 Wind load on canopies attached to tall buildings [BRE NJ Cook]
2.5.13 Balconies and vertical Fin features [BRE NJ Cook]
2.5.14 Wind load on corner cladding
The table below shows the combination of external pressure coefficients (Cpe) for every wind load direction.
Directional wind method BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 3
2.6 Thermal load (T)

Material and components of the cladding shall be capable of accommodating stresses generated by
differential temperatures.
2.6.1 Temperature difference for checking of cladding components
Service temperature ranges in UK CWCT:2005 Table 2.2, 2.3 & BRE Digest 228:1979 Table 2
Exposure Material Type Summer Winter
† †
Daytime Difference, Approx. Night-time Difference Approx.
maximum, (base 0˚C) expansion minimum, , (base contraction
TS [˚C] ∆TW [˚C] ∆L [mm/m] TW [˚C] +40˚C) ∆L [mm/m]
∆TW [˚C]
Exposed Glass Clear + 40 + 40 +0.32 - 25 - 65 -0.52
on one
side Coloured or solar + 90 + 90 +0.72
control
Cladding, Heavyweight, + 50 + 50 +1.15 (Al) - 20 - 60 -1.38 (Al)
Walling, light colour +0.80 (Ss) -0.96 (Ss)
and +0.60 (St) -0.72 (St)
Roofing
Heavyweight, + 65 + 65 +1.49 (Al)
dark colour +1.04 (Ss)
+0.78 (St)
Lightweight(insulated) + 60 + 60 +1.38 (Al) - 25 - 65 -1.49 (Al)
light colour +0.96 (Ss) -1.04 (Ss)
+0.72 (St) -0.78 (St)
Lightweight(insulated) + 80 + 80 +1.84 (Al)
dark colour +1.28 (Ss)
+0.96 (St)
Fully Metal Light colour + 50 + 50 +1.15 (Al) - 25 - 65 -1.49 (Al)
exposed +0.80 (Ss) -1.04 (Ss)
+0.60 (St) -0.78 (St)
Dark colour + 65 + 65 +1.49 (Al)
+1.04 (Ss)
+0.78 (St)
Concrete Light colour + 45 + 45 +0.54 - 20 - 60 -0.72
Dark colour + 60 + 60 +0.72
Internal Building Empty or out of use + 35 + 35 - -5 - 45 -
Normal use + 30 + 30 +0.24 (Gl) + 10 - 30 -0.24 (Gl)
+0.69 (Al) -0.69 (Al)
+0.48 (Ss) -0.48 (Ss)
+0.36 (St) -0.36 (St)
+0.12(Wd) -0.12(Wd)
†
Note: See CWCT 2.7.3 for expansion and contraction of components at the time of installation up to the normal
use of structure.
2.7 Seismic load (E)
Cladding elements shall be able to accommodate seismic movement of the main structure without falling
away and damage. Non-structural cladding shall not be used to stiffen or restrain the free deformation of the
main structure.
Cladding fixings and connections shall be designed to sustain the intertial forces due to excitation of the
cladding elements.
2.8 Blast load, BL
Expert in the field of blast structures shall be sought where performance of cladding be considered under
conditions of blast loading to determine the equivalent static loads derived from dynamic effects.
Cladding elements shall be designed under the equivalent static loads without load factors and reduction of
strength of the members by the code specified patial safety factors.
Minimum rebate depths recommended by the UK Ministry of Defence IStructE:1999 Table 15.1
Glass span Rebate
< 0.75 m 25 mm
0.75 m to 1.5 m 35 mm
min. bearing depth = 15mm + span/100
> 1.5 m
min. bearing depth = 20mm + span/100
Response of blast-resistant glazing to blast load
BLAST
PRESSURE
qz qz
qy qy
REBOUND FORCE

2.9.1 Load combination for serviceability limit states
The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered.
Vertical facade BS EN 1990 + CWCT TU14:2009

CO101: D + W p CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p Dead + wind pressure all
CO102: D + W s CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s Dead + wind suction others

1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.5·1.5L Dead + wind suction + imposed C
CO103: D + L (+ 0.5W s)* CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L (+ 0.5·1.5W s)* Dead + imposed (+ wind suction)* others
1.35D + 1.5L + 0.5·1.5W s Dead + imposed + wind suction C
Note: *Common additional project requirement.
Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing BS EN 1990 + CWCT TU14:2009

CO101: D + W p + 0.6S CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + 0.6·1.5·S Dead + wind downforce + snow all
D + W p + 0.6SA Dead + wind downforce + snow drift
CO102: D + S + 0.6W p CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + 0.6·1.5W p Dead + snow + wind downforce all
D + SA + 0.6W p Dead + snow drift + wind downforce
CO103: D + W s CO203: D + 1.5W s Dead + wind uplift all
CO104: D + L CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L Dead + leading imposed H
Overhead patent glazing BS 5516-2 BBSBS 5516-2:2004 Annex E.5.1

Combinations Description Occupancy
CO100: 2.6D Dead incl. member self-weight all
CO101: 2.6(D + 0.6S) + W p Dead + wind downforce + snow all
CO102: 2.6(D + S) + 0.6W p Dead + snow + wind downforce all
CO103: D + W s Dead + wind uplift all
CO104: 2.6D + L Dead + leading imposed/live H
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
II-3 SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE

3.1 Deflection
Deflection limits
Parts Component Description Limit Reference
Steel Beams Carrying brittle finish L/360 BS 5950-1
Table 8
Other beams L/200
Cantilevers L/180
Columns Horizontal sway H/300
Crane girders Vertical deflection Span/600
Horizontal deflection Span/500
Aluminium Mullions & transoms Single glazed L/175 BS 8118-1
under lateral loads Table 3.4
Double glazed L/250
Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish L/360
Cantilevers carrying floors L/180
CWCT In-plane Under dead and live load L/500 or 3mm 2.3.2.2
Framing members H ≤ 3000 [use EN13830] H/200 or 15mm 3.5.2.2
generally
3000 < H < 7500 H/300 + 5
7500 < H [use BS8118] H/250
Localised deflections: Single glazed L/125 3.5.2.4
Four-side supported
Double glazed L/175 or 15mm 3.5.2.5
2
Localised deflections: Single glazed (L) /180 000 3.5.2.4
Two-side supported 2
Double glazed (L) /540 000 or 20mm 3.5.2.5
Surfaces & framing Plasterboard or similar brittle materials L/360 or 10mm 3.5.2.7
members
Natural stone units L/360 or 3mm
†
Rainscreen panels Aluminium, glass or steel L/90 3.5.2.9
†
Stone or similar brittle material L/360
Residual deformation After one hour recovery 5%Def. or 1mm 3.5.2.11
Support displacement Diff. peak positive and peak negative 2mm 3.5.2.12
Patent Vertical and sloped Single glazed and coupled glazing S2/180 000 or 50mm BS 5516-1 & 2
Glazing glazing bars:
Insulating glass units S2/540 000 or 20mm Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl.
(Two-edge systems) 7.6.1.2
Vertical and sloped Single glazed and coupled glazing: S/125 Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl.
glazing bars: S ≤ 3000mm 7.6.1.3
(Four-edge systems)
Single glazed and coupled glazing: S/250 + 12mm or
S > 3000mm 40mm
Insulating glass units S/175 or 20mm
Point-supported Between support points, L L/200 or 20mm Cl. 7.6.1.4
In-plane deflection Not to reduce edge clearance between L/400 or 3mm Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl.
the member and the edge of the glazing 7.6.2
or any part immediately below it by
more than 25%
Grating Industrial type walkway Difference in level between loaded and L/200 or 10mm BS 4592-0:’06
neighbouring unloaded floor shall not Cl. 5.2.2
exceed 4mm.
†
Note: Greater deflection may be allowable, according to Cl. 3.5.2.9.
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Deflection limits
Parts Component Description Limit Reference
Glass Patent sloped glazing Centre of pane deflection L/65 BS 5516-2
Cl. 7.4.1
Deflection of edges acc. to supports
Free-standing Any part of barrier 25mm BS 6180
balustrade Cl. 6.4.1
Under imposed load h/65 or 25mm
Balustrade Infill panel L/80 or 25mm
3.2 Common structural movements

Building envelopes have to accommodate movement of their components and of the supporting structure,
and to make this possible building structures have to be sufficiently stiff.
Source: Pell Frischmann
Structural movements CWCT TN 56:2007

Movement Description Type Common values Clause
Floor Vertical movement due to Concrete structure L BS 8110-2 3.2.1.2
deflection structure self weight, dead load δv ≤ or 20mm
500
and live load.
Note: Differential floor live load Steel structure L BS 5950-1 Table 8
deflection is usually less.
δv ≤
360
Column Shrinkage or elastic shortening Cladding installed almost H BS 8110-2 8.2
shortening of concrete columns. immediately after pouring of δc ≤
2000
Note: Usually occurring first 6 concrete.
months after pouring of concrete
Cladding installed before H CWCT TN 56
shrinkage is complete δc ≤
6000
Sway Lateral movement due to wind Concrete structure H BS 8110-2 3.2.2.2
load and earthquake δh ≤
500
Note: Short term stochastic
reversible movements occurring Steel structure H BS 5950-1 Table 8
after cladding is installed
δh ≤
300
Settlement Heave caused by foundation Differential settlement L CWCT TN 56
movement between adjacent columns δs ≤
500
3.1 Cutain wall accommodation of structural movements

3.1.1 Stick System
The ability of framing members in a stick curtain wall to move or deflect in-plane without contacting the glass
is governed by the edge clearance between the glass and the frame.
Stick system behaviour under structure movement

Effect of floor deflection Effect of sway
Accomodation of structural movement CWCT TN56:2007

Action Values Notes
Definition a = tight size
b = pane size
c = edge distance
d = opening size
e = edge cover
f = rebate depth
Differential ∆δv(+) Floor-to-floor expansion [mm]

live load ∆δv(–) Floor-to-floor contraction [mm]
deflection
Mullion:
spigot depth ≥ ∆δv(+) Min. depth of spigot through
mullion at movement joint, [mm]
expansion gap ≥ ∆δv(–)
Min. clear distance between
mullions at movement joint,
[mm]
Glass horizontal joint, ch:
δD
fh ≥ ∆δv(+) Transom dead load deflection, [mm]
ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–) Min. horizontal rebate depth controlled by
expansion, [mm]
†
Glass vertical joint, cv : Min. horizontal edge distance controlled by contraction, [mm]
L
b, hg Span between columns, [mm]
hg Width and height of glass, [mm]
( )
cv ≥ ∆δ v(+) 4 3L3 − 4 L ⋅ b 2
L
Min. vertical edge distance controlled by vertical racking, [mm]
Sway δh Inter-storey drift due to building sway, [mm]
H Storey height, [mm]
Glass vertical joint, cv:
hg † Min. vertical edge distance controlled by horizontal racking, [mm]
cv ≥ δ h
H
†
Note: For large cv requirements the glazing or panel will contact the frame at diagonally opposed corners and
forced to rotate acting as a diagonal strut. The infill should be checked for induced stresses due to this.
3.1.2 Unitized system

Unitized curtain wall elements accommodate movements at the split-mullion and split-transom joints.
CW Element Stack-joint movement accommodation CWCT TN56:2007
Movement Remarks
CW element Fabrication tolerance Before Notes:
a cladding a Every floor undergoes dead load and creep deformation
Instantaneous Structure self-weight installation at approximately the same rate except at ground floor and
a
Structure creep roof.
b
a,b Every floor of completed CW element installation, the
Curtain wall DL After levelling bolts are adjusted to zero out structure deflection
a cladding due to cladding weight.
Finish DL installation c Only differential deflection between adjacent floors are
a
Slab creep relevant to the curtain wall.
c
Long-term Live load
a
Slab creep
Column shortening/creep
i. Elements with spigot fixing

Racking of unitised system with spigot fixing
Under differential live load deflection Under lateral sway (storey drift)
CW Element accomodation of structural movement CWCT TN56:2007

Action Values Notes
deflection Stack joint, ch:
δD Transom dead load deflection, [mm]
ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–) Clear space between any contacting material in the split transom
stack joint, [mm]
coupling ≥ ∆δv(+)
Depth of penetration of male split-transom profile’s leg into the
Saddle gasket, cg: female profile, [mm]
L
Span between columns, [mm]
b
Width of element, [mm]
δ
(
c g ≥ v4 3L3 b − 4 Lb 3
L
) Minimum saddle gasket play, [mm]
Sway δh Inter-storey drift due to building sway, [mm]

H Storey height, [mm]
h Height of element, [mm]
Saddle gasket, cg:
b Min. vertical edge distance controlled by horizontal racking, [mm]
c g ≥ δh
H
Combined δv Full differential live load deflection + partial sway
effect
cg ≥
L 4 ( 3L b − 4 Lb ) + 12 δ
3 3
h
b
H
1 δv b Partial differential live load deflection + full sway
cg ≥
2 L4
(
3L3 b − 4 Lb 3 ) + δh
H
ii. Elements without spigot fixing
Racking of unitised system without spigot fixing
Under differential live load deflection Under lateral sway (storey drift)
CW Element accomodation of structural movement CWCT TN56:2007

Action Values Notes
deflection Stack joint, ch:
δD Transom dead load deflection, [mm]
ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–) Clear space between any contacting material in the split
transom stack joint, [mm]
coupling ≥ ∆δv(+)
Depth of penetration of male split-transom profile’s leg into the
female profile, [mm]
Mullion vertical joint, cv:
L
Span between columns, [mm]
b
hb Width of element, [mm]
32h Height of split transom to bracket level, [mm]
2
cv,c ≥ δ v 4 b b ( L − b )
L
Minimum vertical joint clear gap for contraction, [mm]
2hb  ( L + 2b ) ( L − 2b ) 
2 2
cv ,e = δ v  1− 
b  L 4
 Maximum vertical joint expansion, [mm]
 
Sway No concerns!
3.2 Structural tolerance

3.2.1 Concrete Structures
The permitted deviation ∆ given here are generally twice the deviation, as the values are given as both plus
and minus numbers, except where separate plus or minus values are given (NSCS Guidance section 10.1.).
The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with
a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. Where it is applied to the whole building
the tolerance is as given by Cl. 10.2.1; where it is applied to an individual element the tolerance is ± 20 mm.
Tolerances National Structural Concrete Specification, NSCS:2009
Structure Type Description Permitted deviation [mm] Clause
Overall Inclination Location of any column, wall  H  10.2.1
structure or floor edge, at any storey ∆ = min  ; 50 
 200 n 
level from any vertical plane
through its intended design n H approx. ∆
centre at base level 2 6 m 20 = ±10mm
3 10 m 30 = ±15mm
6 20 m 40 = ±20mm
10 30 m 50 = ±25mm
Level Level of floors measured H ≤ 10m : ∆ = 15 10.2.2

relative to the intended 10m < H < 100m: ∆ = 0.5(H+20)
design level at the reference
H ≥ 100m : ∆ = 0.2(H+200)
level
H approx. ∆
20 m 20 = ±10mm
60 m 40 = ±20mm
100 m 60 = ±30mm
Base Plan section Intended plan position ∆ = 25 10.3.1
support
Foundations
Vertical section Supporting concrete ∆ = 20 10.3.2

superstructure
Supporting steel ∆ = −15/+5

superstructure
Foundation Preset bolts prepared for Distance of centre of a bolt ∆ = 6 10.4.1

bolts and adjustment group from intended design
similar position
inserts
Location of bolt tip and ∆y , ∆z = 10
protrusion
∆ p = − 5/+25
Preset bolts not prepared for Distance of centre of a bolt ∆ = 3 10.4.2

adjustment group from intended design
position
Location of bolt tip and ∆y , ∆z = 3
protrusion
∆ p ,∆x = − 5/+45
Elements - Position on plan Position of the element ∆ = 10 10.5.1
Columns and centre line relative to the
walls actual location of the
element at the level below
Verticality by storey Inclination of a column or h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.5.2

wall at any level
h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
h in mm
Offset between floors Deviation between ∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 60;10} ≤ 20 10.5.3

centrelines at floor level
Curvature between adjacent Curvature of an element h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.5.4

floors between adjacent storey
h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
levels
h in mm
Level per storey Level of adjacent floors at ∆ = 10 10.5.5

supports
Distance apart Between adjacent columns ∆ = max {l 600;20} ≤ 40 10.5.6

and walls
Elements - Location of beam to column Measured relative to the ∆ = max {b 30;20} 10.6.1
Beams and connection column
slabs
Position of bearing axis ∆ = max {l 20;15} 10.6.2

support
Straightness of beam Horizontal straightness ∆ = max {l 600;15} 10.6.3
Distance apart Between adjacent beams ∆ = max {l 600;20} ≤ 40 10.6.4
Inclination of beam or slab Difference in level across a ∆ = 10 + l 500 10.6.5

beam or slab at
corresponding points in any
direction
Level of adjacent beams Measured at corresponding ∆ = 10 + l 500 10.6.6

points
Position of slab edge Relative to actual slab edge ∆ = 10 10.6.7

position on the floor below
Section of Cross-section dimension of Beams, slabs, columns and l ≤ 150 : ∆ = 10 10.7.1

elements elements other elements covering 150<l ≤ 400 : ∆ = 7+l 50
length, breadth and depth
( l − 400 )
400<l < 2500: ∆ = 15+
140
l ≥ 2500 : ∆ = 30
Squareness of element Beams, slabs, columns and ∆ = max {a 25;10} ≤ 20 10.7.2

other elements
Position of Location of reinforcement Gives the tolerance of cover h ≤ 150 : ∆ = 10 10.8.1

reinforcemen to reinforcement within an 150<h ≤ 400 : ∆ = 7+l 50
t within element
elements ( l − 400 )
400<h < 2500: ∆ = 15+
420
h ≥ 2500 : ∆ = 20
Length of reinforcement lap ∆ = 0.06 ⋅ l 10.8.2

joints
Surface Flatness Basic unformed surface ∆global = 12 ; ∆local = 5 10.9.1
straightness
Ordinary unformed surface ∆global = 9 ; ∆local = 3
Ordinary surfaces ∆global = 9 ; ∆local = 5
Plain surfaces ∆global = 9 ; ∆local = 3
Edge straightness Floor slab or element l ≤ 1000 : ∆ = 8 10.9.2

l > 1000 : ∆ = min {8·l;20}
Holes and Holes Size and location of hole Position: 10.10.1

fixings relative to design position ∆1 = 10
Size:
l2 ≤ 150 :∆=6
150<l2 ≤ 400 :∆=0.6+0.036l2
( l2 − 400 )
400<l2 < 2500:∆=15+
140
l2 ≥ 2500 :∆=30
Cast-in fixings Individual or group of fixing ∆1 , ∆2 = 10 10.10.2

location relative to the
intended design position
Cast-in bolts and similar Individual or group of fixing ∆1 = 6 10.10.3

fixings location relative to the ∆2 = 3
intended design position
∆3 = max {l3 200; 5}
∆ protrusion = − 5/+25
3.2.2 Structural Steel

Deviations of erected components National Structural Steel Specification, NSSS:2007
Structure Type Description Permitted deviation [mm] Clause
Columns Position at base Deviation of column section ∆ = 10 9.6.1
centre line from specified
position
Level at base Deviation of the top of the ∆ = ±5 9.6.2

base plate from specified level
Plumb – single storey Deviation of top relative to ∆ = ± max { H 600;5} ≤ 25 9.6.3

base, excluding portal frame
column, on main axes.
Plumb – multi storey Deviation in each storey ∆h = ± max { H 600;5} 9.6.4
Maximum deviation relative to ∆H = ± 50

base for up to 10 storeys
Maximum deviation relative to To be agreed with the Engineer
base for more than 10 storeys
Bearing surface Gap between bearing ∆ = (D 1000 ) + 1 9.6.5

surfaces
Eccentricity at column splice Non-intended eccentricity ∆ = 5 9.6.6

about either axis
Alignment at column splice Straightness of a spliced ∆ = s 500 9.6.7

column between adjacent with s ≤ h 2
storey levels
Alignment of adjacent perimeter Deviation relative to next ∆ = 10 9.6.8

columns column on a line parallel to
the grid line when measured
at base or splice level
Beams Beam level Deviation from specified level ∆ = ± 10 9.6.9
at supporting column
Level at each end Relative deviation in level at ∆ = 5 9.6.10

ends of same beam
Level of adjacent beams Deviation from relative ∆ = ±5 9.6.11

horizontal levels of adjacent
beams within a distance of 5
metres (measured on
centreline of top flange)
Beam alignment Horizontal deviation relative to h ≤ 3m:∆=5 9.6.12
an adjacent beam above and l > 3 m : ∆ = h 600
below
Crane Columns plumb Deviation of cap relative to ∆ = ± max { H c 1000;5} ≤ 25 9.6.13

gantry base
and rail
Gauge of rail tracks Deviation from nominal gauge ∆ = ± 10 9.6.14
Eccentricity of rail Eccentricity of rail relative to t w ≤ 10 mm : ∆ = 5 9.6.15

web t w > 10 mm : ∆ = t w 2
Deviation in level at rail joint ∆ = 0.5 9.6.16
Deviation in line at rail joint ∆ = 1 9.6.17
Slab Profiled steel floor decking Deviation of dimension ∆ = ± 10 9.6.18

between decking edge trim
prior to concrete placement
and perimeter beam
II-4 STEEL DESIGN

Mechanical properties of structural steel BS 5950:2000 Cl. 3.2.6
γ [kg/m³] modulus, E G = E/[2(1+ν)] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 77.0 7 850 205 000 81 000 0.30 12·10
Properties of structural steel (for t ≤ 40mm) BS 5950:2000 Table 3.1b

Form Process Grade Yield Tensile Design Fillet weld Remarks
strength, strength, strength, correction
Ys Us py = Ys ≤ Us/1.2 factor, βw
2 2 2
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-]
Plates & sections Hot rolled S 235 235 360 235 0.80 [EN 10025]
S 275 275 430 275 0.85
S 355 355 510 355 0.90
S 460 460 540 460 1.00
Hollow sections Hot finished S 235 235 360 235 0.80 [EN 10210]
S 275 275 430 275 0.85
S 355 355 510 355 0.90
S 460 460 560 460 1.00
Cold formed S 235 235 360 235 0.80 [EN 10219] welded
S 275 275 430 275 0.85
S 355 355 510 355 0.90
S 460 460 550 460 1.00
Properties of structural steel fasteners BS 5950:2000 Cl. 6.2

Form Grade Yield Tensile Shear strength, Tension strength, Bearing Min. clear
strength, strength, ps = 0.4Ub pt = 0.7Ub ≤ Yb strength, threads
2 2
Yb Ub [N/mm ] [N/mm ] pbb = 0.7(Ub+Yb) [pitch]
2 2 2
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
Bolts 4.6 240 400 160 240 460 1
4.8 320 400 160 240 500 1
5.6 300 500 200 300 560 1
5.8 400 500 200 350 630 1
6.8 480 600 240 420 750 1
8.8 640 800 375 560 1000 3
10.9 900 1000 400 700 1330 5
Properties of welding consumables BS 5950:2000 Table 10

Form Class Yield Tensile Design strength [parent metal] Remarks
strength, strength, pw = 0.5Ue ≤ 0.55Us
2
Ye Ue [N/mm ]
2 2
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [S235] [S275] [S355] [S460]
u u
Electrode 35 355 440 130 220 220 220 See BS5950-2
o o u
42 420 500 130 220 250 250
o o o
50 500 560 130 220 250 280
o
Note: – Over-matching electrodes
u
– Under-matching electrodes. Not to be used for partial penetration butt welds.
4.2 Steel mullion moment of inertia

Required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k),
I ≥ qW,k×I* - per split mullion
4 2
Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load CWCT:2005 Cl. 3.5.2.2
Span, δlimit, Steel m ullion spacing, b [m]
h [m] [mm] 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
3.0 15.0 18.8 20.2 21.4 22.7 23.8 24.9 26.0 26.9 27.8 29.3 30.6 31.4 32.0 32.1
3.1 15.3 21.1 22.6 24.1 25.4 26.8 28.0 29.2 30.3 31.4 33.2 34.7 35.8 36.6 37.0
3.2 15.7 23.5 25.2 26.9 28.4 30.0 31.4 32.8 34.1 35.3 37.4 39.2 40.6 41.7 42.3
3.3 16.0 26.1 28.0 29.9 31.7 33.4 35.0 36.6 38.1 39.5 42.0 44.1 45.8 47.1 48.0
3.4 16.3 28.9 31.1 33.1 35.1 37.1 38.9 40.7 42.4 44.0 46.8 49.3 51.4 53.1 54.2
3.5 16.7 31.9 34.3 36.6 38.9 41.0 43.1 45.1 47.0 48.8 52.1 h55.0 57.4 59.4 60.9
3.6 17.0 35.1 37.8 40.3 42.8 45.2 47.5 49.8 51.9 53.9 57.7 61.0 63.9 66.3 68.1
3.7 17.3 38.6 41.5 44.3 47.0 49.7 52.3 54.8 57.1 59.4 63.7 67.5 70.8 73.6 75.9
3.8 17.7 42.2 45.4 48.5 51.5 54.5 57.3 60.1 62.7 65.3 70.1 74.4 78.2 81.4 84.1
3.9 18.0 46.0 49.5 52.9 56.3 59.5 62.7 65.7 68.7 71.5 76.9 81.7 86.0 89.7 92.9
4.0 18.3 50.1 53.9 57.7 61.3 64.9 68.4 71.7 75.0 78.1 84.1 89.5 94.3 98.6 102.3
4.1 18.7 54.4 58.6 62.7 66.7 70.6 74.4 78.1 81.7 85.1 91.7 97.7 b1
103.2 108.0 b112.3
2
4.2 19.0 59.0 63.5 68.0 72.3 76.6 80.8 84.8 88.7 92.5 99.8 106.5 112.5 118.0 122.8
4.3 19.3 63.8 68.7 73.5 78.3 82.9 87.5 91.9 96.2 100.4 108.3 115.7 122.5 128.6 134.0
4.4 19.7 68.8 74.2 79.4 84.6 89.6 94.5 99.4 104.0 108.6 117.3 125.4 132.9 139.7 145.8
4.5 20.0 74.1 79.9 85.6 91.2 96.6 102.0 107.2 112.3 117.3 126.8 135.7 143.9 151.5 158.3
4.6 20.3 79.7 85.9 92.1 98.1 104.0 109.8 115.5 121.0 126.4 136.8 146.5 155.5 163.9 171.4
4.7 20.7 85.6 92.3 98.9 105.4 111.8 118.0 124.1 130.1 136.0 147.2 157.8 167.7 176.9 185.3
4.8 21.0 91.7 98.9 106.0 113.0 119.9 126.6 133.2 139.7 146.0 158.2 169.7 180.5 190.6 199.8
4.9 21.3 98.1 105.9 113.5 121.0 128.4 135.6 142.8 149.7 156.6 169.7 182.2 194.0 204.9 215.1
5.0 21.7 104.9 113.1 121.3 129.4 137.3 145.1 152.7 160.2 167.6 181.8 195.3 208.0 220.0 231.0
5.1 22.0 111.9 120.7 129.5 138.1 146.6 154.9 163.2 171.2 179.1 194.4 209.0 222.8 235.7 247.8
5.2 22.3 119.2 128.7 138.0 147.2 156.3 165.2 174.0 182.7 191.2 207.6 223.3 238.2 252.2 265.3
5.3 22.7 126.9 136.9 146.9 156.7 166.4 176.0 185.4 194.6 203.7 221.3 238.2 254.2 269.4 283.6
5.4 23.0 134.8 145.6 156.2 166.7 177.0 187.2 197.2 207.1 216.8 235.7 253.8 271.0 287.3 302.7
5.5 23.3 143.1 154.5 165.8 177.0 188.0 198.9 209.6 220.1 230.5 250.6 270.0 288.5 306.0 322.6
5.6 23.7 151.8 163.9 175.9 187.7 199.4 211.0 222.4 233.6 244.7 266.2 286.9 306.7 325.5 343.4
5.7 24.0 160.7 173.6 186.3 198.9 211.3 223.6 235.7 247.7 259.4 282.4 304.5 325.6 345.8 365.0
5.8 24.3 170.1 183.7 197.2 210.5 223.7 236.8 249.6 262.3 274.8 299.2 322.7 345.3 366.9 387.5
5.9 24.7 179.7 194.2 208.4 222.6 236.6 250.4 264.0 277.5 290.8 316.7 341.7 365.8 388.9 410.9
6.0 25.0 189.8 205.0 220.1 235.1 249.9 264.5 279.0 293.2 307.3 334.8 361.4 387.1 411.7 435.1
6.1 25.3 200.2 216.3 232.2 248.1 263.7 279.2 294.5 309.6 324.5 353.6 381.9 409.1 435.3 460.3
6.2 25.7 211.0 228.0 244.8 261.5 278.0 294.4 310.5 326.5 342.3 373.1 403.1 432.0 459.8 486.5
6.3 26.0 222.1 240.0 257.8 275.4 292.8 310.1 327.2 344.0 360.7 393.3 425.0 455.7 485.2 513.6
6.4 26.3 233.7 252.6 271.3 289.8 308.2 326.4 344.4 362.2 379.8 414.2 447.8 480.2 511.5 541.6
6.5 26.7 245.6 265.5 285.2 304.7 324.0 343.2 362.2 380.9 399.5 435.9 471.3 505.6 538.7 570.7
6.6 27.0 258.0 278.9 299.6 320.1 340.4 360.6 380.6 400.3 419.9 458.3 495.6 531.8 566.9 600.7
6.7 27.3 270.8 292.7 314.4 336.0 357.4 378.6 399.6 420.4 441.0 481.4 520.7 559.0 596.0 631.8
6.8 27.7 283.9 306.9 329.8 352.4 374.9 397.2 419.3 441.1 462.7 505.3 546.7 587.0 626.1 663.9
6.9 28.0 297.5 321.6 345.6 369.4 393.0 416.4 439.5 462.5 485.2 529.9 573.5 616.0 657.2 697.1
7.0 28.3 311.6 336.8 361.9 386.9 411.6 436.1 460.5 484.6 508.4 555.4 601.2 645.9 689.3 731.3
7.2 29.0 340.9 368.6 396.1 423.5 450.6 477.6 504.3 530.8 557.0 608.7 659.2 708.5 756.5 803.1
7.4 29.7 372.1 402.4 432.4 462.4 492.0 521.5 550.8 579.8 608.5 665.2 720.8 775.0 827.9 879.3
7.6 30.4 404.2 437.1 469.9 502.4 534.8 566.9 598.7 630.4 661.7 723.6 784.3 843.7 901.6 958.1
7.8 31.2 437.2 472.8 508.3 543.6 578.6 613.4 648.0 682.3 716.4 783.6 849.6 914.3 977.4 1039.1
8.0 32.0 471.9 510.4 548.8 586.9 624.8 662.5 699.9 737.1 773.9 846.8 918.4 988.6 1057.3 1124.5
8.5 34.0 566.6 613.0 659.2 705.1 750.8 796.3 841.5 886.4 931.0 1019.3 1106.2 1191.7 1275.5 1357.7
9.0 36.0 673.2 728.4 783.4 838.1 892.6 946.9 1000.8 1054.5 1107.8 1213.5 1317.7 1420.4 1521.4 1620.5
9.5 38.0 792.3 857.4 922.2 986.8 1051.2 1115.2 1179.0 1242.4 1305.6 1430.7 1554.4 1676.3 1796.5 1914.8
10.0 40.0 924.7 1000.8 1076.6 1152.1 1227.4 1302.4 1377.1 1451.4 1525.4 1672.3 1817.5 1961.0 2102.6 2242.2
4.3 Steel transom moment of inertia
Required moment of inertia of sill-split transom per unit weight of glass infill (qd,k),
I ≥ 2 qd,k ×I1* + I2*
0.8 0.2
Assumptions: 1. Estimated transom self-weight, 10kg/m × L ×h
2. Glass dead load is located 150mm from end support.
4 2
Minimum required moment of inertia, I* [cm ] per 0.5 kN/m 20mm glass weight CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.2.2
Glass Steel transom span, L [m]
height,
h [m] 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
δlimit, 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
1.0 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.9 4.9 6.2 7.7 9.5 11.6 14.0 16.8 20.0 23.8 28.1 32.9 38.4 44.7 51.7 59.6
1.1 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.2 10.1 12.3 14.8 17.8 21.2 25.1 29.5 34.6 40.4 46.8 54.1 62.3
1.2 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.4 5.6 7.0 8.7 10.7 12.9 15.6 18.7 22.3 26.3 31.0 36.3 42.2 49.0 56.6 65.0
1.3 2.7 3.3 4.0 4.7 6.0 7.4 9.2 11.2 13.6 16.4 19.6 23.3 27.6 32.4 37.9 44.1 51.1 58.9 67.7
1.4 2.9 3.5 4.2 5.0 6.3 7.8 9.7 11.8 14.3 17.2 20.6 24.4 28.8 33.8 39.5 45.9 53.2 61.3 70.3
1.5 3.0 3.7 4.4 5.3 6.6 8.2 10.1 12.4 15.0 18.0 21.5 25.5 30.0 35.2 41.1 47.7 55.2 63.6 72.9
1.6 3.2 3.9 4.6 5.5 6.9 8.6 10.6 12.9 15.7 18.8 22.4 26.5 31.3 36.6 42.7 49.5 57.2 65.9 75.5
1.7 3.4 4.1 4.9 5.8 7.3 9.0 11.1 13.5 16.3 19.6 23.3 27.6 32.5 38.0 44.3 51.3 59.2 68.1 78.0
1.8 3.5 4.3 5.1 6.1 7.6 9.4 11.6 14.1 17.0 20.3 24.2 28.6 33.7 39.4 45.8 53.1 61.2 70.4 80.5
1.9 3.7 4.5 5.3 6.3 7.9 9.8 12.0 14.6 17.6 21.1 25.1 29.7 34.8 40.7 47.4 54.8 63.2 72.6 83.0
2.0 3.8 4.7 5.6 6.6 8.2 10.2 12.5 15.2 18.3 21.9 26.0 30.7 36.0 42.1 48.9 56.6 65.2 74.8 85.5
2.1 4.0 4.8 5.8 6.8 8.6 10.6 13.0 15.7 19.0 22.7 26.9 31.7 37.2 43.4 50.4 58.3 67.1 77.0 87.9
2.2 4.2 5.0 6.0 7.1 8.9 11.0 13.4 16.3 19.6 23.4 27.8 32.7 38.4 44.8 51.9 60.0 69.0 79.1 90.4
2.3 4.3 5.2 6.2 7.4 9.2 11.4 13.9 16.9 20.3 24.2 28.7 33.8 39.5 46.1 53.5 61.7 71.0 81.3 92.8
2.4 4.5 5.4 6.5 7.6 9.5 11.8 14.4 17.4 20.9 24.9 29.5 34.8 40.7 47.4 55.0 63.4 72.9 83.4 95.2
2.5 4.7 5.6 6.7 7.9 9.9 12.2 14.8 18.0 21.6 25.7 30.4 35.8 41.9 48.7 56.4 65.1 74.8 85.6 97.6
2.6 4.8 5.8 6.9 8.2 10.2 12.5 15.3 18.5 22.2 26.4 31.3 36.8 43.0 50.0 57.9 66.8 76.7 87.7 99.9
2.7 5.0 6.0 7.1 8.4 10.5 12.9 15.8 19.1 22.8 27.2 32.1 37.8 44.2 51.3 59.4 68.5 78.6 89.8 102.3
2.8 5.2 6.2 7.4 8.7 10.8 13.3 16.2 19.6 23.5 27.9 33.0 38.8 45.3 52.6 60.9 70.1 80.5 91.9 104.7
2.9 5.3 6.4 7.6 8.9 11.1 13.7 16.7 20.1 24.1 28.7 33.9 39.8 46.4 53.9 62.4 71.8 82.3 94.0 107.0
3.0 5.5 6.6 7.8 9.2 11.4 14.1 17.1 20.7 24.8 29.4 34.7 40.8 47.6 55.2 63.8 73.5 84.2 96.1 109.3
3.1 5.6 6.8 8.0 9.5 11.8 14.5 17.6 21.2 25.4 30.2 35.6 41.8 48.7 56.5 65.3 75.1 86.1 98.2 111.7
3.2 5.8 7.0 8.3 9.7 12.1 14.8 18.1 21.8 26.0 30.9 36.5 42.7 49.8 57.8 66.8 76.8 87.9 100.3 114.0
3.3 6.0 7.2 8.5 10.0 12.4 15.2 18.5 22.3 26.7 31.6 37.3 43.7 51.0 59.1 68.2 78.4 89.8 102.3 116.3
3.4 6.1 7.4 8.7 10.2 12.7 15.6 19.0 22.8 27.3 32.4 38.2 44.7 52.1 60.4 69.7 80.1 91.6 104.4 118.6
3.5 6.3 7.5 8.9 10.5 13.0 16.0 19.4 23.4 27.9 33.1 39.0 45.7 53.2 61.7 71.1 81.7 93.4 106.5 120.9
3.6 6.5 7.7 9.2 10.8 13.3 16.4 19.9 23.9 28.6 33.9 39.9 46.7 54.3 62.9 72.6 83.3 95.3 108.5 123.2
3.7 6.6 7.9 9.4 11.0 13.7 16.7 20.3 24.5 29.2 34.6 40.7 47.7 55.5 64.2 74.0 84.9 97.1 110.6 125.5
3.8 6.8 8.1 9.6 11.3 14.0 17.1 20.8 25.0 29.8 35.3 41.6 48.6 56.6 65.5 75.5 86.6 98.9 112.6 127.7
3.9 6.9 8.3 9.8 11.5 14.3 17.5 21.2 25.5 30.5 36.1 42.4 49.6 57.7 66.8 76.9 88.2 100.7 114.6 130.0
4.0 7.1 8.5 10.1 11.8 14.6 17.9 21.7 26.1 31.1 36.8 43.3 50.6 58.8 68.0 78.3 89.8 102.6 116.7 132.3
4.2 7.4 8.9 10.5 12.3 15.2 18.6 22.6 27.1 32.3 38.3 45.0 52.5 61.0 70.6 81.2 93.0 106.2 120.7 136.8
4.4 7.7 9.3 10.9 12.8 15.9 19.4 23.5 28.2 33.6 39.7 46.6 54.5 63.2 73.1 84.0 96.3 109.8 124.8 141.3
4.6 8.1 9.6 11.4 13.3 16.5 20.2 24.4 29.3 34.8 41.2 48.3 56.4 65.5 75.6 86.9 99.5 113.4 128.8 145.8
4.8 8.4 10.0 11.8 13.8 17.1 20.9 25.3 30.3 36.1 42.6 50.0 58.3 67.7 78.1 89.7 102.6 117.0 132.8 150.2
5.0 8.7 10.4 12.3 14.3 17.7 21.7 26.2 31.4 37.3 44.1 51.7 60.2 69.9 80.6 92.6 105.8 120.5 136.8 154.7
Load Additional moment of inertia for occupancy live load, I2*
0.6 kN/m 3.2 4.1 5.1 6.3 8.1 10.4 13.0 16.2 19.8 24.1 29.0 34.7 41.1 48.4 56.7 65.9 76.2 87.7 100.4
1 kN 7.1 8.4 9.7 11.2 13.5 16.2 19.3 22.7 26.5 30.6 35.2 40.2 45.7 51.7 58.1 65.1 72.6 80.7 89.3
II-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN

Mechanical properties of materials BS 8118-1:1991 Table 2.5
γ [kg/m³] modulus, E G = E/[2(1+ν)] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 26.6 2 710 70 000 26 600 0.30 23·10
Properties of aluminium BS 8118-1:1991 Table 4.1

Form Grade Chemical Temper Thickness Yielding Local stress, Shear stress, HAZ-factor,
symbol stress, po pa pv kz
2 2 2
[mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
Sheet 1200 AL99,0 H14 0.2 – 12.5 90 95 55 0.13
3103 AlMn1 H14 0.2 – 12.5 110 120 65 0.18
H18 0.2 – 3.0 150 150 90
5251 AlMg2 H22│H24 0.2 – 6 125│175 155│200 75│105 0.35│0.24
Extrusion 6063 AlMg0,7Si T6 ≤ 25 160 175 95 0.50
6082 AlSi1MgMn T6 ≤ 15 255 275 155 0.50
A B
7020 AlZn4,5Mg1 T6 ≤ 40 280 310 170 0.60 /0.8
A
Note: Tensile stress acting transversely to the axis of weld
B
Longitudinal stress, transverse compression or shear
Properties of aluminium fasteners BS 8118-1:1991 Table 6.1 & BS EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.4
Form Grade Chemical Tempering Diameter, 0.2% Proof Tensile Limiting Reference
symbol d strength, f0.2 strength, fu stress, pf
2 2 2
[mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
Rivets 5056A AlMg5 O,F│H22 ≤ 25 - 255│280 145 BS 8118
5019 AlMg5 H111 ≤ 20 110 250 EN 1999-1-1
H14,H34 ≤ 18 210 300 EN 1999-1-1
5754 AlMg3 H111 ≤ 20 80 180 EN 1999-1-1
H14/H34 ≤ 18 180 240 EN 1999-1-1
6082 AlSi1MgMn T4 ≤ 20 110 205 EN 1999-1-1
T6 ≤ 20 240 300 EN 1999-1-1
Bolts 5056A AlMg5 H24 ≤ 12 240 310 175 BS 8118
5754 AlMg3 - ≤ 10│≤ 20 230│180 270│250 (AL1) EN 1999-1-1
5019 AlMg5 - ≤ 14│≤ 36 205│205 310│280 (AL2) EN 1999-1-1
6082 AlSi1MgMn - ≤ 6│≤ 36 250│260 320│310 (AL3) EN 1999-1-1
5.2 Minimum profile thickness to prevent local buckling

Bending resistance of members may be reduced by local buckling if the component elements are too
slender. The section classification indicates the susceptibility of the profile to local buckling. Therefore, the
designer should consider the slenderness of the individual elements comprising the section such that all
elements are at least semi-compact or class 3.
The table below summarizes the minimum required thickness of the elements of a non-welded aluminium
profile. The requirements stated herein are not mandatory but serves as a guideline for an efficient extrusion
design.
Minimum aluminium profile thickness
BS 8118 Internal Outstand
Alloy I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5
6060-T6 b / 29.4 d / 34.6 d / 42 d / 53.5 d / 73.5 b / 9.4 d / 11 d / 13.4 d / 17 d / 23.4
6060-T66 b / 28.4 d / 33.4 d / 40.6 d / 51.6 d / 71 b/9 d / 10.6 d / 12.9 d / 16.4 d / 22.6
6063-T6 b / 27.5 d / 32.4 d / 39.3 d / 50 d / 68.8 b / 8.8 d / 10.3 d / 12.5 d / 15.9 d / 21.9
6063-T66 b / 25.9 d / 30.5 d / 37 d / 47.1 d / 64.8 b / 8.2 d / 9.7 d / 11.8 d / 15 d / 20.6
6005A-T6 b / 24.6 d / 28.9 d / 35.1 d / 44.7 d / 61.5 b / 7.8 d / 9.2 d / 11.2 d / 14.2 d / 19.6
6061-T6 b / 22.5 d / 26.4 d / 32.1 d / 40.8 d / 56.1 b / 7.1 d / 8.4 d / 10.2 d / 13 d / 17.9
6082-T6 b / 21.8 d / 25.6 d / 31.1 d / 39.6 d / 54.5 b / 6.9 d / 8.2 d / 9.9 d / 12.6 d / 17.3
7020-T6 b / 20.8 d / 24.5 d / 29.7 d / 37.8 d / 52 b / 6.6 d / 7.8 d / 9.4 d / 12 d / 16.5
Definition of symbols
Internal elements – both ends are connected to another elements.
Outstand elements – only one end is connected to another element.
Í1/O1 – Horizontal element (i.e., uniform compression stress gradient)
I2/O2 – Vertical element with both ends way above or below c.g. (i.e., non-uniform trapezoidal
stress gradient)
I3/O3 – Vertical element with one end exactly at the c.g. (i.e., non-uniform triangular stress
gradient)
I4/O4 – Vertical element with one end below c.g. and the other above but not in the exactly in
the middle (i.e., non-uniform reversal stress gradient)
I5/O5 – Vertical element with c.g. exactly at the middle. (i.e., non-uniform symmetric reversal
stress gradient)
Determining effective thickness of compression element under local buckling BS 8118-1:1991 Cl. 4.3
Data b Width of critical element, [mm] 4.3.2.3
t Width of critical element, [mm]
po Tensile yield strength of alloy, [N/mm2] Table 4.1
ε = 250 po
Yield point constant, [-] 4.3.4.2
Slenderness Uniformly Compressed Element:
ratio a) Unreinforced Element:
( β ε ) = (1 ε ) × ( b t ) Slenderness ratio, [-] 4.3.2.2
b) Singly-reinforced Internal Element:
h =1 1 + 2.5(c t c - 1)2 (b t ) 
c) Doubly-reinforced Internal Element: Table K.1

h =1 1 + 4.5(c t c - 1) (b t ) 
2
d) Reinforced Outstand Element: Note: tc must be less than or equal to t for best results.
h =1 1 + 0.1(c t c - 1)  2
(β ε ) = (h ε ) × (b t )
Non-uniform stress gradient: Slenderness ratio, [-] 4.3.2.3

yc
yo
a) for yc/yo ≤ -1.0 Dist. to n.a. of more heavily compressed edge, [mm]
g = 0.80 (1 - y o y c ) Dist. to n.a. of other edge, [mm]
b) for yc/yo > -1.0
g = 0.70 + 0.30(y o y c ) g for element mostly in compression, [-] Table K.1
(β ε ) = ( g ε ) × ( b t ) g for element mostly in tension, [-]
Slenderness ratio, [-] 4.3.2.2

Internal Element Classification: 4.3.3.4
element a) for (β/ε) ≤ 18, and Fully compact element, no local buckling. Table 4.3
b) for 18 < (β/ε) ≤ 22: Semi-compact element, no local buckling.
k L = 1.0
b) for (β/ε) > 22:
k L = 32 / (β ε) - 220 / (β ε)2 Slender element, critical to local buckling.
Table K.1
Outstand Element Classification: 4.3.3.4
element a) for (β/ε) ≤ 6, and Fully compact element, no local buckling. Table 4.3
b) for 6 < (β/ε) ≤ 7: Semi-compact element, no local buckling.
k L = 1.0
c) for 7 < (β/ε) ≤ 12.1: Slender element, critical to local buckling.
k L = 11 / (β ε) - 28 / (β ε)2 Table K.1
d) for (β/ε) > 12.1:
k L = 105 / (β ε)2 Highly slender element, very critical to local buckling.
Effective t eff = k L × t Effective thickness, [mm] 4.3.4.1

thickness
5.3 Aluminium mullion moment of inertia

Required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k)
4 2
Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load CWCT:2005 Cl. 3.5.2.2
Span, h δlimit, Aluminium mullion spacing, b [m]
[m] [mm] 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
1.5 10.0 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.1 3.9 3.4 2.7 2.0 1.2 0.6
1.6 10.3 5.6 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.9 5.8 5.6 5.0 4.3 3.4 2.5 1.6
1.7 10.7 7.1 7.4 7.6 7.8 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.6 7.1 6.3 5.4 4.3 3.1
1.8 11.0 8.8 9.3 9.6 9.9 10.1 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.1 9.6 8.8 7.8 6.6 5.3
1.9 11.3 10.9 11.4 11.9 12.3 12.6 12.8 13.0 13.0 13.0 12.6 11.9 10.9 9.6 8.1
2.0 11.7 13.2 13.9 14.5 15.1 15.5 15.9 16.1 16.3 16.3 16.1
h15.5 14.5 13.2 11.6
2.1 12.0 15.8 16.7 17.5 18.2 18.8 19.3 19.7 20.0 20.2 20.2 19.7 18.8 17.5 15.8
2.2 12.3 18.8 19.9 20.9 21.8 22.6 23.3 23.9 24.3 24.6 24.9 24.6 23.9 22.6 20.9
2.3 12.7 22.0 23.4 24.7 25.8 26.8 27.7 28.5 29.1 29.6 30.2 30.2 29.6 28.5 26.8
2.4 13.0 25.7 27.3 28.9 30.3 31.5 32.7 33.7 34.5 35.2 36.1 36.5 36.1 35.2 33.7
2.5 13.3 29.8 31.7 33.5 35.2 36.7 38.1 39.4 40.5 41.4 42.8 43.5 43.5 42.8 41.4
b b
2.6 13.7 34.2 36.5 38.6 40.6 42.5 44.2 45.8 47.1 48.3 50.2 51.4 51.71 51.4 50.2
2
2.7 14.0 39.1 41.7 44.3 46.6 48.8 50.9 52.8 54.5 56.0 58.4 60.1 60.9 60.9 60.1
2.8 14.3 44.4 47.5 50.4 53.2 55.8 58.2 60.4 62.5 64.3 67.4 69.7 71.0 71.5 71.0
2.9 14.7 50.2 53.7 57.1 60.3 63.3 66.1 68.8 71.2 73.4 77.3 80.2 82.1 83.1 83.1
3.0 15.0 56.5 60.5 64.3 68.0 71.5 74.8 77.9 80.7 83.4 88.0 91.7 94.3 95.9 96.4
3.1 15.3 63.3 67.8 72.2 76.3 80.3 84.1 87.7 91.0 94.2 99.7 104.1 107.5 109.8 111.0
3.2 15.7 70.6 75.7 80.6 85.3 89.9 94.2 98.3 102.2 105.8 112.3 117.7 121.9 125.0 126.9
3.3 16.0 78.4 84.1 89.7 95.0 100.2 105.1 109.8 114.2 118.4 125.9 132.3 137.5 141.4 144.1
3.4 16.3 86.8 93.2 99.4 105.4 111.2 116.7 122.0 127.1 131.9 140.5 148.0 154.3 159.2 162.7
3.5 16.7 95.8 102.9 109.9 116.6 123.0 129.2 135.2 140.9 146.3 156.3 165.0 172.3 178.3 182.8
3.6 17.0 105.4 113.3 121.0 128.4 135.6 142.6 149.3 155.7 161.8 173.1 183.1 191.7 198.8 204.4
3.7 17.3 115.7 124.4 132.8 141.1 149.1 156.8 164.3 171.4 178.3 191.1 202.4 212.4 220.8 227.6
3.8 17.7 126.5 136.1 145.4 154.6 163.4 172.0 180.3 188.2 195.9 210.2 223.1 234.5 244.2 252.3
3.9 18.0 138.1 148.6 158.8 168.9 178.6 188.1 197.2 206.1 214.6 230.6 245.1 258.0 269.2 278.8
4.0 18.3 150.3 161.8 173.0 184.0 194.7 205.1 215.2 225.0 234.4 252.2 268.4 283.0 295.9 306.9
4.1 18.7 163.2 175.7 188.0 200.0 211.8 223.2 234.3 245.0 255.4 275.1 293.2 309.5 324.1 336.8
4.2 19.0 176.9 190.5 203.9 217.0 229.8 242.3 254.4 266.2 277.6 299.3 319.4 337.6 354.0 368.5
4.3 19.3 191.3 206.1 220.6 234.8 248.8 262.4 275.7 288.6 301.1 324.9 347.1 367.4 385.7 402.0
4.4 19.7 206.4 222.5 238.2 253.7 268.8 283.6 298.1 312.1 325.8 351.9 376.3 398.7 419.2 437.5
4.5 20.0 222.4 239.7 256.7 273.5 289.9 305.9 321.6 336.9 351.8 380.4 407.1 431.8 454.4 474.9
4.6 20.3 239.1 257.8 276.2 294.3 312.0 329.4 346.4 363.0 379.2 410.3 439.5 466.6 491.6 514.3
4.7 20.7 256.7 276.8 296.6 316.1 335.3 354.0 372.4 390.4 408.0 441.7 473.5 503.2 530.7 555.8
4.8 21.0 275.1 296.7 318.0 339.0 359.6 379.9 399.7 419.1 438.1 474.7 509.2 541.6 571.7 599.4
4.9 21.3 294.4 317.6 340.5 363.0 385.2 406.9 428.3 449.2 469.7 509.2 546.7 581.9 614.8 645.2
5.0 21.7 314.6 339.4 363.9 388.1 411.9 435.2 458.2 480.7 502.8 545.4 585.9 624.1 659.9 693.1
5.1 22.0 335.6 362.2 388.4 414.3 439.8 464.8 489.5 513.7 537.4 583.2 626.9 668.3 707.2 743.4
5.2 22.3 357.6 386.0 414.0 441.7 468.9 495.7 522.1 548.0 573.5 622.8 669.8 714.5 756.6 795.9
5.3 22.7 380.6 410.8 440.7 470.2 499.3 528.0 556.2 583.9 611.2 664.0 714.6 762.7 808.2 850.8
5.4 23.0 404.5 436.7 468.5 500.0 531.0 561.6 591.7 621.3 650.5 707.1 761.3 813.0 862.0 908.1
5.5 23.3 429.4 463.6 497.5 531.0 564.0 596.6 628.7 660.3 691.4 751.9 810.0 865.5 918.1 967.9
5.6 23.7 455.3 491.7 527.6 563.2 598.3 633.0 667.2 700.9 734.0 798.6 860.7 920.1 976.6 1030.2
5.7 24.0 482.2 520.8 559.0 596.7 634.0 670.9 707.2 743.1 778.3 847.1 913.4 976.9 1037.5 1095.0
5.8 24.3 510.2 551.1 591.5 631.6 671.1 710.3 748.9 786.9 824.4 897.6 968.2 1036.0 1100.8 1162.5
5.9 24.7 539.2 582.5 625.3 667.7 709.7 751.1 792.1 832.4 872.3 950.0 1025.2 1097.4 1166.6 1232.6
6.0 25.0 569.4 615.1 660.4 705.2 749.6 793.5 836.9 879.7 921.9 1004.4 1084.3 1161.2 1235.0 1305.4
6.2 25.7 632.9 683.9 734.4 784.5 834.0 883.1 931.6 979.5 1026.8 1119.4 1209.2 1295.9 1379.4 1459.4
6.4 26.3 701.1 757.7 813.8 869.4 924.5 979.1 1033.1 1086.5 1139.3 1242.7 1343.3 1440.6 1534.5 1624.8
6.9 28.0 892.6 964.9 1036.8 1108.1 1178.9 1249.1 1318.6 1387.5 1455.7 1589.8 1720.6 1848.0 1971.6 2091.2
7.0 28.3 934.7 1010.5 1085.8 1160.6 1234.8 1308.4 1381.4 1453.7 1525.2 1666.1 1803.6 1937.7 2067.8 2193.9
5.4 Aluminium transom moment of inertia
Required moment of inertia of sill-split transom per unit weight of glass infill (qd,k),
I ≥ 2 qd,k ×I1* + I2*
0.8 0.2
Assumptions: 1. Estimated transom self-weight, 5kg/m × L ×h
2. Glass dead load is located 150mm from end support.
4 2
Minimum required moment of inertia, I* [cm ] per 0.5 kN/m 20mm glass weight CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.2.2
Glass Aluminium transom span, L [m]
height,
h [m] 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
δlimit, 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
1.0 5.6 6.8 8.1 9.6 11.9 14.7 18.0 21.8 26.2 31.2 37.0 43.6 51.0 59.4 68.9 79.5 91.4 104.7 119.4
1.1 6.1 7.4 8.8 10.3 12.9 15.9 19.4 23.5 28.1 33.5 39.6 46.6 54.5 63.4 73.4 84.6 97.1 111.1 126.5
1.2 6.6 8.0 9.5 11.1 13.9 17.1 20.8 25.1 30.1 35.7 42.2 49.6 57.9 67.3 77.8 89.6 102.8 117.4 133.6
1.3 7.1 8.5 10.1 11.9 14.8 18.2 22.2 26.7 32.0 38.0 44.8 52.6 61.3 71.2 82.2 94.6 108.4 123.7 140.6
1.4 7.6 9.1 10.8 12.7 15.8 19.3 23.5 28.3 33.9 40.2 47.4 55.5 64.7 75.0 86.6 99.5 113.9 129.9 147.5
1.5 8.1 9.7 11.5 13.5 16.7 20.5 24.9 30.0 35.8 42.4 49.9 58.5 68.1 78.9 91.0 104.4 119.4 136.0 154.4
1.6 8.6 10.3 12.1 14.2 17.6 21.6 26.2 31.6 37.7 44.6 52.5 61.4 71.4 82.7 95.3 109.3 124.9 142.2 161.3
1.7 9.0 10.8 12.8 15.0 18.6 22.8 27.6 33.2 39.6 46.8 55.0 64.3 74.8 86.5 99.6 114.2 130.4 148.3 168.1
1.8 9.5 11.4 13.5 15.8 19.5 23.9 29.0 34.8 41.4 49.0 57.6 67.2 78.1 90.3 103.9 119.0 135.8 154.3 174.8
1.9 10.0 12.0 14.1 16.5 20.5 25.0 30.3 36.4 43.3 51.2 60.1 70.1 81.4 94.1 108.1 123.8 141.2 160.4 181.6
2.0 10.5 12.5 14.8 17.3 21.4 26.2 31.7 38.0 45.2 53.4 62.6 73.0 84.7 97.8 112.4 128.6 146.6 166.4 188.3
2.1 11.0 13.1 15.5 18.1 22.3 27.3 33.0 39.6 47.0 55.5 65.1 75.9 88.0 101.6 116.6 133.4 151.9 172.4 195.0
2.2 11.5 13.7 16.1 18.8 23.3 28.4 34.4 41.2 48.9 57.7 67.6 78.8 91.3 105.3 120.9 138.1 157.3 178.4 201.6
2.3 11.9 14.2 16.8 19.6 24.2 29.5 35.7 42.7 50.8 59.9 70.1 81.7 94.6 109.0 125.1 142.9 162.6 184.3 208.2
2.4 12.4 14.8 17.5 20.4 25.1 30.7 37.0 44.3 52.6 62.0 72.6 84.6 97.9 112.8 129.3 147.6 167.9 190.3 214.8
2.5 12.9 15.4 18.1 21.1 26.1 31.8 38.4 45.9 54.5 64.2 75.1 87.4 101.2 116.5 133.5 152.4 173.2 196.2 221.4
2.6 13.4 15.9 18.8 21.9 27.0 32.9 39.7 47.5 56.3 66.3 77.6 90.3 104.4 120.2 137.7 157.1 178.5 202.1 228.0
2.7 13.9 16.5 19.4 22.7 27.9 34.0 41.1 49.1 58.2 68.5 80.1 93.1 107.7 123.9 141.9 161.8 183.8 208.0 234.5
2.8 14.3 17.1 20.1 23.4 28.9 35.2 42.4 50.7 60.0 70.6 82.6 96.0 110.9 127.6 146.0 166.5 189.0 213.8 241.1
2.9 14.8 17.6 20.8 24.2 29.8 36.3 43.7 52.2 61.9 72.8 85.1 98.8 114.2 131.3 150.2 171.2 194.3 219.7 247.6
3.0 15.3 18.2 21.4 25.0 30.7 37.4 45.1 53.8 63.7 74.9 87.5 101.7 117.4 134.9 154.4 175.8 199.5 225.5 254.1
3.1 15.8 18.8 22.1 25.7 31.7 38.5 46.4 55.4 65.6 77.1 90.0 104.5 120.6 138.6 158.5 180.5 204.7 231.4 260.6
3.2 16.3 19.3 22.7 26.5 32.6 39.6 47.7 56.9 67.4 79.2 92.5 107.3 123.9 142.3 162.7 185.2 210.0 237.2 267.1
3.3 16.7 19.9 23.4 27.2 33.5 40.7 49.0 58.5 69.2 81.3 94.9 110.2 127.1 145.9 166.8 189.8 215.2 243.0 273.5
3.4 17.2 20.5 24.1 28.0 34.4 41.9 50.4 60.1 71.1 83.5 97.4 113.0 130.3 149.6 170.9 194.5 220.4 248.8 280.0
3.5 17.7 21.0 24.7 28.8 35.4 43.0 51.7 61.6 72.9 85.6 99.9 115.8 133.6 153.3 175.1 199.1 225.6 254.6 286.5
3.6 18.2 21.6 25.4 29.5 36.3 44.1 53.0 63.2 74.7 87.7 102.3 118.6 136.8 156.9 179.2 203.7 230.8 260.4 292.9
3.7 18.7 22.2 26.0 30.3 37.2 45.2 54.4 64.8 76.6 89.9 104.8 121.4 140.0 160.5 183.3 208.4 235.9 266.2 299.3
3.8 19.1 22.7 26.7 31.0 38.1 46.3 55.7 66.3 78.4 92.0 107.2 124.3 143.2 164.2 187.4 213.0 241.1 272.0 305.7
3.9 19.6 23.3 27.4 31.8 39.1 47.4 57.0 67.9 80.2 94.1 109.7 127.1 146.4 167.8 191.5 217.6 246.3 277.7 312.1
4.0 20.1 23.9 28.0 32.5 40.0 48.5 58.3 69.5 82.1 96.3 112.1 129.9 149.6 171.5 195.6 222.2 251.5 283.5 318.5
4.2 21.0 25.0 29.3 34.1 41.8 50.8 61.0 72.6 85.7 100.5 117.0 135.5 156.0 178.7 203.8 231.4 261.8 295.0 331.3
4.4 22.0 26.1 30.6 35.6 43.7 53.0 63.6 75.7 89.4 104.7 121.9 141.1 162.4 186.0 212.0 240.6 272.1 306.5 344.1
4.6 23.0 27.2 31.9 37.1 45.5 55.2 66.3 78.8 93.0 109.0 126.8 146.7 168.8 193.2 220.2 249.8 282.3 317.9 356.8
4.8 23.9 28.4 33.3 38.6 47.3 57.4 68.9 81.9 96.7 113.2 131.7 152.3 175.2 200.4 228.3 259.0 292.6 329.4 369.5
5.0 24.9 29.5 34.6 40.1 49.2 59.6 71.5 85.1 100.3 117.4 136.6 157.9 181.5 207.7 236.5 268.1 302.8 340.8 382.2
Load Additional moment of inertia for occupancy live load, I2*
0.6 kN/m 9.6 12.3 15.3 18.8 24.4 31.1 39.1 48.5 59.5 72.4 87.1 104.1 123.4 145.3 170.0 197.7 228.7 263.1 301.3
1 kN 21.4 25.1 29.2 33.5 40.6 48.7 57.9 68.0 79.4 91.9 105.6 120.7 137.1 155.0 174.4 195.3 217.8 242.0 267.9
II-6 GLASS DESIGN

6.1 Properties of glass
Mechanical properties of glass IStructE:1999 Table 2.2
Form Density, Unit weight, Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ ρ modulus, E G ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
† -6
All 24.5 2 500 70 000 30 000 0.22 8·10
†
Note: BS 6262, 5.5.5.
Toughened glass maximum ratio 7:1 acc. to BS 952-1:1995 cl. 4.1.1.
6.2 Structural sealant glazing (SSG)
BS 6262-6:2005 cl.4.2.2: The glazing should be designed in such a way that the sealant is only subjected to
short duration tensile forces, e.g. wind suction or live loads. Dead loads or sustained loads should be
supported by other means, e.g. setting blocks to carry the glass weight.
The design of the glazing should eliminate shear stresses on the structural sealant.
6.3 Overhead glazing
CIRIA C632:2005 ‘Guidance for glazing at height’ cl. 2.4.1 states “sloping glazing…apply to glass at any
angle to the vertical”.
BS 5516-1 cl. 3.19 ‘sloping patent glazing having a slope of 75° or less from horizontal’.
CWCT Standard for Slope Glazing Systems:1999 covers slope glazing whether used overhead as part of
a roof or as a sloped façade. It includes all uses of glazing from horizontal to 15° from vertical.
CWCT TU 10:2003 covers performance of glass in slope glazing systems that are between vertical and 15°
of vertical.
CWCT TN 68:2010 states ‘These definitions of vertical and sloping glazing differ from those used in BS 6262
and BS 5516 where vertical glazing is considered to include glazing up to 15º from true vertical. The
distinction between vertical and sloping glazing in this Technical Note relates to the risk of glass falling from
its frame after fracture. It is considered that gravity is likely to cause broken glass to fall at slopes within 15º
of vertical.
6.4 Safety glass
Maximum area of Safety glass under imposed load BS 6180:1999 Table 2
6.5 Balustrades
6.5.1 Balustrade without handrail [BS 6180:2011 cl. 8.1.2]
In the event that a free-standing barrier is supplied without a handrail, each panel should be able to withstand
the appropriate design load.
Any individual point that is damaged and unable to meet the criteria should be replaced with interim guarding
awaiting immediate replacement.
6.5.2 Balustrade requiring handrail [BS 6180:2011 cl. 8.5.2]
Handrail is required where the balustrade protects a difference in level greater than 600mm.
The handrail should be attached to the glass in such a manner that, should a glass panel fracture, the
handrail will remain in position and will not fail if the design load is applied across the resulting gap.
6.5.3 Free-standing balustrades or juliet balconies
Deflection of free-standing glass balustrade is limited to L/65 or 25 mm, whichever is smaller in acc. to BS
6180:2011 cl. 6.4.1. Glass stress is limited to the requirements of DIN.
Maximum height of barrier [m] (Max. wind load [kN/m²]) BS 6180:2011
Barrier load ( ≤ 10 min. duration load)
Glass Temper
0.36 kN/m 0.74 kN/m 1.5 kN/m 3.0 kN/m
10 mm FT + frit 0.86 (1.1) 0.60 (2.7) 0.33 (9.1) -
FT " 0.60 (3.3) 0.42 (9.4) -
12 mm FT + frit 1.13 (0.8) 0.79 (2.3) 0.47 (6.5)
FT " 0.79 (2.5) 0.55 (7.4)
15 mm / 16mm FT + frit 1.44 (0.8) 1.10 (1.8) 0.74 (4.1) 0.37 (16.4)
FT " " 0.77 (5.3) 0.54 (12.8)
19 mm / 20 mm FT + frit 1.78 (0.8) 1.57 (1.2) 1.10 (2.9) 0.60 (10)
FT " " 1.10 (4.9) 0.78 (9.8)
Laminated glass with PVB interlayer (G = 0.5 N/mm² @ 30°C)*
12.76 mm (PVB) AN 0.50 (1.4) 0.50
6/0.76/6 HS 1.00 (0.9) 0.93 0.58 (3.4) 0.45 0.30 (10) 0.22
FT 1.08 (0.8) 1.08 " 0.77 0.33 (12) 0.38 0.21 (30)
17.52 mm (PVB) AN 0.95 (0.8) 0.95 0.33 (4.4) 0.33
8/1.52/8 HS 1.41 (0.8) 1.41 0.91 (2.1) 0.80 0.52 (6.2) 0.39 0.22 (28) -
FT " " " 1.18 " 0.68 0.44 (11) 0.34
21.52 mm (PVB) AN 1.19 (0.8) 1.19 0.58 (2.5) 0.58 0.23 (13) 0.23
10/1.52/10 HS 1.74 (0.8) 1.74 1.41 (1.4) 1.26 0.80 (4.5) 0.62 0.38 (15) 0.31
FT " " 1.50 (1.2) 1.50 " 0.80 0.48 (17) 0.48
25.52 mm (PVB) AN 1.44 (0.8) 1.44 0.97 (1.5) 0.97 0.35 (8.6) 0.35
12/1.52/12 HS 1.99 (0.8) 1.99 1.82 (1.0) 1.81 1.15 (3.4) 0.89 0.60 (10) 0.44
FT " " " 1.82 " 1.15 0.68 (11) 0.68
31.52 mm (PVB) AN 1.82 (0.8) 1.82 1.78 (0.8) 1.78 0.59 (5.1) 0.59 0.26 (23) 0.26
15/1.52/15 HS 2.36 (0.8) 2.36 2.31 (0.8) 2.31 1.72 (2.3) 1.40 1.11 (5.4) 0.70
FT " " " " " 1.72 1.26 (5.0) 1.19
Laminated glass with SGP interlayer (G = 65.0 N/mm² @ 30°C)*
17.52 mm (SGP) AN 1.12 (0.8) 1.06 0.68 (2.1) 0.51 0.32 (9.6) 0.25
8/1.52/8 HS 1.67 (0.8) 1.41 1.39 (1.4) 0.80 0.97 (3.2) 0.39 0.50 (12)
FT " 1.67 " 1.38 0.97 (4.1) 0.68 0.68 (10) 0.34
21.52 mm (SGP) AN 1.38 (0.8) 1.38 1.03 (1.4) 0.81 0.50 (6.0) 0.39 0.23 (26)
10/1.52/10 HS 1.95 (0.8) 1.95 1.80 (1.1) 1.26 1.33 (2.6) 0.62 0.76 (7.9) 0.31
FT " " " 1.80 1.33 (3.0) 1.06 0.93 (8.7) 0.53
22.28 mm (SGP) AN 1.43 (0.8) 1.43 1.10 (1.3) 0.81 0.53 (5.7) 0.39 0.24 (25)
10/2.28/10 HS 2.00 (0.8) 1.95 1.86 (0.8) 1.26 1.39 (2.5) 0.62 0.81 (7.4) 0.31
FT " 2.00 " 1.86 1.39 (2.9) 1.06 0.98 (8.2) 0.53
25.52 mm (SGP) AN 1.64 (0.8) 1.64 1.46 (1.0) 1.16 0.71 (4.2) 0.57 0.34 (17) 0.28
12/1.52/12 HS 2.21 (0.8) 2.21 2.13 (0.8) 1.81 1.68 (2.3) 0.89 1.07 (5.6) 0.44
FT " " " 2.13 1.68 (2.4) 1.53 1.21 (6.6) 0.76
26.28 mm (SGP) AN 1.69 (0.8) 1.69 1.54 (0.8) 1.16 0.75 (4.0) 0.57 0.35 (17) 0.28
12/2.28/12 HS 2.26 (0.8) 2.26 2.20 (0.9) 1.81 1.73 (2.2) 0.89 1.14 (5.2) 0.44
FT " " " 2.26 1.73 (2.3) 1.53 1.26 (6.4) 0.76
31.52 mm (SGP) AN 2.03 (0.8) 2.03 2.03 (0.8) 1.82 1.09 (2.7) 0.89 0.53 (11) 0.44
15/1.52/15 HS 2.59 (0.8) 2.59 2.59 (0.8) 2.59 2.08 (1.9) 1.40 1.64 (3.6) 0.70
FT " " " " " 2.08 1.65 (4.8) 1.20
Note: * According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016. Glass body temperature is
max. 30°C since high temperature does not occur at the same time with maximum barrier or wind load.
X Redundancy requirement BS 6180 cl. 8.1.2: In the event of a single ply of the laminate failing, the
remaining element(s) of a toughened laminated design must be capable of withstanding the design loads (i.e.,
design barrier load or interim wind load of 0.80 kN/m²). Deflection is controlled by the full thickness.
6.6 Glass fins

6.6.1 Structural sealant for fins
2
BS6262-6:2005 Clause 5.3 consider 0.275 N/mm design stress for the sealant (i.e. FS = 3.0)
6.6.2 Design of glass fins

Glass fin design IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)
Data L Glass fin unsupported span [mm]
d Glass fin depth [mm]
b Glass fin effective thickness [mm]
E = 69 GPa; G = 28.3 GPa Modulii of elasticity and rigidity of glass [N/mm²]
σallow [Rec. to use ASTM E1300] Glass allowable stress [N/mm²] H2
Criteria Mx Calculated bending moment [kN·m]
Mx
≤ 1.0
min { M c ; M b } Criteria
4
Properties I y = d ⋅ b 3 12 Moment of inertia about major axis [mm ]
db 3  b 4
J=  1 − 0.63 d  Torsional inertia [mm ] H2
3  
Critical No intermediate buckling restraint: Critical buckling moment [kN·m] H3
buckling Free end y-y axis rotation:
moment Table H2
3.6  d EI y 
M cr = EI y GJ  1 − 0.7 
L  L GJ 

Fixed end y-y axis rotation:
6.1  d EI y 
M cr = EI y GJ  1 − 0.9 
L  L GJ 

Continuously restrained fin: H4
 π 2 d GJ 
M cr =    EI y +  1.5
  L  2 d 
Moment b⋅d2
capacity Mc = ⋅ σ allow Bending capacity [kN·m]
6
M b ,Rd = M CR 1.7 Buckling capacity [kN·m] H1
6.6.3 Glass fin table
Toughened Glass Fin (no int. buckling restraint) - Free end y-y axis rotation IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)
18
16
14
12
10
Toughened Glass Fin (no int. buckling restraint) - Fixed end y-y axis rotation IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)
18
16
14
12
10
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STONE DESIGN
II-7 STONE DESIGN

7.1 Properties
7.1.1 Guide range of properties
Properties of stone (for guidance only) CWCT:1997
Stone Density Flexural Comp. Elastic Thermal Porosity
strength strength modulus expansion
2 2 2 -6
[kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [10 /K] [%]
Granite 2600 – 3000 8 – 20 120 – 240 30 – 70 8 – 10 0.4 – 2.3
Sandstone 2200 – 2700 2.5 – 15 30 – 200 5 – 20 7 – 12 0.5 – 35
Limestone (high) 2200 – 2900 6 – 15 55 – 180 7 3 – 10 0.5 – 35
Limestone (low) 2 – 10 10 – 90
Marble 30 – 60 3 – 15 0.6 – 2.3
Suggested regime of durability tests CWCT:1997

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Test Reference
Granite Limestone Sandstone Marble Slate
Petrographic description ASTM C295
Water absorption ASTM C295
Porosity
Saturation coefficient
Acid immersion
Salt crystalisation
Freeze Thaw DIN 52104
Wetting drying BS 680
Thermal stability
STONE DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
7.2 Design of thin stone for cladding

Statistical evaluation of the test result CWCT:1997
2
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [N/mm ]
2
1 Mean value [N/mm ]
x= ∑ xi
n i
2
∑ ( xi − x )
s= ± Standard deviation [N/mm ]
2
n−1
Method 1 100s Coefficient of variation [%] 5.3.2.1
V=
x
With aged-strength testing:
5.3.2.1
FSF = VF×DF Stone flexural safety factor [-]
ASF = 1.4×FSF Stone anchorage safety factor [-]

Values of variation factor, VF
Table 5.1
V [%] Granite Limestone Marble
0–5 2.0 3.0 2.5
5 – 10 2.5 3.5 3.0
10 – 20 3.0 4.0 3.5
> 20 3.5 4.5 4.0
Values of durability factor, DF

Fraction of initial flexural *Thermal cycling test (300 cycles) acc. to Table 5.2
DF ASTM C 880:
strength* [%]
100% 1.0 = (average after/average before) 100%
75 – 95 1.2
60 – 75 1.5
< 60 1.8
Without aged-strength testing: 5.3.2.2
FSF Stone flexural safety factor [-]

Values of safety factor, FSF
Granite Limestone Marble Table 5.3
4.0 6.0 5.0
ASF = 1.4×FSF Stone anchorage safety factor [-]

Method 2 FOS = K-factor 5.3.3
Values of ks or K-factor
n K-factor* *According to BS 2846: Part 3 and are Table 5.4
5 3.41 specific to a confidence level of 95%.
10 2.36
15 2.07
20 1.93
30 1.78
40 1.70
50 1.65
∞ 1.645
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS
II-8 CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS

8.1 CWCT test methods for building envelopes
Standard sequence A (test pressure less than 600 Pa) C CWCT:2005 cl. 8.12.2
No. Test Test method Old method Notes
1 Air permeability Infiltration EN 12153 BS 5368-1
2 Exfiltration
3 Water penetration Static EN 12155 BS 5368-2
4 Wind resistance Serviceability EN 12179 BS 5368-3
BS 6375-1
5 Air permeability Infiltration
6 Exfiltration
7 Water penetration* Static
8 Hose test AAMA 501.2 AAMA 501.2
CWCT TN 41
9 Wind resistance Safety EN 12179 BS 5368-3
10 Impact (optional) Soft body EN 12600 BS 8200 Recommended for propriety envelope tests
Hard body BS 8200 BS 8200
11 Dismantling Inspection
Note: * Additional spray bar test according to EN 13051 may be required by wetting the outer surface of the
building envelope without pressure difference applied across. Meeting this requirement is not a substitute for any
other tests.
Standard sequence B (test pressure ≥ 600 Pa) C CWCT:2005 cl. 8.12.2
No. Test Test method Old method Notes
1 Air permeability Infiltration EN 12153 BS 5368-1 Not applicable to rainscreens with separate
backing wall
2 Exfiltration
3 Water penetration Static EN 12155 BS 5368-2 Not applicable to open jointed system
4 Wind resistance Serviceability EN 12179 BS 5368-3
BS 6375-1
5 Air permeability Infiltration See step 1 & 2
6 Exfiltration
7 Water penetration* Static See step 3
8 Dynamic EN 13050 AAMA 501.1
9 Hose test AAMA 501.2 AAMA 501.2 Not applicable to open jointed system
CWCT TN 41
10 Wind resistance Safety EN 12179 BS 5368-3
11 Impact (optional) Soft body EN 12600 BS 8200 Recommended for propriety envelope tests
Hard body BS 8200 BS 8200
12 Rainscreen tests Additional Wind load test on panels
13 Dismantling Inspection
Note: * Additional spray bar test according to EN 13051 may be required by wetting the outer surface of the
building envelope without pressure difference applied across. Meeting this requirement is not a substitute for any
other tests.
CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
8.2 Impact Resistance of Wall Components [BS 8200]

Impacts on surfaces of the vertical enclosure to buildings BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 2
Wall Description Examples
Category
Readily accessible to public and others with little External walls of housing and Zone of wall up
A incentive to exercise care. Prone to vandalism and public buildings in vandal prone to 1.5 m above
abnormally rough use areas pedestrian or
floor level
Readily accessible to public and others with little Walls adjacent to pedestrian
B incentive to exercise care. Chances of accident thoroughfares or playing fields
occurring and of misuse when not in category A
Accessible primarily to those with some incentive to Walls adjacent to private open
C exercise care. Some chance of accident occurring gardens. Back walls of balconies
and of misuse
Only accessible, but not near a common route, to Walls adjacent to small fenced
D those with high incentive to exercise care. Small decorative garden with no
chance of accident occurring or of misuse through paths
Above zone of normal impacts from people but liable 1.5 m to 6 m above pedestrian or floor level at
E
to impacts from thrown or kicked objects location categories A and B
Above zone of normal impacts from people and not Wall surfaces at higher positions than those
F
liable to impacts from thrown or kicked objects defined in E above
Impact energy [N·m]:
E = H×m×9.81m/sec2
where: H = Height of fall [m]
m = mass of impactor [kg]
Test impact energy [Joules] BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 3, 4
Category Soft body impact Hard body impact
Serviceability Safety* Serviceability Safety*
S1 S1 H1 H2 H2
A No test impact values are given. In each case the type and severity of vandalism needs to be carefully
assessed and appropriate impact values determined.
B 120J 500J - 10J 10J
C 120J 500J 6J - 10J
D Risk of impact is minimal and impact test values are therefore not appropriate.
E 120J 350J** 6J - 10J
F 120J 350J** 3J - -
Note: *The wall should not have a reduced performance under impacts for safety. The results of tests should be
defined as follows:
Brittle materials: failure or no damage
Other materials: damage to surface finish, indentation or no damage
Where the damage is a dent, the depth of the dent should be quantified although the criterion for failure
may be an aesthetic one only. The depth of indentation which is acceptable visually depends on the
characteristics of the material, its finish and location.
** External surface only if access is required for cleaning and maintenance.
Impactors BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 22
Type Reference Description Diameter Approximate mass
Hard body H1 Steel ball 50 mm 0.5 kg
H2 Steel ball 62.5 mm 1.0 kg
Soft body S1 Canvas spherical/conical bag filled with 3 mm 400 mm 50 kg
diameter glass spheres
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS
8.3 Windows and Vents
8.3.1 Setting and location blocks
Positions and number of setting and location blocks should be applied in accordance with BS 6262-0:1982.
The materials used for setting and location blocks are the same.
Setting and location block positions BS 6262-0:1982 Fig. 22
Window Description Window Description
1
Fixed light Horizontal pivot
Fixed light (factory glazed) Vertical pivot
Top hung Vertical pivot

(off centre)
Side hung or door Vertical slider
Bottom hung Horizontal slider
Tilt & Turn Minimum position of blocks
1
Note. The position of setting blocks for fixed lights should preferably be at quarter points but can be positioned as
shown below.
Minimum positions of blocks
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES RAINSCREEN CLADDING
II-9 RAINSCREEN CLADDING

9.1 Pressure-equalised system
• Conditions for pressure-equalisation acc. to CWCT cl. 2.2.6.1
A > V/80
A = B×h+ H×v - Area of vent
V = B×H×a - Volume of cavity
Where: B = Width of cladding panel
H = height of cladding panel
a = width of air-space
v = Opening of vertical joint
h = Opening of horizontal joint
• Conditions for pressure-equalisation acc. to DIN 18516-1
AF ≥ 0.75%·AW
AF = Area of perimeter opening
AW = Area of cladding panel
9.2 Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)

9.2.1 Glass fibre reinforced concrete (GRC/GFRC)
9.3 Subframes
9.3.1 Simplified rules for Z sheeting rail
This section gives empirical rules for the design of certain commonly used members for which a full
theoretical analysis may be impracticable or not justified. The design rules given in this section may be used
as an alternative to the analytical methods. Members designed by a proven method need not conform to the
empirical rules. The design rules in this section apply to all steels with a yield strength, Ys, of not less than
250 N/mm2. See Cl. 9.3 BS 5950-5.
• The dimensions of a Z sheeting rail should be as follows:
100t ≥ overall depth ≥ L/45
Total width over both flanges ≥ L/60
Overall width of compression flange/thickness, B/t ≤ 35
Width of lip ≥ B/5
Where: L is the span of the sheeting rail in millimetres (mm);
B is the flange width in millimetres (mm);
t is the thickness of the sheeting rail in millimetres (mm).
CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
II-10ROOFS
10.1 Minimum Slope of Roofs and their Gutters [BS 6229 Cl. 7.3]
To ensure that the minimum finished falls listed in Table 6 are achieved, allowance should be made for
deflection of the structural members and decking under dead and imposed loads and for construction
tolerances. The falls assumed for design should, therefore, be steeper than the recommended finished falls.
The design falls should be determined by considering the overall and local deflections, the direction of falls
and the type of roof covering. In the absence of a detailed analysis, a fall of twice the minimum finished fall
should be assumed for design purposes.
Minimum Finished Falls BS 6229:2003 Table 6
II-11CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS

11.1 Fastening bolts and screws
Figure 11.1-1 Bolt symbols
11.1.1 Metric fasteners

• Tensile area, Atb
Thorough testing has shown that fasteners fail in tension at loads corresponding to those unthreaded parts
with diameters approximately midway between their pitch diameters Dp and minor diameters Dmin.
A tb = 0.7854 (D - 0.9743 ⋅ P) 2 - D p,min ≈ D maj - 0.9743 ⋅ P
• Shear area, Aesb

The thread root area is the area of a circle with diameter equal to the basic minor diameter Droot.
A esb = 0.7854 (D - 1.2269 ⋅ P) 2 - D root ≈ D maj - 1.2269 ⋅ P
Metric thread to ISO 724:1993

Size Pitch Major Pitch Minor Thread root Shank Tensile Thread root Section
diameter diameter diameter diameter area area area Modulus
2 2 2 3
P [mm] Dmaj [mm] Dp [mm] Dmin [mm] Droot [mm] Ab [mm ] Atb [mm ] Aes [mm ] Z [mm ]
M4 0.70 4.0 3.545 3.242 3.141 12.57 8.65 7.75 3.04
M5 0.80 5.0 4.480 4.134 4.019 19.63 13.99 12.68 6.37
M6 1.00 6.0 5.350 4.917 4.773 28.27 19.84 17.89 10.68
M8 1.25 8.0 7.188 6.647 6.466 50.27 36.13 32.84 26.54
M10 1.50 10.0 9.026 8.376 8.160 78.54 57.26 52.29 53.34
M12 1.75 12.0 10.863 10.106 9.853 113.10 83.24 76.25 93.91
M16 2.00 16.0 14.701 13.835 13.546 201.06 155.07 144.12 244.02
M20 2.50 20.0 18.376 17.294 16.933 314.16 242.30 225.19 476.65
M24 3.00 24.0 22.051 20.752 20.319 452.39 348.91 324.27 823.58
M30 3.50 30.0 27.727 26.211 25.706 706.86 555.30 518.98 1667.64
M36 4.00 36.0 33.402 31.670 31.093 1017.88 809.42 759.27 2951.13
M45 4.50 45.0 42.077 40.129 39.479 1590.43 1295.62 1224.11 6040.85
M52 5.00 52.0 48.752 46.587 45.866 2123.72 1744.44 1652.20 9472.67
M60 5.50 60.0 56.428 54.046 53.252 2827.43 2344.95 2227.22 14825.44
11.1.2 Capacities of bolts and screws

Capacities of metal fasteners
Capacity in BS 5950-1:2000 Clause BS 8118-1:1991 Clause
Shear a) General 6.3.2.1 VRS = α s ×K1 ×A esb × p f γ m ≥ V 6.4.2
Ps = A esb ×p s ≥ Fs Values of αs:
b) Packing 6.3.2.2 αs = 0.6 for aluminium bolts or rivets
4 αs = 0.33 for aluminium bolts or rivets
t pa ≤ d
3 with test values of shear strength
 9d  αs = 0.7 for steel bolts or rivets
Ps = A esb ×p s × 
 8d+3t pa  6.3.2.3 Values of K1:
  K1 = 1.0 for rivets
c) Large grip lengths: for Tg > 5d K1 = 0.95 for close tolerance bolts
 8d  K1 = 0.85 for normal tolerance bolts Table 3.3
Ps = A esb ×p s × 
 3d+Tg  Value of γm:
  γm = 1.2 6.4.1
where: Values of pf for steel fasteners:
d = diameter of bolt pf = min. yield stress for steel
Table 30
tpa = total tickness of steel packing fasteners
Table 6.1
Tg = total tickness of connected plies pf = 0.5(f0.2+fu) ≤ 1.2 f0.2 for stainless
Values of ps: steel
ps = 160 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 Values of pf for aluminium fasteners:
ps = 375 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8 pf = 165 N/mm2 for bolts (6082 T6)
ps = 400 N/mm2 for Grade 10.9 pf = 175 N/mm2 for bolts (6061 T8)
ps = 0.4×Ub for other grades pf = 175 N/mm2 for bolts (5056A H24)
pf = 140 N/mm2 for rivets (5154A H22)
pf = 165 N/mm2 for rivets (6082 T6)
pf = 155 N/mm2 for rivets (5056A H22)
Tension Pt = A tb ×p t ≥ Ft 6.3.4.3 PRT = α×A tb × p f γ m ≥ P 6.4.3
Values of pt: Table 34 Values of α:
pt = 240 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 αs = 0.6 for aluminium bolts
pt = 560 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8 αs = 1.0 for steel bolts or rivets
pt = 700 N/mm2 for Grade 10.9 Note: Use of aluminium rivets in tension is
pt = 0.7×Ub ≤ Yb for other grades not recommended.
Combined Fs F 6.3.4.4  P 
2
 V 
2
6.4.5
+ t ≤ 1.4
shear and Ps Pt   +   ≤ 1.0
P
 RT   VRS 
tension
Bearing a) Bearing of bolt 6.3.3.2 a) Bearing of fastener 6.4.4

Pbb = d×t p ×p bb ≥ Fb B RF = d f ×t×2× p f γ m ≥ V
b) Bearing of connected part 6.3.3.3 b) Bearing of connected part
Pbs = k bs ×d×t p ×p bs ≤ 0.5×k bs ×e×t p ×p bs B RP = d f ×t×c× p a γ m
where: where:
tp = thickness of connected part, or for df = diameter of fastener
countersunk bolts, thickness of part t = thickness of connected part, or for
minus half the depth of countersinking countersunk bolts, thickness of part
e = edge distance in the direction of load minus half the depth of countersinking
Values of kbs: Values of c:
c=2 when df/t ≤ 10
kbs = 1.0 for standard holes 6.3.3.3
kbs = 0.7 for short slot & oversized holes c = 20t/df when 10 < df/t < 13
kbs = 0.5 for long slot & kidney-shaped c = 1.5 when df/t ≥ 13
Values of pbb: Values of pa:
pbb = 460 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 pa = 110 N/mm2 for conn. part
pbb = 1000 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8 (1200H14)
Table 31 pa = 155 N/mm2 for conn. part (6060 T6)
pbb = 1300 N/mm2 for Grade 10.9
pbb = 0.7× (Yb+Ub) for other grades pa = 177 N/mm2 for conn. part (6063 T6)
Values of pbs: pa = 225 N/mm2 for conn. part
pbs = 460 N/mm2 for S275 (6005AT6)
pbs = 550 N/mm2 for S355 pa = 285 N/mm2 for conn. part (6082 T6)
pbs = 670 N/mm2 for S460 Table 32 pa = 0.5(f0.2+fu) ≤ 1.2 f0.2 for other parts
pbs = 0.67× (Ys+Us) for other steel grades
Thread stipping resistance Dose & Schwarz

Action Values Notes Reference
Shear-tension a) Fastener Conservative values Schwarz
coefficient βB = 0.57 for aluminium
b) Threaded part
βM = 0.44 for aluminium
βM = 0.58 for steel
βM = 0.77 for stainless steel
Shear tension limit a) Fastener where: Dose
τ mB = β B ×f uB γ m fuB = tensile strength of fastener
b) Threaded part fuM = tensile strength of threaded part
τ mM = β M ×f uM γ m γm = 1.2
τ mM
αB =
(τ mB + τ mM )
Strip-off diameter P where: Dose
d τ = D p +(0.5 − α B ) ≤ D maj P = thread pitch of fastener
tan30°
Dp = pitch diameter of fastener
Dmaj = major diameter of fastener
Pull-out capacity FmB = α B × π×d τ ×t×τ mB 1.5 where: Dose
t = length of thread engagement
11.2 Weld
11.2.1 Capacity of welds for steel design
Intermittent fillet welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of :
- 16×thickness of thinner parent material or 300mm if it is in compression or shear.
- 24×thickness of thinner parent material or 300mm if it is in tension.
Capacity of steel welds BS 5950-1:2000
Data σ1, τ1, τ2 Factored stresses, normal and shear perpendicular to, and 6.8.7.3
2
shear stress parallel to, throat section, respectively [N/mm ]
FL Design longitudinal force per unit length [N/mm] 6.8.7.1
FT = FTx 2 + FTy 2 Design tangential force per unit length [N/mm] Table 37
a = 0.70×size of weld Throat size of weld [mm]
pw Design strength of weld material (see Error! Reference
2
py source not found.) [N/mm ]
2
Design strength of parent material [N/mm ]
Fillet weld Simple method:
σ12 +τ12 +τ 2 2 ≤ p w 6.8.7.2
Directional method:
2 2
 FL   FT  6.8.7.3
  +  ≤ 1.0
 PL   PT 
where:
PL = a ⋅ p w Longitudinal shear capacity per unit length
PT = K ⋅ PL Transverse capacity per unit length
F 
θ = 45° − tan -1  Tx  Angle between the resultant
 FTy transverse force FT the throat of the
 
weld [°]
1.5
K = 1.25
1+cos 2 θ Coefficient [-]
Butt weld σ12 +τ12 +τ 2 2 ≤ p y Check for vector sum of stresses 6.9.3
11.2.2 Capacity of welds for aluminium design
Intermittent welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of 10×t or 300mm if it is in
compression or shear, 24×t or 300mm if it is in tension.
Capacity of aluminium welds BS 8118-1:1991
Type Factored resistance of weld Clause
2
Data σ1, τ1, τ2 Factored stresses [N/mm ] 6.9.1
2
S = Sa + Sb + Sc 2 2 Design axial, longitudinal and transverse loads [kN] Fig. 6.5
θ Angle between line of weld and direction of load Fig. 6.4
t Thickness of the thinner part connected [mm]
L Length of weld [mm]
le = L – 2×(weld width) Effective length of weld [mm] 6.9.1
lf (see Fig. 6.6) Effective length of fillet [mm] Fig. 6.6
2
pw Limiting stress of weld material [N/mm ] Table 6.2
γm = 1.2 Material factor Table 3.3
Full and partial penetration J or U type 6.7.8
te = t
Values of te Partial penetration V or bevel type Fig. 6.1
te = lesser of (0.75×t) or (t-3mm) (a) Full penetration weld (b) Partial penetration weld
¨
Values of gt
gl Leg (size) of weld [mm] Fig. 6.2
g t =0.707g l Throat (effective size) of fillet weld [mm]
Butt weld Generally 6.9.1
2 2
σ1 +3τ 2 ≤ p w γ m
Direct tensile force normal to line of weld Fig. 6.5
lt
PRB = e e p w γ m ≥ S
3
Oblique tensile force
le t e
PRB = pw γm ≥ S Fig. 6.4
1+2cos 2 θ
Interaction 6.9.3 (c)
Heat-affected 2 2
zones (HAZs) (Sa PR ) + ( Sb VR ) ≤ 1.0
Direct tension normal to line of weld Fig. 6.3
PRFB = Lt e ( k z p a ) γ m
PRTB = Lt ( k z p a ) γ m Tension capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N] 6.9.3 (a)
Direct shear parallel to line of weld Tension capacity at the toe “T” [N]
VRFB = VRTB = Lt p vz γ m Shear capacity at the fusion boundary and toe [N] 6.9.3 (b)
Fillet weld Generally 6.9.2
σ1 +3 ( τ +τ 2
2
1
2 2
) ≤ pw γm
Load perpendicular to line of weld
Fig. 6.2
0.85 le g t
PRF = p w γ m ≥ Sa
2
Load parallel to line of weld Fig. 6.6
0.85 lf g t
PRF = p w γ m ≥ Sc
3 6.7.9
Interaction 6.9.3 (c)
Heat-affected 2 2
zones (HAZs) (Sa PR ) + ( Sb VR ) ≤ 1.0
Direct tension normal to line of weld Fig. 6.3
PRFF = Lg1 ( k z p a ) γ m
6.9.3 (a)
PRTF = Lt ( k z p a ) γ m
Tension capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N]
Direct shear parallel to line of weld Tension capacity at the toe “T” [N]
VRFF = Lg1 ( k z p v ) γ m Shear capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N]
VRTF = Lt ( k z p v ) γ m Shear capacity at the toe “T” [N] 6.9.3 (b)
11.3 Guide to welding

Weld symbols BS 499
Weld examples - plates
Weld examples – hollow sections
11.4 Bracket
11.4.1 Top of slab fixing
Design of TOS-fixed steel bracket BS 5950-1:2000
Parts Notes Clause
Data tp Minimum plate thickness [mm]
b Width of plate [mm]
hp Height of stiffener rib plate [mm]
Lf Cantilever arm of applied loads [mm]
Lb Outrigger distance to fixing/cast-in [mm]
Fg Unfactored gravity load [kN]
Fw Unfactored lateral load [kN]
2
py Design strength of steel [N/mm ]
Bracket Plate
a) Simplified
4 (1.4Fg L f ) ×103
tp ≥ Minimum plate thickness [mm] 4.2.5.2
b py
b) Exact
4 (1.4Fg L f ) ×103 1.4Fw Combined tension and moment 4.8.2.2
+ ≤ py
b tp2 b tp
Plate with welded stiffener ribs
Combined tension and moment for U 4.8.2.2
1.4Fg L f ×103 1.4Fw ×103 cross-section
+ ≤ py
 b  
2
( b+2h b − 2t p ) t p
h b ( b − t p ) +  − t p   t p
 2  
Anchor Reaction forces Used as design axial, shear and resultant

N Ed = 1.4Fg L f L b forces for anchor design [kN]
VEd = 1.4Fw
FEd = N Ed 2 + VEd 2
N 
γ = tan -1  Ed  Angle of incidence of FEd [°]
 VEd 
Design of TOS-fixed aluminium bracket BS 8118-1:1991

Parts Notes Clause
Bracket Plate or extrusion
a) Simplified
4 (1.2Fg L f ) ×103
tp ≥ Minimum plate thickness [mm] 4.2.5.2
b ( p o 1.2 )
b) Exact
4 (1.2Fg L f ) ×103 1.2Fw p Combined tension and moment 4.8.2.2
2
+ ≤ o
b tp b tp 1.2
FAÇADE NOTES
PART III
AMERICAN STANDARDS
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
Table of Contents
III-1 LOADS 5
1.1 Importance factor 5
1.2 Definitions 6
1.3 Dead load, D 6
1.4 Live load, L 7
1.5 Wind load, W 9
1.6 Notional load, N 14
III-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 17

2.1 Deflection limits 17
2.2 Common structural movements 18
III-3 STEEL DESIGN 21

3.2 Steel design 22
3.3 Bolted connections to AISC 360-10 29
3.4 Weld connections 32
III-4 STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN 35

4.1 Properties of stainless steel 35
4.2 Design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members 36
4.3 Test 36
4.4 Connections 37
III-5 ALUMINUM DESIGN 41

5.2 Allowable stress design 42
5.3 Moment of inertia tables 45
5.4 Thermally separated profiles 46
5.5 Fasteners 47
5.6 Metric fasteneners 48
5.7 Spaced thread fasteners 51
III-6 GLASS DESIGN 53

6.1 Properties 53
6.2 Glass design 54
AMERICAN STANDARDS 3
III-1 LOADS
1.1 Importance factor
Importance factors by risk category of buildings and other structures ASCE 7:2010 Table 1.5-1 & 15-2
Wind
Ice [ASCE 7 ‘05]*
Risk Snow Seismic
Use or Occupancy V= V>
category Is thickness - wind Ie
85-100 100
Ii Iw
mph mph
Buildings and other structures that represent a I 0.80 0.80 1.00 1.00 0.87 0.77
low risk to human life in the event of failure
All buildings and other structures except those II 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV
Buildings and other structures, the failure of III 1.10 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.15 1.15
which could pose a substantial risk to human life.
Buildings and other structures, not included in

Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a
substantial economic impact and/or mass
disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of
failure.
Buildings and other structures not included in

Risk Category IV (including, but not limited to,
facilities that manufacture, process, handle,
store, use, or dispose of such substances as
hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals,
hazardous waste, or explosives) containing toxic
or explosive substances where their quantity
exceeds a threshold quantity established by the
authority having jurisdiction and is sufficient to
pose a threat to the public if released.
Buildings and other structures designated as IV 1.20 1.25 1.00 1.50 1.15 1.15
essential facilities.
Buildings and other structures, the failure of

which could pose a substantial hazard to the
community.
Buildings and other structures (including, but not

limited to, facilities that manufacture, process,
handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances
as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or
hazardous waste) containing sufficient quantities
of highly toxic substances where the quantity
exceeds a threshold quantity established by the
authority having jurisdiction to be dangerous to
the public if released and is sufficient to pose a
threat to the public if released.
Buildings and other structures required to

maintain the functionality of other Risk Category
IV structures.
Note: The Importance Factors in ASCE 7-05 have been used to adjust the velocity pressure to different annual
probabilities of being exceeded. ASCE 7-10 removed these factors and new wind speed maps are introduced for
each of the risk categories I, II and III/IV also incorporating uniform recurrence interval wind speed contours
throughout all geographic regions including hurricane prone regions. These changes directly affect calculation of
unfactored wind loads. Revised load factors for wind in ASD and LRFD load combinations are coordinated to
compensate for the new wind speeds, resulting in design velocity pressures that are very similar to those calculated
using provisions of ASCE 7-05 for most U.S. regions.
1.2 Definitions
Definition of loading capacities
Category Load/strength Definition
Ultimate limit state Tensile strength the force required (usually minimum or average) to a member to the
(factored loads) point where it breaks
Characteristic strength value of the strength below which only 5% of all test results would be
expected (probability) to fail
Yield strength The load at which a member experiences a specified amount of
permanent deformation
Proof load the greatest load applied without straining it beyond the elastic limit
(no evidence of deformation)
Service load Rated capacity the minimum load a complete assembly can withstand before failure in
(non-factored loads) a laboratory pull test when the product is NEW
Breaking load the lowest breaking force when tested to destruction
Working load limit the maximum load, specified by the manufacturer following an
(WLL) assessment by a competent person, authorized to support when the
product is new and when the pull is applied in-line, unless noted
otherwise, with respect to the centreline of the member
Safe working load the breaking load divided by an appropriate factor of safety (usually ≥
(SWL) 2.0) giving a ‘safe’ load that could be lifted or be carried. No additional
safety factors required. Ceased to be used in American, ISO and
European standards because of legal implications.
Devices with Maximum rated load maximum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to
counter-mass be used with, as specified by the manufacturer
Minimum rated load minimum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be
used with, as specified by the manufacturer
1.3 Dead load, D

1.3.1 Self-weight, Sw
Weight of facade shall be calculated with a contingency factor on top of the self-weight as calculated from the
table below.
Density of materials Commentary on ASCE 7:2010
Density, γ Density, γ
Group Material Group Material
[kg/m³] [kg/m³]
Metal Aluminium 2 700 Concrete Normal weight 2 400

Bronze 8 800 Light weight 900 – 2 000
Copper 8 900 Heavy weight > 2 000
Iron, cast 7 200 Natural Stone Granite, basalt 1 550
Iron, wrought 7 700 Limestone, marble 1 520
Lead 11 400 Sandstone 1 310
Steel 7 880 Wood Timber 750
Stainless Steel 7 850 Plywood 580
Zinc 7 200 Particle board 720
Glass Glass (annealed) 2 500 Fibre board 800
Insulation Rockwool (Loose) 25 Plastic ETFE film -
Rockwool (Medium) 51 PVC-U 250 1 400
Rockwool (Dense) 70 Terra Cotta 1 900
6 AMERICAN STANDARDS
1.4 Live load, L
Facade shall be designed to carry and transmit safely all live loads acting on it to the primary structure
through the supports.
1.4.1 Floor live load
Live loads ASCE 7:2010 Table 4-1; IBC:2009 Table 1607.1
Uniform load Concentrated load*
Load Description 2
[kN/m ] [kN]
Office use 2.40 8.9
Access floor systems
Computer use 4.79 8.9
Fixed seats 2.87 -
Assembly areas and Lobbies, movable seats, platforms 4.79 -

theaters Stage floors 7.18 -
Dining rooms and restaurants 4.79 -
Balconies and decks 1.5 times the live load for the occupancy served. ≤ 4.79 -
Catwalks For maintenance access 1.92 1.33
First floor 4.79 -
Corridors
Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated -
Dining rooms and Restaurants 4.79 -
Operating rooms, laboratories 2.87 4.45
Hospitals Patient rooms 1.92 4.45
Corridors above first floor 3.83 4.45
Reading rooms 2.87 4.45
Libraries Stack rooms 7.18 4.45
Light 6.00 8.9
Manufacturing
heavy 11.97 13.4
Offices 2.40 8.9
Partitions (Cl. 4.3.2: additional live load) 0.72 -
Offices
Lobbies and first floor corridors 4.79 8.9
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar uses 3.59 -
Dance halls and ballrooms 4.79 -
Recreational Gymnasiums, grandstands, viewing stands and
4.79 -
bleachers
Stadiums and arenas with fixed seats 2.87 -
One- and two-family dwellings 1.92 -
Residential All other residential Private rooms and corridors 1.92 -
occupancies Public rooms and corridors 4.79 -
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance work - 1.33
Flat, pitched and curved roof 0.96 -
Roofs, Lr
Fabric construction 0.24 -
Assembly or roof gardens 4.79 -
2
Note: * Cl. 4.4: Uniformly distributed over an area of 0.58 m (762mm×762mm).
1.4.2 Live load reduction
Reduced uniform live load ASCE 7:2010
2 2
Data L0 ≤ 4.79 kN/m Unreduced design live load [kN/m ] 4.7.3
AT 2
Tributary area [m ]
2
Floor live  4.57  Reduced design live load [kN/m ] 4.7.2
load L = Lo  0.25 + 
 K LL AT 

Live load element factor KLL: Table 4-2
Element KLL
Interior columns 4
Exterior columns without cantilever slab 4
Edge columns with cantilever slab 3
Corner columns with cantilever slab 2
Edge beams without cantilever slabs 2
Interior beams 2
All other members not identified, including:
edge beams with cantilever slabs, cantilever beams, one-
way slabs, two-way slabs, members without provisions for
1
continuous shear transfer normal to their span
Reduced roof live load ASCE 7:2010

2 2
Data L0 ≤ 0.96 kN/m Unreduced design roof live load [kN/m ] 4.8.2
2
Roof live Lr = Lo R1 R2 ≥ 0.58 kN/m2 Reduced design live load [kN/m ] 4.8.2
load Reduction factor R1:
Tributary area KLL
2
AT ≤ 18.58 m 1
2 2
18.58 m < AT < 18.58 m 1.2-0.011AT
2
AT ≥ 18.58 m 0.6
Reduction factor R2:

Roof pitch KLL
F ≤ 0.48 1
0.48 < F < 1.44 1.2-0.05F
F ≥ 1.44 0.6
1.4.3 Barrier live loads

Barrier live loads ASCE 7:2010 cl. 4.5; IBC:2009 cl. 1607.7
Category Sub-category Load direction Concentrated load Uniform load
One- and two-family dwellings Any -
Handrails and 0.89 kN
guards All others (on top) 0.73 kN/m*
Intermediate rails, balusters and

Components Horizontal 0.22 kN** -
panel fillers
Grab bars Any 1.11 kN -
Passenger vehicle Condition 1 – at height of 457mm Horizontal 26.70 kN -

barrier systems Condition 2 – at height of 686mm
Note: * need not be considered for one- and two-family dwellings, factory, industrial, and storage occupancies, in
areas that are not accessible to the public and that serve an occupant load not greater than 50.
2
** Uniformly distributed over an area of ≤ 0.093 m (305mm×305mm).
1.5 Wind load, W

1.5.1 Exposure categories
To assign an exposure category, a ground surface roughness within each 45° sector shall be determined for
a distance upwind of the site.
Ground surface roughness ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26.7.2
Surface Description
Roughness
B Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced
obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
C Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 9.1 m. This category
includes flat open country and grasslands.
D Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and
unbroken ice.
Exposure categories ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26.7.3

Exposure Roof Description Illustration
category height
B h ≤ 9.1 m Surface roughness B prevails in upwind direction
≥ 457 m
h > 9.1 m Surface roughness B prevails in upwind direction

≥ max{792 m; 20 Hr}
C Where Exposures B or D do not apply
D Surface roughness D prevails in upwind direction

≥ max{1,524 m; 20 Hr}
Surface roughness B or C immediately upwind

≤ max{183 m; 20 Hr}
1.5.2 Buildings
OPEN BUILDING - Each wall having at least 80 percent opening:
Aoi ≥ 0.8 Ai
PARTIALLY ENCLOSED BUILDING – The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external
pressure (1) exceeds by more than10% the sum of the areas of openings in the balance of the building
2
envelope (walls and roof), (2) exceeds 0.37 m or 1% of the area of that wall and the percentage of openings
in the balance of the building envelope does not exceed 20 percent:
1. Aoi > 0.1(AoT - Aoi)
2. Aoi > min{ 0.37 m2; 0.01Ai}; (AoT - Aoi) ≤ 0.20
ENCLOSED BUILDING – where open or partially enclosed buildings do not apply.

where:
2
Aoi = area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure [m ]
2
Ai = area of the wall that receives positive external pressure [m ]
2
AoT - Aoi = sum of areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) [m ]
1.5.3 Wind loads on Main Wind Force Resistings Systems (MWFRS)
Wind load on MWFRS ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 27
Velocity h Mean roof height or ht. of structure [mm] 26.3
pressure z Height above ground level [m]
V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6
Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m above Fig. 26.5-1
Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz:
ground [m/s]
Exposure Kz
27
B 2.01 ( z 365.76 ) ≥ 0.57 Topographic factor [-] Table 27.3-1
2 9.5
C 2.01 ( z 274.32 ) ≥ 0.85
2 11.5
D 2.01 ( z 213.36 ) ≥ 1.03
K zt = 1.0 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient [-] Fig. 26.8-1
(conservatively)
K d = 0.85
(for MWFRS) Wind directionality factor [-] Table 26.6-1
q z = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 Velocity pressure [N/m ]
2
27.3.2
Gust-effect Rigid building or other structures: 26.9.4

factor G = 0.85 (conservatively)
Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures:
26.9.5
See Cl. 26.9.5
Enclosed & qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h) Velocity pressure considering mean roof 27.4.1
partially height and the level of the highest opening
enclosed qi = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = zi) 2
(zi), respectively [N/m ]
Fig. 27.4-1
buildings Cp
through 3
Internal pressure coefficient,(GCpi):
External pressure coefficient [-]
Building (GCpi)- (GCpi)+
Table 26.11-1
Enclosed - 0.18 + 0.18 Internal pressure coefficient [-]
Partially enclosed - 0.55 + 0.55 27.4.1, &
2
( ) + − qi ( GC pi ) −
p+ = q z GC p Positive design wind pressure [N/m ] 27.4.2
2
p− = qh ( GC p ) − qi ( GC pi ) Negative design wind pressure [N/m ]
− +
2
Free roof qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h) Velocity pressure [N/m ]
Net pressure coefficient, CN:
Open building Reference Net pressure coefficient [-] Fig. 27.4-4
through 7
Monoslope free roofs Fig. 27.4-4
Pitched free roofs Fig. 27.4-5
Troughed free roofs Fig. 27.4-6
2
Free roofs Fig. 27.4-7 Net design wind pressure [N/m ] 27.4.3
p+/ − = qhGC N
Roof Cp External pressure coefficient [-] Fig. 27.4-1

overhangs p+ = qhGC p 2
Positive design wind pressure [N/m ]
2
(
p− = qhG C p − 0.8 ) Negative design wind pressure [N/m ] 27.4.4
Parapets q p = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 Velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the 27.4.5

2
parapet [N/m ]
Combined net pressure coefficient, (GCpn):
Parapet (GCpn)
Windward +1.5
Leeward -1.0
(
p p = q p GC pn )
1.5.4 Wind load on signs, lattice frameworks and trusses
Wind load on other structures ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 29
Velocity h Height or free-standing wall [mm] Fig. 29.4-1
pressure z Height above ground level [m] 29.3
V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6
Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m Fig. 26.5-1
above ground [m/s]
Exposure Kz
Topographic factor [-] Table 29.3-1
27
B 2.01 ( z 365.76 ) ≥ 0.57
2 9.5
C 2.01 ( z 274.32 ) ≥ 0.85
2 11.5
D 2.01 ( z 213.36 ) ≥ 1.03
K zt = 1.0 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient [-] Fig. 26.8-1
(conservatively)
Wind directionality factor, Kd:
Structure type Kd
Walls, signs & lattice Wind directionality factor [-] Table 26.6-1
0.85
frameworks
Triangular, square,
Trussed rectangular 0.85
towers
Other sections 0.95
2 2
q z = 0.613K z K zt K d V Velocity pressure [N/m ] 29.3.2

26.9.5
See Cl. 26.9.5
Freestanding  solid area  Criterion for solid walls and signs [-] Fig. 29.4-1
solid walls ε =  > 0.70
 gross area 
& Velocity pressure [N/m ]
2
29.3.2
qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h)
Solid signs
Cf Force coefficient [-] Fig. 29.4-1
2
As Gross area of the solid wall or sign [m ] 29.4.1
k = 1 − (1 − ε )
1.5 Reduction factor [-] Fig. 29.4-1
F = qhGC f As ⋅ k Design wind force [N] 29.4.1
Open signs  solid area  Criterion for open signs [-] Fig. 29.5-2
& Lattice ε =  ≤ 0.70
 gross area 
frameworks Force coefficient [-]
Force coefficient, Cf:
Flat-sided Rounded, D q z
ε 29.5
members ≤ 5.3 > 5.3
29.4.1
< 0.1 2.0 1.2 0.8 2
Projected normal area [m ]
0.1 - 0.29 1.8 1.3 0.9
Design wind force [N]
0.3 - 0.70 1.6 1.5 1.1
Af
F = q z GC f A f
Trussed Force coefficient, Cf: Force coefficient [-] Fig. 29.5-3

towers Cross-section Cf
Square 4 ε 2 − 5.9ε + 4
Triangle 3.4ε 2 − 4.7 ε + 3.4
Af Projected normal area [m2] 29.5
F = q z GC f A f Design wind force [N] 29.4.1
1.5.5 Wind loads on Components and cladding (C & C)
Wind load on C & C ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 30
Velocity h Mean roof height or ht. of structure [m] 26.3
pressure z Height above ground level [m]
V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6
Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m Fig. 26.5-1
above ground [m/s]
Exposure Kz
Topographic factor [-] Table 30.3-1
27
B 2.01 ( z 365.76 ) ≥ 0.70
2 9.5
C 2.01 ( z 274.32 ) ≥ 0.85
2 11.5
D 2.01 ( z 213.36 ) ≥ 1.03 Fig. 26.8-1
Velocity pressure exposure coef. [-]
Kzt = 1.0 (conservatively) Wind directionality factor [-] Table 26.6-1
Kd = 0.85 (for Components & cladding) 2
Velocity pressure [N/m ] 30.3.2
q z,h = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2
Internal Enclosed building (GCpi) = +/- 0.18 Internal pressure coefficient [-] Table 26.11-1
Pressure Partially enclosed (GCpi) = +/- 0.55
Enclosed Low-rise building, h ≤ 18.3 m: Gable roofs, θ ≤ 7°

& partially External pressure coefficient,(GCp): Fig. 30.4-1
enclosed Zone (GCp) for Area [m2] through 7
buildings
Roof ≤ 0.9 0.9 < A < 9.3 ≥ 9.3
1, 2, 3 +0.3 0.2968 − 0.1 log A +0.2
1 -1.0 0.1 log A − 0.9968 -0.9
2 -1.8 0.7 log A − 1.7778 -1.1
3 -2.8 1.7 log A − 2.746 -1.1
Fig. 30.4-1
Walls ≤ 0.9 0.9 < A < 46.5 ≥ 46.5
4,5 +1.0 0.9944 − 0.1766 log A +0.7 30.4.2
4 -1.1 0.1766 log A − 1.0944 -0.8

5 -1.4 0.3531 log A − 1.3888 -0.8
a = min {0.1B; 0.1L; 0.4h}
p+ = qh  GC p
( ) + − ( GC pi ) − 

p− = qh  GC p
( ) − − ( GC pi ) + 

High-rise building, h > 18.3 m:
External pressure coefficient,(GCp): Fig. 30.6-1
Zone (GCp) for Area [m2]
Roof ≤ 0.9 0.9 < A < 46.5 ≥ 46.5
1 -1.4 0.2943 log A − 1.3906 -0.9
2 -2.3 0.412 log A − 2.2869 -1.6
3 -3.2 0.5297 log A − 3.1832 -2.3
Walls ≤ 1.9 1.9 < A < 46.5 ≥ 46.5
4, 5 +0.9 0.9578 − 0.2146 log A +0.6
4 -0.9 0.1431 log A − 0.9385 -0.7
5 -1.8 0.5723 log A − 1.9541 -1.0
a = min {0.1B; 0.1L} ≥ 0.9m Fig. 30.6-1
Local corner zone [m]
( )+ ( )−
p+ = q z GC p − qh GC pi
Design wind pressure, acc. to cl. 30.2.2
p− = qh ( GC p ) − qh ( GC pi ) 2 2
30.6.2
− + minimum 0.77 kN/m [N/m ]
Wind load on C & C ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 27

Velocity qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 Velocity pressure considering roof/parapet 30.3.2
2
pressure height [N/m ]

26.9.5
See Cl. 26.9.5
Free roof Net pressure coefficient, CN:
Open building Reference Net pressure coefficient [-] Fig. 30.8-1
Monoslope free roofs Fig. 30.8-1 through 3
Pitched free roofs Fig. 30.8-2
Troughed free roofs Fig. 30.8-3
p+/ − = qhGC N 2
Net design wind pressure [N/m ] 30.8.2
Parapets Positive external pressure coeff. for walls Fig. 30.4-1 or

( GC p ) 4 + ,5 +
Negative external pressure coeff. for walls Fig. 30.6-1
( GC p ) 4 − ,5 −
Negative external pressure coeff. for roofs Fig. 30.4-2
( GC p ) 2 − ,3 −
Windward parapet:
pw = q p  GC p
( ) (
− GC p ) 2 − ,3−  Net design wind pressure [N/m ]
2
Fig. 30.9-1
 4 + ,5 +
Leeward parapet:
pl = q p  GC p
( ) (
− GC p )4 − ,5 − 
 4 + ,5 +
1.5.6 Air-Permeable Cladding [ASCE 7 C30.1.5]

The design wind pressures derived from Chapter 30 represent the pressure differential between the exterior
and interior surfaces of the exterior envelope (wall or roof system). Because of partial air-pressure
equalization provided by air-permeable claddings, the components and cladding pressures derived from
Chapter 30 can overestimate the load on air-permeable cladding elements. The designer may elect either to
use the loads derived from Chapter 30 or to use loads derived by an approved alternative method. If the
designer desires to determine the pressure differential across a specific cladding element in combination with
other elements comprising a specific building envelope assembly, appropriate full-scale pressure
measurements should be made on the applicable building envelope assembly, or reference should be made
to recognized literature (Cheung and Melbourne 1986, Haig 1990, Baskaran 1992, Southern Building Code
Congress International 1994, Peterka et al. 1997, ASTM 2006, 2007, and Kala et al. 2008) for documentation
pertaining to wind loads.
1.5.7 Wind tunnel testing
Wind tunnel test result limitations ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 31
Action Permissible reduction Absolute minimum reduction* Clause
MWFRS The overall principal loads in the x and y directions are not 50 % 31.4.3
to be less than 80 % of that calculated with Part 1 of
Chapter 27 or Part 1 of Chapter 28.
Components Pressures shall not be less than 80 % of those calculated 65 %

and for Zone 4 for walls and Zone 1 for roofs using the
Cladding** procedure of Chapter 30.
Note: *1. There were no specific influential buildings or objects within the detailed proximity model.
2. Loads and pressures from supplemental tests for all significant wind directions in which specific influential
buildings or objects are replaced by the roughness representative of the adjacent roughness condition, but
not rougher than exposure B, are included in the test results.
** Zone 5 pressures may be reduced based on the percent reduction of Zone 4 and Zones 2 & 3 pressures
may be reduced based on the percent reduction of Zone 1. See commentary of Chapter 31.
1.5.8 Load combination for continuous corner cladding

Wind load patterns for corner cladding
100 % 75 % 75 % 60 % 60%
1 3 5
100 % 80 % 80 % 60% 60 %
2 4 6
1.6 Notional load, N

1.6.1 Load path connections
All parts of the structure between separation joints shall be interconnected to form a continuous path to the
lateral force-resisting system, and the connections shall be capable of transmitting the lateral forces induced
by the parts being connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall be tied to the remainder of the
structure with elements having strength to resist a force of not less than 5% of the portion’s weight.
1.6.2 Lateral forces
Static lateral force applied independently in each of two orthogonal directions at all levels:
Fx = 0.01 Wx
Where:
Fx = the design lateral force applied at story x and
Wx = the portion of the total dead load of the structure,D, located or assigned to level x.
Allowable stress design, Ra (ASD) ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 2.4
Basic combinations Vertical facade Sloped façade or overhead glazing
1 D D D
2 D+L D+L -
3 D + (Lr or S or R) - D + Lr
4 D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R) - -
5 D + (0.6W* or 0.7E) D + 0.6W* D + 0.6W*
6 D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W*) + 0.75(Lr or S or R) D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W*) D + 0.75Lr + 0.75(0.6W*)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S - -
7 0.6D + (0.6W* or 0.7E) - 0.6D + 0.6W

Note: * 1.0W in ASCE 7-05.
Load and resistance factor design, Ru (LRFD) ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 2.3
Basic combinations Vertical facade Sloped façade or overhead glazing
1 1.4D 1.4D 1.4D
2 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) 1.2D + 1.6L -
3 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L* or 0.5W**) - 1.2D + 1.6Lr + 0.5W**
1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5W**
4 1.2D + 1.0W*** + 0.5L* + 0.5(Lr or S or R) 1.2D + 1.0W*** 1.2D + 1.0W*** + 0.5S
5 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L* + 0.2S - -
6 0.9D + 1.0W*** - 0.9D + 1.0W***
7 0.9D + 1.0E - -
* 2
Note: Cl. 2.3.2: 0.5L for L ≤ 4.79 kN/m areas not for public assembly, 1.0L otherwise.
** 0.8W in ASCE 7-05.
*** 1.6W in ASCE 7-05.
III-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS

2.1 Deflection limits
Deflection limits for curtain walling
Standard Component Description Limit Clause
AAMA Framing members H ≤ 4.11 m L/175 3.0
TIR-A11:2004
4.11 m < H < 12 m H/240 + 6.35 mm
12 m < H See note 1
IBC:2009 Framing member for each individual glass L/175 or 19.1 mm 2403.3
Interior glazing – differential deflection of two adjacent glass thickness 2403.4
unsupported edges under 0.73 kN/m at 1067 mm above FFL
ASTM E 1300 Glass edge support L/175 5.2.4
AAMA Skylights IGU 2
and sloped ( Lg 100 ) 63.5
glazing, 1987
Other glass types 2
( Lg 100 ) 42.3
Structural glass Author: Mic Paterson L/50

facades and
enclosures. 2011
Deflection limits
Standard Component Limit Clause
AISC 360:2010 D+L D+0.5L L3
Loading -
(Short term def.) (Long term def.)
Floor span (reduced live load) L/360 -
Roof span L/240 -
Cantilevers L/150 -
IBC:2009* Loading L S or W** D+L Table
1604.3
Floor members L/360 - L/240
Roof members
Supporting plaster ceiling L/360 L/360 L/240
Supporting nonplaster ceiling L/240 L/240 L/180
Not supporting ceiling L/180 L/180 L/120
Supporting formed metal roofing L/150 - -
Exterior walls and interior partitions
With brittle finishes - L/240 -
With flexible finishes - L/120 -
Supporting formed metal sheeting - L/90 -
Formed metal sheet roofing/siding - L/60 L/60

Aluminum members
Supporting edge of glass - L/175 L/175
Not supporting edge of glass - L/60 L/60
Aluminum panels - L/60 L/60
Aluminum sandwich panels - L/120 L/120
Note: *For cantilever members, L shall be taken as twice the length of the cantilever.
**Wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.7 times the “components and cladding” loads for the purpose of
determining deflection limits herein.
2.2 Common structural movements
Building envelopes have to accommodate movement of their components and of the supporting structure,
and to make this possible building structures have to be sufficiently stiff.
Allowable storey drift
Type Drift limit Clause
ASCE 7:2010 Risk category I or II III IV Table

12.12-1
Structures, other than masonry shear wall structures, 4 h/40 h/50 h/67
stories or less , with interior walls, partitions, ceilings,
and exterior wall systems that have been designed to
accommodate the story drifts
Masonry cantilever shear wall structures h/100
Other masonry shear wall structures h/150
All other structures h/50 h/67 h/100
For cladding design and other design requirements h/100 12.14.8.5
AISC 360:2010 Total or interstorey drift* H (or h) / 400 - 500 L4
Absolute interstory drift limit** to avoid damage on non- 10 mm

structural partitions, cladding and glazing.
AAMA 501.4: Recommended Static Test Method for Evaluating h/100 7.2.5
2000 Curtain Wall and Storefront Systems Subjected to unless otherwise stated
Seismic and Wind Induced Interstory Drifts
Note: * ASCE Task Committee on Drift Control of Steel Building Structures, 1988.
** Cooney and king, 1988; Freeman, 1977.
Structural movements
Movement Type Common values Clause
Column Steel Differential column shortening may be a consideration in design and AISC 303:2005
shortening construction construction. In some cases, it may occur due to variability in the Cl. 7.13
accumulation of dead load among different columns (see Figure C–
7.1). In other cases, it may be characteristic of the structural system
that is employed in the design.
Consideration of the effects of differential column shortening may be
very important, such as when the slab thickness is reduced, when
electrical and other similar fittings mounted on the Structural Steel
are intended to be flush with the finished floor and when there is little
clearance between bottoms of beams and the tops of door frames or
ductwork.
Concrete
construction
Settlement
Thermal Steel 0.2mm/m per 15°C AISC 303:2005

movement Cl. 7.13
AISC 303:2005 Fig. C-7.5. Exterior steel column plumbness tolerances normal to building line.
III-3 STEEL DESIGN

Material constants of structural steel AISC 360:2010 Table B4.1b
γ [kg/m³] modulus, E G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 77.0 7 850 200 000 81 000 0.30 12·10
Characteristic values of structural steel ASTM A6:2002

Structural shapes Preferred ASTM Yield strength, Tensile strength, Other Applicable ASTM
Material Standard Fy Fu Material Standards
2 2
[N/mm ] [N/mm ]
b c
W A992 345 448 A242 Grade 50
a
A529 Grade 50
b
A572 Grade 42, 50, 55
c
A588 Grade 50
b
A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70
b a
HP A572 Grade 50 345 448 A36 Grade 36,
c
A242 Grade 50
a
A529 Grade 50
b
A572 Grade 42, 55
c
A588 Grade 50
b
A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70
b
A992
a c
S, M, C, MC & A36 248 400 A242 Grade 50
a
L A529 Grade 50
b
A572 Grade 42, 50, 55
c
A588 Grade 50
b
A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70
a a
HSS (Rectangular A500 Grade B 317 400 A501 Grade 36
b
and square) A618 Grade I, II and III
Grade C 345 427 c
A847 Grade 50
a
HSS (Round) A500 Grade B 290 400
Grade C 317 427

a
Pipe A53 Grade B 240 414 N/A
a c
Plates and bars A36 248 400 A242 Grade 50
d
b
A514 Grade 100
A572 Grade 50 345 448 a
A529 Grade 50, 55
b
A572 Grade 42, 50, 55, 60, 65
c
A588 Grade 50
e
A852 Grade 70
a
Sheets A570 Grade 30 205 340
Grade 40 275 380

b b
Grade 50 345 450 A606 , A607
a
Note: Carbon steel
b
High-stregth, low-alloy steel
c
Corrosion-resistant, high-stregth, low-alloy steel
d
Quenched and tempered alloy
e
Quenched and tempered low-alloy
3.2 Steel design
3.2.1 Tension and Compression Members
Design for Tension and Compression Members AISC 360:2010
Tension Pu Pa
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0
φ t Pn Pn Ω t
General:
Pn = Ag F y Tensile yielding in the gross section [kN] D2
φt = 0.90 (LRFD); Ω t = 1.67 (ASD)
Pn = Ae Fu
Tensile rapture in the net section [kN]
where: φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.00 (ASD)

Ae = U ⋅ An Net effective area to account for shear lag
Pin-connected:
Pn = (2t ⋅ be )Fu D3
Tensile rapture on the net effective area [kN]
Table D3.1
Pn = Asf ⋅ 0.6 Fu Shear rapture on the effective area [kN]
where: φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.00 (ASD)
be = 2t + 16mm ≤ ( b − d h ) 2 D5.1
Effective width [mm]
Asf = 2t ( a + d 2 ) 2
Area on the shear failure path [mm ]
Compression Pu Pa
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φc = 0.90 (LRFD); Ω c = 1.67 (ASD)
φc Pn Pn Ω c E1
Local Squashing:
Pn =Ag F y Design compressive strength [kN] E3
Flexural Buckling*:
Pn = Ag Fcr
Q = Qs Qa
S ≤ S1: KL rz ≤ 4.71 E QFy
π 2E Elastic buckling stress [N/mm ]
2
Fe = 2
( KL rz )
2
( QF y Fe ) QF Critical buckling stress [N/mm ]
Fcr = 0.658 y
S > S1: KL rz > 4.71 E QFy Selected sections:

0.877 π 2 E Section KL rz Fe Fcr
Fcr = 2
( KL rz ) Rect. 12KL Eb 2 Eb 2
b 0.8225 0.7214
Slenderness limit, 4.71√(E/Fy): ( KL ) 2
( KL ) 2
Fy E
Grade 2 4.71 Circular ED 2 ED 2
[N/mm ] Fy 4KL 2.4674 2.1639
A36 248 133.8
D ( KL ) 2 ( KL ) 2
A53 240 136.0
Effective length factor, K:
290 123.7
A500 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.0
317 118.3
A572 345 113.4
S235 235 137.4
S275 275 127.0
S355 355 111.8
Note: *Applicable to single angle with b/t ≤ 20 with rz being the radius of gyration about the minor principal axis.
Reduction Factor for Compression Elements Subject to Axial compression AISC Table B4.1a & Cl. E7.1 & 2
Qs
Unstiffened Elements E7.1
S S ≤ S1 S1 S1 < S < S2 S2 S ≥ S2
Rolled sections
0.69 E
b E  b  Fy E 2 (a)
1.0 0.56 1.415 − 0.74   1.03 b
t Fy Fy   Fy
t E
t
Built-up sections
0.9 Ekc
b Ekc  b  Fy Ekc 2 (b)
1.0 0.64 1.415 − 0.65   1.17 b
t Fy  t  Ekc Fy   Fy
4 t
kc =
h tw
Angles & Other elements

0.53E
b E  b  Fy E 2 (c)
1.0 0.45 1.34 − 0.76   0.91 b
t Fy Fy   Fy
t E
t
Tees 0.69 E
d E  b  Fy E 2 (d)
1.0 0.75 1.908 − 1.22   1.03 b
t Fy Fy   Fy
t E
t
Rect. and round bars

Q = 1.0 E3
Qa = Ae Ag
Stiffened Elements Ae is calculated based on reduced effective width, be E7.2
S S ≤ S1 S1 S1 < S
Doubly symmetrical E  0.34 E 
h E be = 1.92t 1 − ≤b
1.49
tw
1.0 Fy Fcr  ( b t ) Fcr 
Fcr is calculated based on Q = 1.0
Cover plates
b E (a)
1.0 1.40
t Fy
Other Elements
b E
1.0 1.49
t Fy
Box sections
b E E  0.34 E  (b)
1.0 1.40 be = 1.92t 1 − ≤b
t Fy Fy 
 ( b t ) F y 
Round HSS
D E 0.038 E 2 (c)
1.0 0.11 Q= +
t Fy Fy ( D t ) 3
3.2.2 Flexural members
Design of Flexural Members AISC 360:2010 Table B4.1b & Cl. F
Mu Ma
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φb =0.90 (LRFD); Ω b = 1.67 (ASD) F1
Bending φb M n Mn Ωb
S Mn for S ≤ S1 S1 Mn for S1 < S < S2

I & C, LTB E   S y   Lb − L p  
Lb M p = Z y Fy L p = 1.76rz C b  1 −  1 − 0.7   M p F2.2
Fy  Z y   Lr − L p  
Flange local buckling   
b E   S  
t Mp 0.38  1 −  1 − 0.7 y   1.61 b t − 0.61   M p F3.2
Fy   Z y   E Fy 
   
Bending about Z z F y ≤ 1.6 S z F y

- - - F6.1
minor axis
Flange local buckling
E   S  
b Mp 0.38  1 −  1 − 0.7 y   1.61 b t − 0.61   M p F6.2
t Fy   Z y   E Fy 
   
Square or Rect. HSS - Mp - - F7.1

Flange local buckling
E   S  
b b t
Mp 1.12  1 −  1 − y   3.57 − 4.0   M p F7.2
t Fy   Z y   E Fy 
   
Web local buckling
E   S  
h ht
Mp 2.42  1 −  1 − y   0.305 − 0.738   M p F7.3
t Fy   Z y   E Fy 
   
Round HSS - Mp - - F8.1

Local buckling
D 0.31
E S  E Fy 
Mp Fy  0.021 + 1 M p F8.2
t Z  ( D t ) 
T & Double Angles π EI z GJ Iz F9.1
Flange in comp., LTB - M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y -
Lb ( )
1 + B 2 + B ; B = 2.3
d
Lb J F9.2
Flange local buckling   

bf E S  b f 2t f
M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y 0.38  1 −  1 − 0.7 yc   1.61 − 0.61   M p F9.3
2t f Fy   Zy 
  E Fy 
 
Web in comp., LTB π EI z GJ Iz F9.1

- S y Fy -
Lb ( )
1 + B 2 − B ; B = 2.3
d
Lb J F9.2
Web local buckling E  Fy 

d 0.84 d
S y Fy  2.55 − 1.84  S y Fy F9.4
tw Fy  t E 
w 
Rectangular bars Lb d E   L d  Fy 
M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y 0.08 C b  1.52 − 0.274  b2   S y Fy F11
2 Fy  t  E 
t 
LTB Modification factor AISC 360:2010 F1 & Comm. F1

Laterally 12.5 M max Rm F1
braced at Lb Cb =
2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C
Doubly symmetric section:
Rm = 1.0
Singly symmetric section: C-F1
a) Single curvature bending
Rm = 1.0
b) Reverse curvature bending
 I zTop 
Rm = 0.5+2  
 Iz 
Continuously Mo Moment at the end of the unbraced length that

braced laterally gives the largest compressive stress in the
on one flange bottom flange [kN·m] C-F1
M1 Moment at other end of the unbraced length
[kN·m]
Moment at the middle of the unbraced length
MCL
[kN·m]
Laterally braced flange in compression: Fig. C-

F1.4
Case 1A: Negative M1 Case 1A: Negative M1

2 M  8 M CL 
C b = 3.0 −  1  −  
3  M o  3  ( M o + M 1 ) 
Case 1B: Positive M1
Case 1B: Positive M1
2 M 1 + 8 M CL
C b = 3.0 −
3M o
Laterally braced flange in tension: Fig. C-

F1.5
Case 2A: Both end moments are positive or zero Case 2A: Both end moments are positive or zero
( M o + 0.6 M 1 )
C b = 2.0 −
M CL
Case 2B: One end moment is negative (Mo) Case 2B: One end moment is negative (Mo)
( 0.165 M o + 2 M 1 − 2 M CL )
Cb =
0.5 M 1 − M CL
Case 2C: Both end moments are negative

Case 2C: Both end moments are negative
C b = 2.0 −
( M o + M 1 ) 0.165 + M 1 
 
M CL  3M o 
3.2.3 Shear
Design of members in shear AISC 360:2010
Shear Vu Va
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φv =0.90 (LRFD); Ω v = 1.67 (ASD) G1
φvVn Vn Ω v
Webs:
Vn = C v Aw 0.6F y G2.1
Shear coefficient, Cv:
Sect. Aw Slenderness Cv Nominal shear strength [kN]
h tw ≤ 1.10 kv E Fy 1.0
I,C,T htw Web shear coefficient [-]
> 1.10 kv E Fy 1.10 kv E Fy
G4
L bt bt ≤ 1.37 kv E Fy h tw
1.51kv E G5
> 1.37 kv E Fy
Rect.
HSS
2ht h t ( h tw )2 Fy
Shear buckling coefficient, kv:

Webs kv
Shear buckling coefficient [-] G2.1
No I or C: h tw < 260 5.0
transverse Rect. HSS 5.0 G5
a = clear distance between transverse
stiffener T, L 1.2 stiffeners [mm]
2
G4
 260 
a h > 3.0 or   5.0
With  h tw 
transverse G2.1
stiffeners 5+
5
Other a/h
( a h )2
Round HSS:
Vn = Ag 0.5Fcr Nominal shear strength [kN] G6
For Lv ≤ 4.21 ⋅ D D t : Lv = distance from maximum to zero shear
force [mm]
1.60E
Fcr =
5
2
( Lv D)( D t )4 Critical buckling stress [N/mm ]
For Lv > 4.21 ⋅ D D t :
0.78E
Fcr = 3
( D t)2
3.2.4 Torsion
Design of members in torsion AISC 360:2010
Torsion Tu Ta
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0
φT Tn Tn Ω T φT =0.90 (LRFD); Ω T = 1.67 (ASD)
Hollow Tn = C ⋅ Fcr Nominal torsion strength [kN·m] H3.1

sections Round HSS
2
C = π (D − t) t 2
Torsional constant [mm³] H3.1
 
 1.23E 0.60E 
Fcr = max  ; 3 
≤ 0.6 F y
 5
 Critical stress [N/mm²]
 ( L D) ( D t )4 ( D t ) 
2
Rectangular HSS Torsional constant [mm³]

C = 2 ( B − t ) ( H − t ) t − 4.5 ( 4 − π ) t 3
For h t ≤ 2.45 E Fy : Critical stress [N/mm²]
Limiting slenderness: H3.1
Fcr = 0.6 F y
E E
For 2.45 E Fy < h t ≤ 3.07 E Fy : Grade Fy 2.45 3.07
Fy Fy
Fcr =
(
0.6F y 2.45 E F y ) A500 317 61.54 77.11
(h t) A36 248 69.58 87.18
For 3.07 E Fy < h t ≤ 260 : A572 345 58.99 73.92
S235 235 71.47 89.56
0.458π 2 E
Fcr = S275 275 66.07 82.79
( h t )2
S355 355 58.15 72.87
Other Tn = C ⋅ 0.6 F y Nominal torsion strength [kN·m] H3.3

sections
Rectangular section
bt 2 3 Torsional constant [mm³]
C= 2 3 4
t t t t
1+0.6095 + 0.8865   − 1.8023   + 0.91  
b  
b  
b b
OR
C 1 = α 1 bc 2 ; C 2 = α 2 bc 2
Multiple rectangular sections

C i = α i bi t i 2 Individual torsional constant [mm³]
4
K i = β i bi t i 3 Individual shear constant [mm ]
4
Total shear constant [mm ]
(
K = ∑ β i bi t i 3 )
Ci Total trsional constant [mm³]
C= K
Ki
Source: Aircraft Structures by J. Perry & J.J. Azar
3.2.5 Cobined forces
Combined forces and torsion AISC 360:2010
Axial and Doubly and singly symmetric members
Flexure When Pu φc,t Pn ≥ 0.2
H1
Pu 8  M ux M uy  Pa 8  M ax M ay 
+  +  (LRFD); +  +  (ASD) ≤ 1.0

φc ,t Pn 9  φb M nx φb M ny  
Pn Ω c ,t 9  M nx Ω b M ny Ω b 
 
When Pu φc,t Pn < 0.2 H1
1  Pu  M ux M uy 1  Pa  M ax M ay
  + + (LRFD);   + + (ASD) ≤ 1.0
2  φc ,t Pn
 φb M nx φb M ny 2  Pn Ω c ,t  M nx Ω b M ny Ω b
Unsymmetric members
Pu M ux M uy Pa M ax M ay
+ + (LRFD); + + (ASD) ≤ 1.0 H2
φc ,t Pn φb M nx φb M ny Pn Ω c ,t M nx Ω b M ny Ω b
Shear, Axial Pu Mu  V T 
2
Pa Ma  Va Ta 
2 H3.2
and Flexure + +  u + r  (LRFD); + + +  (ASD) ≤ 1.0
φc ,t Pn φb M n  φvVn φT Tn  Pn Ω c ,t M n Ω b  Vn Ω v Tn Ω T 
3.3 Bolted connections to AISC 360-10
Characteristic values of fasteners AISC 360:2010 Table J3.2
ASTM Grade | Proof stress, Tensile strength,
Group 2 2
EN Equivalent Fy [N/mm ] Fu [N/mm ]
- A307M | 4.6 - | 240 414 | 400
A A325M | 8.8 586 | 640 827 | 800
B A490M | 10.9 827 | 900 1034 | 1000
3.3.1 Dimensions and Distances

Maximum Size of Bolt Holes [mm] AISC 360:2010 Table J3.3M
Bolt Diameter Standard Oversize Short-Slot Long-Slot
d [mm] [Diameter] [Diameter] [Diameter×Length] [Diameter×Length]
M16 18 20 18 × 22 18 × 40
M20 22 24 22 × 26 22 × 50
M22 24 28 24 × 30 24 × 55
M24 27 30 27 × 32 27 × 60
M27 30 35 30 × 37 30 × 67
M30 33 38 33 × 40 33 × 75
≥ M36 d+3 d+8 (d + 3) × (d + 10) (d + 3) × 2.5·d
Minimum Edge Distance and Spacing [mm] AISC 360:2010 Table J3.4M & 3.5M
Bolt Diameter Minimum
Standard Oversize Short-Slot* Long-Slot*
d [mm] Spacing
[Diameter] [Diameter] [Diameter×Length] [Diameter×Length]
[Clause J3.3]
M16 1.375·d = 22 1.375·d + 2 = 24 1.375·d + 3 = 25 2.125·d = 34 2.67d
but
M20 1.300·d = 26 1.300·d + 2 = 28 1.300·d + 3 = 29 2.050·d = 41
3·d
M22 1.273·d = 28 1.273·d + 2 = 30 1.273·d + 3 = 31 2.023·d = 45 is preferred
M24 1.250·d = 30 1.250·d + 3 = 33 1.250·d + 3 = 33 2.000·d = 48
M27 1.259·d = 34 1.259·d + 3 = 37 1.259·d + 5 = 39 2.009·d = 54
M30 1.267·d = 38 1.267·d + 3 = 41 1.267·d + 5 = 43 2.017·d = 61
M36 1.278·d = 46 1.278·d + 3 = 49 1.278·d + 5 = 51 2.028·d = 73
> M36 1.25·d 1.25·d + 3 1.25·d + 5 2·d

Note: * Long axis perpendicular to edge of slot. For long axis parallel to edge, use min. edge distances for standard
holes.
Maximum Edge Distance and Spacing [mm] AISC 360:2010 J3.5

Maximum distance*
Maximum edge distance 12·tp ≤ 150 mm
Maximum Painted members or unpainted members not subject to 24·tp ≤ 305 mm

spacing corrosion
Unpainted members of weathering steel subject to 14·tp ≤ 180 mm
atmospheric corrosion
Note: * tp is the thickness of the thinner connected part
3.3.2 Metric thread to ISO 724
Metric screw thread ISO 724:1993
3
H = P sin(60°) = P ≈ 0.866254P
2
5 5 3
d 1 = D1 = d − 2 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P
8 8
3 3 3
d 2 = D2 = d − 2 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P
8 8
Nominal area
Ab = 0.7854 d 2
Size Pitch Major Minor Pitch Nominal

diameter diameter diameter area
2
P [mm] d, D [mm] d1, D1 [mm] d2, D2 [mm] Ab [mm ]
M4 0.70 4.0 3.24 3.54 12.57
M5 0.80 5.0 4.13 4.48 19.64
M6 1.00 6.0 4.92 5.35 28.27
M8 1.25 8.0 6.65 7.19 50.27
M10 1.50 10.0 8.38 9.03 78.54
M12 1.75 12.0 10.11 10.86 113.10
M16 2.00 16.0 13.84 14.70 201.06
M20 2.50 20.0 17.29 18.38 314.16
M24 3.00 24.0 20.75 22.05 452.39
M30 3.50 30.0 26.21 27.73 706.86
3.3.3 Bolt design

Design resistance of bolts in bearing-type connections AISC 360:2010 J3
Criteria Ru Ra
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0
φ Rn Rn Ω φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD)
Tension Rnt = Ab ( 0.75Fu ) Tensile strength [N] J3.6
Shear Threads not excluded from shear planes:

Rnv = Ab ( 0.45Fu ) Shear strength [N] J3.6
Threads excluded from shear planes:
Rnv = Ab ( 0.563Fu )
Fillers with t >6mm:
k = 1 − 0.0154 ( t − 6 ) ≤ 0.85 Shear strength reduction factor for thick fillers J5.2
Combined Rut Ruv Rat Rav Comm.

+ (LRFD); + (ASD) ≤ 1.3 J3.7
Tension φ Rnt φ Rnv Rnt Ω Rnv Ω
and Shear
Bearing Standard, oversized and short-slotted Bearing strength at bolt holes (where deformation at J3.10
holes: bolt hole at service load is a design consideration,
Rnb = 1.2lc ⋅ t ⋅ Fu ≤ 2.4d ⋅ t ⋅ Fu otherwise increase by a factor of 1.25) [N]
Long-slotted hole with slot perpendicular lc = Clear distance, in the direction of the force,
to direction of force: between the edge of the hole and the edge of an
Rnb = 1.0lc ⋅ t ⋅ Fu ≤ 2.0d ⋅ t ⋅ Fu adjacent hole or edge of the material [mm]
Steel bolt strength table [LRFD] AISC 360:2010 J3.6

Fu Size M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30
Grade 2 2
[N/mm ] Ab [mm ] 28.27 50.27 78.54 113.1 201.1 314.2 452.4 1017.9
φRnt [kN] 6.36 11.31 17.67 25.45 45.24 70.7 101.8 229.0
A307M / 4.6 400 3.82 6.79 10.60 15.27 27.14 42.41 61.07 137.41
φRnv [kN]
(4.77) (8.49) (13.27) (19.10) (33.96) (53.06) (76.41) (171.92)
φRnt [kN] 12.72 22.62 35.34 50.90 90.48 141.4 203.6 458.0
A325M / 8.8 800 7.63 13.57 21.21 30.54 54.29 84.82 122.15 274.83
φRnv [kN]
(9.55) (16.98) (26.53) (38.21) (67.92) (106.12) (152.82) (343.84)
φRnt [kN] 15.90 28.28 44.18 63.62 113.10 176.72 254.47 572.56
A490M / 10.9 1000 9.54 16.97 26.51 38.17 67.86 106.03 152.68 343.53
φRnv [kN]
(11.94) (21.23) (33.16) (47.76) (84.90) (132.65) (191.02) (429.80)
A570 340 3.67 4.90 6.12 7.34 9.79 12.2 14.7 18.4
A36 / A500 400 4.32 5.76 7.20 8.64 11.52 14.4 17.3 21.6
Bearing
A572 450 4.86 6.48 8.10 9.72 12.96 16.2 19.4 24.3
φRnb / t
S235 360 [kN/mm] 3.89 5.18 6.48 7.78 10.37 13.0 15.6 19.4
S275 430 4.64 6.19 7.74 9.29 12.38 15.5 18.6 23.2
S355 510 5.51 7.34 9.18 11.02 14.69 18.4 22.0 27.5
Note: * Values in () are for threads excluded from shear planes
Steel bolt strength table [ASD] AISC 360:2010 J3.6

Fu Size M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30
Grade 2 2
[N/mm ] Ab [mm ] 28.27 50.27 78.54 113.1 201.1 314.2 452.4 1017.9
Rnt/Ω [kN] 4.24 7.54 11.78 16.97 30.16 47.12 67.86 152.68
A307 / 4.6 400 2.54 4.52 7.07 10.18 18.10 28.27 40.72 91.61
Rnv/Ω [kN]
(3.18) (5.66) (8.84) (12.74) (22.64) (35.37) (50.94) (114.61)
Rnt/Ω [kN] 8.48 15.08 23.56 33.93 60.32 94.25 135.72 305.36
A325 / 8.8 800 5.09 9.05 14.14 20.36 36.19 56.55 81.43 183.22
Rnv/Ω [kN]
(6.37) (11.32) (17.69) (25.47) (45.28) (70.75) (101.88) (229.23)
Rnt/Ω [kN] 10.60 18.85 29.45 42.41 75.40 117.81 169.65 381.71
A490 / 10.9 1000 6.36 11.31 17.67 25.45 45.24 70.69 101.79 229.02
Rnv/Ω [kN]
(7.96) (14.15) (22.11) (31.84) (56.60) (88.44) (127.35) (286.53)
A570 340 2.45 3.26 4.08 4.90 6.53 8.16 9.79 12.24
A36 / A500 400 2.88 3.84 4.80 5.76 7.68 9.60 11.52 14.40
Bearing
A572 450 3.24 4.32 5.40 6.48 8.64 10.80 12.96 16.20
Rnb/Ω / t
S235 360 [kN/mm] 2.59 3.46 4.32 5.18 6.91 8.64 10.37 12.96
S275 430 3.10 4.13 5.16 6.19 8.26 10.32 12.38 15.48
S355 510 3.67 4.90 6.12 7.34 9.79 12.24 14.69 18.36
3.4 Weld connections
Electrode Classification AWS D1.1:2004 Table 3.1
Yield strength Tensile strength
Base Metal Electrode Classification 2 2
[N/mm ] FEXX[N/mm ]
E60XX 330 414
A36 [≤ 20mm], A53, A500
E70XX 400 480
SMAW: E7015, E7016, E7018, E7028
A36 [> 20mm], A572, A992
Other processes: E70XX
3.4.1 Minimum weld size

Weld size limits AISC 360:2010 Table J2.3 & J2.4
Material thickness Partial-joint-penetration Fillet weld
of thinner part joined [mm] groove weld
Minimum weld size Maximum weld size
Minimum effective throat
3≤t≤ 5 2 2 t
5<t≤6 3 3
6 < t ≤ 13 5 5 t – 2mm
13 < t ≤ 19 6 6
19 < t ≤ 38 8 8
38 < t ≤ 57 10 8
57 < t ≤ 150 13 8
150 < t 16 8
Design resistance of welds AISC 360:2010 J2

Criteria Ru Ra
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0
φ Rn Rn Ω
Fillet weld Rn = a ⋅ le ⋅ 0.6FEXX φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD) J2.4

where:
Effective throat [mm]
a = min {0.707s; 0.25l }
Partial-Joint- Rn = a ⋅ le ⋅ 0.6FEXX Tension & compression

Penetration Effective size, a: φ = 0.80 (LRFD); Ω = 1.88 (ASD) Table J2.5
Groove weld J or U Shear Table J2.1
a = depth
60° or V φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD)
45° or V a = depth – 3mm
3.4.2 AWS Welding symbols
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN
III-4 STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN

4.1 Properties of stainless steel
Material constants of stainless steel
Density Unit weight Modulus of rigidity Poisson’s ratio Thermal coefficient
γ ρ G = E/[2(1+ν)] ν α
2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
77.0 7 850 77 000 0.30 16·10
Characteristic values of stainless steel (Annealed) ASTM A666:2000 Table 2 & 3

Type EN Designation Yield strength Tensile strength Free 180° Bend radius
2 2
Fy [N/mm ] Fu [N/mm ]
t ≤ 1.3 mm t ≤ 4.8 mm
304 1.4301 205 515 t t
316 1.4401 t 2t
304L 1.4306, 1.4307 170 485 t 2t
316L 1.4404, 1.4435 t 2t
Work hardened condition ASCE 8:2002 Table A1 & B

2
Type Cold Initial modulus Yield strength, Fy [N/mm ] | n* Shear yield Tensile
working of elasticity Strength, strength,
E0 [N/mm ]
2 Longitudinal Transverse Transverse Longitudinal Fyv [N/mm2] Fu [N/mm2]
tension tension comp. comp.
304, Annealed 193 100 205 | 8.31 205 | 7.78 205 | 8.63 190 | 4.10 115 515
316
1/16 Hard 193 100 310 | 8.31 310 | 7.78 310 | 8.63 280 | 4.10 170 550
1/4 Hard 186 200 515 | 4.58 515 | 5.38 620 | 4.76 340 | 4.58 285 860
1/2 Hard 186 200 760 | 4.21 760 | 6.71 825 | 4.54 445 | 4.22 385 1 035
Note: *coefficient n used for Modified Ramberg-Osgood equation
4.1.1 Modified Ramberg-Osgood Equation
i. Secant modulus
σ E0
Es = =
ε  σ n -1 
1 + 0.002 E0  n 
F 
 y 
ii. Tangent modulus
dσ E0 Fy
Et = = n -1
dε σ 
Fy + 0.002nE0  
 Fy
 
iii. Plasticity reduction factor
Et Fy
η = = n -1
- Stiffened compression element
E0 σ 
Fy + 0.002nE0  
 Fy
 
E 1
η = s = - For unstiffened compression element
E0  σ n -1 
1 + 0.002 E0  n 
F 
 y 
STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
4.2 Design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members
Safety factors for design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 3 & Table D
Mode Failure mode Φ [LRFD] Ω [ASD] Clause
Tension member Yielding 0.85 1.85 3.2
Bending only – yielding and buckling 0.90 1.85 3.3.1
Flexural members Shear only – shear yielding 0.95 1.64

3.3.2
Shear only – shear buckling 0.85 1.85
For single unreinforced webs 0.70 2.00

Web crippling 3.3.4
For I-beams 0.70 2.20
Compression members Concentrically loaded - column buckling 0.85 2.15 3.4
Corrugated sheets Arc-and-tangent – against yielding 0.90 1.85 3.7
Fusion weld - yielding of base metal - 1.85

5.2
Welds Fusion weld - ultimate test value of welds 0.55 2.50
Resistance weld - ultimate test value of welds 0.60 2.50 5.2.3
Spacing and edge distance – sheet shearing 0.70 2.40 5.3.1
Tension on net section 0.70 2.40 5.3.2
Bolted connections Bearing on connections 0.65 2.40 5.3.3
Bolt shear 0.65 3.00 5.3.4
Bolt tension 0.75 3.00 5.3.4
4.3 Test
Test for determining structural performance of cold-formed stainless steel ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 6.2
Criteria Ru
≤ 1.0
φ Rp
Data
Rp =
∑ Ri
n Average value of all test results
C P = ( n − 1) ( n − 3 )
 2 2 2 2
 − β o V M +VF + C PV P +VQ 
φ = 1.5 ( M m Fm Pm ) e   Resistance factor [-]
Values:
Mm 1.1 Yield & tensile strength Mean value of material factor
Structural members and
Fm 1.0 Mean value of fabrication factor
connections
3.0 Structural members
βo Target reliability
4.0 Connections
0.1 Yield strength of stainless steel Coefficient of variation of
VM
0.05 Tensile strength of stainless steel material factor
Structural members and bolted
0.05 Coefficient of variation of
VF connections
fabrication factor
0.15 Welded connections
Coefficient of variation of load
VQ 0.21
effect
4.4 Connections
4.4.1 Bolt connections
Mechanical properties of stainless steel bolts, screws and studs ASTM F593:2002 Table 2
Diameter, Yield strength, Tensile strength,
Alloy Group Stainless steel Condition* 2 2
d [mm] Fy [N/mm ] Fu [N/mm ]
1 304, 304L AF al 137.9 413.7

A all 206.8 482.6
2 316, 316L
≤ 16 413.7 655.0
CW
3 321, 347 ≥ 20 275.8 551.6
50 - - 210 500
A2, A4 70 - - 450 700
80 - - 600 800
Note: *AF - Headed and rolled from annealed stock and then reannealed.
A - Machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock thus retaining the properties of the original material,
or hot-formed and solution-annealed.
CW - Headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of cold work; sizes 20mm and larger
may be hot worked and solution-annealed.
Maximum Size of Bolt Holes [mm] ASCE 8:2002 Table 5

Bolt Diameter Standard Oversize Short-Slot Long-Slot
d [mm] [Diameter] [Diameter] [Diameter×Length] [Diameter×Length]
≤ M12 d + 0.8 d + 1.6 (d + 0.8) × (d + 6.3) (d + 0.8) × 2.5·d
≥ M16 d + 1.6 d + 3.2 (d + 1.6) × (d + 6.3) (d + 1.6) × 2.5·d
Design resistance of bolts in Bearing-Type Connections ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 5

Tension Pnt = k s Ab ( 0.75Fu ) Tensile strength of bolt [N] 5.3.4
φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 3.00 (ASD)
Shear ks = 0.9 for ≤ M12 Shear strength of bolt [N] 5.3.4

ks = 1.0 for ≥ M16 φv = 0.65 (LRFD); Ω v = 3.00 (ASD)
Threads in shear plane:
Pnv = k s Ab ( 0.45Fu )
No threads in shear plane:
Pnv = k s Ab ( 0.6Fu )
2
Combined f v = Puv Ab Shear stress [N/mm ] 5.3.4
shear and Threads in shear plane:
tension Pnt′ = k s Ab ( 0.5625Fu − 2.4 f v ) ≤ Pnt 2
Reduced tensile stress [N/mm ]
No threads in shear plane:
Pnt′ = k s Ab ( 0.9375Fu − 1.9 f v ) ≤ Pnt
Edge Pn = t e Fu ; Shear strength of the connected part [N] 5.3.1

distance e ≥ 1.5d φt = 0.70 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.40 (ASD)
Edge distance [mm]
Bearing Single shear: Bearing strength at bolt holes [N] 5.3.3

Pnb = d t ( 2.0Fu ) φb = 0.65 (LRFD); Ω b = 2.40 (ASD)
Double shear:
Pnb = d t ( 2.75Fu )
STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Stainless steel bolt strength table [LRFD] ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 5

Size M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20
Fu 2
Grade / Condition Ab [mm ] 12.57 19.64 28.27 50.27 78.54 113.10 201.06 214.16
[N/mm2]
ks 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 1.00 1.00
φRnt [kN] 3.73 5.83 8.39 14.91 23.30 33.55 66.27 70.59
1
- AF 586 1.94 3.03 4.36 7.75 12.12 17.45 34.46 36.71
(304, 304L) φRnv [kN]
(2.59) (4.04) (5.81) (10.34) (16.15) (23.26) (45.95) (48.94)
φRnt [kN] 3.29 5.14 7.40 13.16 20.56 29.60 58.47 62.28
2
-A 517 1.71 2.67 3.85 6.84 10.69 15.39 30.40 32.39
(316, 316L) φRnv [kN]
(2.28) (3.56) (5.13) (9.12) (14.25) (20.52) (40.54) (43.18)
φRnt [kN] 4.17 6.51 9.37 16.67 26.04 37.50 74.08 78.90
3
- CW 655 2.17 3.39 4.87 8.67 13.54 19.50 38.52 41.03
(321, 347) φRnv [kN]
(2.89) (4.52) (6.50) (11.56) (18.06) (26.00) (51.36) (54.71)
φRnt [kN] 4.45 6.96 10.02 17.81 27.83 40.08 79.17 84.33
A2 / A4 70 700 2.32 3.62 5.21 9.26 14.47 20.84 41.17 43.85
φRnv [kN]
(3.09) (4.83) (6.95) (12.35) (19.30) (27.79) (54.89) (58.47)
304 / 316 O 515 8.42 13.15 18.93 33.66 52.58 75.72 134.61 143.38
304L / 316L O 485 Bearing 7.93 12.38 17.82 31.70 49.52 71.3 126.8 135.0
1/16 Hard 550 φRnb / t 8.99 14.04 20.21 35.94 56.16 80.9 143.8 153.1
304 / 316 [kN/m]
1/4 Hard 860 14.05 21.96 31.61 56.20 87.81 126.4 224.8 239.4
304L / 316L
1/2 Hard 1035 16.91 26.43 38.04 67.64 105.68 152.2 270.5 288.2
Stainless steel bolt strength table [ASD] ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 5

Fu Size M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20
Grade / Condition 2 2
[N/mm ] Ab [mm ] 12.57 19.64 28.27 50.27 78.54 113.10 201.06 214.16
Rnt/Ω [kN] 1.66 2.59 3.73 6.63 10.36 14.91 29.46 31.37
1
- AF 586 0.99 1.55 2.24 3.98 6.21 8.95 17.67 18.82
(304, 304L) Rnv/Ω [kN]
(1.33) (2.07) (2.98) (5.30) (8.28) (11.93) (23.56) (25.10)
Rnt/Ω [kN] 1.46 2.28 3.29 5.85 9.14 13.16 25.99 27.68
2
-A 517 0.88 1.37 1.97 3.51 5.48 7.89 15.59 16.61
(316, 316L) Rnv/Ω [kN]
(1.17) (1.83) (2.63) (4.68) (7.31) (10.53) (20.79) (22.14)
Rnt/Ω [kN] 1.85 2.89 4.17 7.41 11.57 16.67 32.92 35.07
3
- CW 655 1.11 1.74 2.50 4.45 6.94 10.00 19.75 21.04
(321, 347) Rnv/Ω [kN]
(1.48) (2.32) (3.33) (5.93) (9.26) (13.33) (26.34) (28.05)
Rnt/Ω [kN] 1.98 3.09 4.45 7.92 12.37 17.81 35.19 37.48
A2 / A4 70 700 1.19 1.86 2.67 4.75 7.42 10.69 21.11 22.49
Rnv/Ω [kN]
(1.58) (2.47) (3.56) (6.33) (9.90) (14.25) (28.15) (29.98)
304 / 316 O 515 5.39 8.43 12.13 21.57 33.71 48.54 86.29 91.91
304L / 316L O 485 Bearing 5.08 7.94 11.43 20.32 31.74 45.71 81.26 86.56
1/16 Hard 550 Rnb/Ω / t 5.76 9.00 12.96 23.04 36.00 51.84 92.15 98.16
304 / 316 [kN/mm]
1/4 Hard 860 9.01 14.08 20.26 36.03 56.29 81.06 144.09 153.48
304L / 316L
1/2 Hard 1035 10.84 16.94 24.38 43.36 67.74 97.55 173.41 184.71
4.4.2 Welded connections
Design resistance of welds ASCE 8:2002 cl. 5.2

Data L Length of weld [mm] 5.2.1
t Thickness of thinnest welded sheet [mm]

tw = 0.707w
Effective throat [mm]
Fua
Tensile strength of base metal at its annealed
state [N/mm²]
FXX
Strength level designation in AWS electrode
classification [N/mm²]
Criteria Pu Pa
(LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0
φ Pn Pn Ω
Fillet weld Longitudinal loading φ = 0.55 (LRFD); Ω = 2.50 (ASD) 5.2.2

For L/t < 30:
 0.009 L 
Pn =  0.7 −  tLFua ≤ 0.75t w LFXX
 t  Nominal strength of fillet weld [N]
For L/t ≥ 30:
Pn = 0.43tLFua ≤ 0.75t w LFXX
Transverse loading
Pn = tLFua ≤ 1.18t w LFXX
Groove φ = 0.60 (LRFD); Ω = 2.5 (ASD) 5.2.1

Welds in Pn = tLFua
Nominal strength of groove weld [N]
Butt Joints
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINUM DESIGN
III-5 ALUMINUM DESIGN

Material constants of aluminium ADM:2005 cl. 3.1
γ [kg/m³] elasticity, E G = E/[2(1+ν)] ratio, ν thermal exp., α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
300 & 600 series 26.6 2 700 69 600 26 165 0.33 23·10
5005
Characteristic values of aluminium ADM:2005 Table 3.3-1M

2 2
Thickness Bolted/riveted [N/mm ] Welded [N/mm ] 90° bend radius*
Grade Temper
[mm] Fty Fcy Ftu Fsu Ftyw Fcyw Ftuw Fsuw < 2.0 2-3 >3 - 6
O t ≤ 50 35 35 95 70 0 0 t
Sheet
3003 H12 t ≤ 50 85 70 120 75 35 35 95 70 0 0.5t t

H14 t ≤ 25 115 95 140 85 0 t 1.5t
O t ≤ 50 35 35 105 62 0 0 t
5005 H32 t ≤ 50 85 75 120 75 35 35 105 62 0 0.5t t
H34 t ≤ 25 105 95 140 85 0 t 1.5t
O t ≤ 80 65 66 170 110 0 0.5t t
65 65 170 110
5052 H32 All 160 145 215 130 t 1.5t 1.5t
H36 t ≤ 4.0 200 180 255 150 - - - - 2t 2.5t 3.5t
0 85 85 150 95 85 85 150 95 0 t t
6061
T6, T651 t ≤ 9.5 240 240 290 185 105 105 165 105 2t 2.5t 4t
6005 T5 t ≤ 25 240 240 260 165 90 90 165 105 - - -
Extrusion
T6 t ≤ 15 140 140 170 100 - - -

6060 50 50 80 50
T66 t ≤ 25 150 150 195 120 - - -
6061 T6, T651 All 240 240 260 165 80 80 165 105 - - -
T5 t ≤ 12.5 110 110 150 90 - - -
6063 55 55 115 75
T6 all 170 170 205 130 - - -
6066 T6, T651 all 310 310 345 185 - - - - - - -
7005 T53 t ≤ 20 305 295 345 195 165 165 275 155 - - -
Note: * Atlas Steels Aluminium Alloy Data Sheet.
ALUMINUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
5.2 Allowable stress design
ASD safety factors ADM:2005 Table 3.4-1
Ultimate strength nu = 1.95
Yield strength ny = 1.65
Appearance of buckling na = 1.20
Formulas for buckling constants ADM:2005 Table 3.3-3, 3.3-4

Temper –T5, –T6, –T7, –T8, or –T9 Temper –O, –H, –T1, –T2, –T3, or –T4
Stress type
Intercept Slope Intersection Intercept Slope Intersection
Compression in  Fcy  Bc  Fcy  2Bc
Bc Bc Bc 6Bc
columns and Bc = Fcy  1 +  Dc = C c = 0.41 Fcy  1 + 
 15510  10 E Dc  6900  20 E 3Dc
beam flanges    
Axial  3 F 
cy
Bp Bp Bp  3 F 
cy
Bp 6B p 2B p
compression in B p = Fcy  1 +  Dp = C p = 0.41 Fcy  1 + 
 21.7  10 E Dp  14.5  20 E 3D p
flat elements    
Axial
   5 F 
compression in B = F  1 + Fcy 
5
Bt Bt cy Bt Bt
t cy Dt = 3 Ct ∗ Fcy  1 +  3 Ct ∗
curved  12.8  4.5 E  8.5  3.7 E
elements    
 3 F 
Bending  3 F  Bbr 6Bbr 2Bbr 1.3Fcy  1 +
cy
 Bbr 6Bbr 2B
 Dbr = 20
cy
compression in Bbr = 1.3Fcy  1 +
br
 13.3  E C br = 3D 

13.3  20
 E 3D
flat elements   br br
Bending  B − Bt 
2
   5 F  2
compression in B = 1.5F  1 + F y 
5
B Btb C tb =  tb  1.5F  1 + y
 Btb Btb  Btb − Bt 
tb y Dtb = tb 3
D
 tb − Dt  y
3
 
curved  12.8  2.7 E  8.5  2.7 E  Dtb − Dt 
elements    
Fty  3 F  Fty  3 F 
Shear in flat ty Bs Bs Bs ty Bs 6Bs 2Bs
Bs = 1+  Ds = C s = 0.41 1+ 
elements 3 21.2  10 E Ds 3 14.2  20 E 3Ds
   
Ultimate
strength of flat k1 = 0.35
elements in k 2 = 2.27 k1 = 0.35
compression
Ultimate k 2 = 2.27
strength of flat k1 = 0.50
elements in k 2 = 2.04
bending
Buckling constants ADM:2005 Table 3.3-4

Alloy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
6061 T6 269.85 1.68 65.84 308.73 2.06 61.56 296.11 10.66 141 457.78 4.55 67.12 444.16 30.51 55.63 179.07 0.91 80.82
6063 T5 119.26 0.49 99.04 134.29 0.59 93.34 132.00 3.63 275 194.52 1.26 102.96 198.00 10.39 95.29 77.82 0.26 122.61
6063 T6 187.80 0.98 78.57 213.40 1.18 74.04 207.10 6.62 189 313.05 2.57 81.21 310.64 18.94 70.63 123.73 0.52 97.56
5.2.2 Allowable compressive stress for 6063-T6 Extrusions
Allowable compression stress, F/ny ADM:2005 Tables 3.3-3 & 3.4-3
2
Member/ Allowable stress, F/ny [N/mm ] Clause
Mode
Element S S ≤ S1 S1 S1 < S < S2 S2 S ≥ S2
2
Column kL
0
kL
78.57 352269  kL  3.4.7
All - 96.31 − 0.50
buckling r r  r 
One edge supported – b b
buckling about a 103.03 2.08 109.44 − 3.09 12.41 879.7 b 3.4.8
symmetry axis t t t
Column One edge supported – not 2

flat buckling about a symmetry b 103.03 2.08 109.44 − 3.09 b 14.52 13544  b  3.4.8.1
elements axis t t t
Both edges b b
103.03 6.62 109.44 − 0.97 39.56 2804 b 3.4.9
supported t t t
Column Both edges supported Rb
26970592 Rb t
curved 103.03 0.87 106.20 − 3.39 Rb 189.00 2 3.4.10
elements
t t ( 35 + Rb t )
599498
Single web shapes Lb Lb 2
103.03 21.80 113.82 − 0.49 94.28  Lb  3.4.11
ry C b ry C b  
 ry C b 
 
Round or oval tubes Rb

26970592 Rb t
120.54 34.81 188.27 − 11.48 Rb 103.05 2 3.4.12
t t ( 35 + Rb t )
BEAM
LTB Solid rectangular and 78699
round sections d Lb b 2
133.94 15.57 189.73 − 3.58 35.31  d Lb  3.4.13
t Cbd t  
t Cb d 
162624
Tubular shapes 2Lb Sc
2Lb S c 113.82 − 0.95 2
103.03 128.87 C b I y J 2411.4  2Lb S c  3.4.14
Cb I y J  
 Cb I y J 
 
One edge b
7.21 129.33 − 3.65
b
12.41 1039.6 b
supported
103.03 3.4.15
t t t
BEAM
element Both edges b
22.99 129.33 − 1.14 b 39.56 3313.8 b
103.03 3.4.16
uniform supported t t t
compres
sion Curved element - both 31874336 Rb t
edges supported
Rb
1.53 125.52 − 4.01 Rb 189.00 3.4.16.
120.54 2
t t ( 35 + Rb t ) 1
Tension edge supported, 2

23.20 33985  b 
b b
compression 133.94 10.23 189.73 − 5.45 3.4.17
edge free t t t
Beam
element Both edges supported h 35.82 h 60.9 h
bending 133.94 189.73 − 1.56m 5771 m 3.4.18
t m t m t
in own
plane
Both edges h h
supported - with 133.94 123.51 189.73 − 0.45 210.02 19900 h 3.4.19
long. stiffener t t t
SHEAR Both edges supported - 2

78.05 266443  h 
h h
in flat unstiffened 59.48 39.35 74.99 − 0.39 3.4.20
element t t t
5.3 Moment of inertia tables
5.3.1 Minimum required moment of inertia of a split-mullion
Use the table below to estimate the required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k),
4 2
Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load AAMA TIR-A11:2004
Span, h δlimit, Aluminium mullion spacing, b [m]
[m] [mm] 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
3.0 17.1 49.4 52.9 56.3 59.5 62.5 65.4 68.1 70.6 73.0 77.0 80.2 82.5 83.9 84.4
3.1 17.7 54.8 58.7 62.5 66.1 69.5 72.8 75.9 78.8 81.5 86.3 90.1 93.1 95.1 96.1
3.2 18.3 60.5 64.8 69.1 73.1 77.0 80.7 84.2 87.5 90.7 96.2 100.8 104.5 107.1 108.7
3.3 18.9 66.5 71.4 76.1 80.6 85.0 89.2 93.1 96.9 100.4 106.8 112.2 116.7 120.0 122.3
3.4 19.4 73.0 78.4 83.6 88.6 93.5 98.1 102.6 106.8 110.8 118.2 124.5 129.7 133.8 136.8
3.5 20.0 79.8 85.8 91.5 97.1 102.5 107.7 112.7 117.4 121.9 130.2
h137.5 143.6 148.6 152.3
3.6 20.6 87.1 93.6 100.0 106.1 112.1 117.8 123.4 128.7 133.7 143.0 151.3 158.4 164.3 168.9
3.7 21.1 94.8 101.9 108.9 115.7 122.2 128.6 134.7 140.6 146.2 156.6 166.0 174.1 181.0 186.6
3.8 21.7 102.9 110.7 118.3 125.7 132.9 139.9 146.7 153.1 159.4 171.0 181.5 190.8 198.7 205.3
3.9 22.3 111.5 120.0 128.3 136.4 144.3 151.9 159.3 166.4 173.3 186.2 197.9 208.4 217.5 225.1
4.0 22.9 120.5 129.8 138.8 147.6 156.2 164.5 172.6 180.5 188.0 202.3 215.3 227.0 237.3 246.1
b b
4.1 23.4 130.0 140.0 149.8 159.4 168.7 177.8 186.6 195.2 203.5 219.2 233.6 246.61 258.2 268.3
2
4.2 23.9 140.9 151.8 162.4 172.8 183.0 193.0 202.7 212.1 221.2 238.5 254.4 269.0 282.0 293.5
4.3 24.3 152.4 164.2 175.7 187.1 198.2 209.0 219.6 229.9 239.9 258.9 276.5 292.7 307.3 320.3
4.4 24.7 164.5 177.2 189.8 202.1 214.2 226.0 237.5 248.7 259.6 280.4 299.8 317.7 334.0 348.6
4.5 25.1 177.2 191.0 204.6 217.9 231.0 243.8 256.3 268.5 280.4 303.1 324.4 344.1 362.1 378.4
4.6 25.5 190.5 205.4 220.1 234.5 248.6 262.5 276.0 289.3 302.2 326.9 350.2 371.8 391.7 409.8
4.7 25.9 204.6 220.6 236.4 251.9 267.2 282.1 296.8 311.1 325.1 352.0 377.3 401.0 422.9 442.9
4.8 26.4 219.3 236.5 253.5 270.2 286.6 302.7 318.6 334.0 349.2 378.3 405.8 431.7 455.7 477.7
4.9 26.8 234.6 253.1 271.4 289.3 307.0 324.3 341.4 358.0 374.4 405.9 435.7 463.8 490.0 514.2
5.0 27.2 250.7 270.5 290.1 309.3 328.3 346.9 365.2 383.2 400.7 434.7 467.0 497.5 526.0 552.5
5.1 27.6 267.5 288.7 309.6 330.2 350.5 370.5 390.2 409.4 428.3 464.9 499.7 532.7 563.7 592.5
5.2 28.0 285.1 307.7 330.0 352.1 373.8 395.2 416.2 436.9 457.1 496.4 534.0 569.5 603.1 634.4
5.3 28.4 303.4 327.5 351.3 374.8 398.0 420.9 443.4 465.5 487.2 529.4 569.7 608.0 644.2 678.2
5.4 28.9 322.5 348.1 373.5 398.6 423.3 447.7 471.7 495.4 518.6 563.7 606.9 648.2 687.2 724.0
5.5 29.3 342.3 369.6 396.6 423.3 449.7 475.6 501.2 526.5 551.2 599.5 645.8 690.0 732.0 771.7
5.6 29.7 363.0 392.0 420.7 449.0 477.1 504.7 532.0 558.8 585.2 636.7 686.2 733.6 778.7 821.3
5.7 30.1 384.5 415.2 445.7 475.8 505.6 534.9 563.9 592.5 620.6 675.5 728.3 778.9 827.3 873.1
5.8 30.5 406.8 439.4 471.7 503.6 535.2 566.3 597.1 627.5 657.4 715.7 772.0 826.1 877.8 926.9
5.9 30.9 430.0 464.5 498.6 532.5 565.9 599.0 631.6 663.8 695.5 757.6 817.5 875.1 930.3 982.9
6.0 31.4 454.0 490.5 526.6 562.4 597.8 632.8 667.4 701.5 735.2 801.0 864.6 926.0 984.8 1041.0
6.1 31.8 479.0 517.5 555.6 593.4 630.9 667.9 704.5 740.6 776.3 846.0 913.6 978.8 1041.4 1101.3
6.2 32.2 504.8 545.4 585.7 625.6 665.1 704.3 742.9 781.1 818.9 892.7 964.3 1033.5 1100.1 1163.9
6.3 32.6 531.5 574.3 616.8 658.9 700.6 741.9 782.8 823.1 863.0 941.1 1016.9 1090.2 1160.9 1228.8
6.4 33.0 559.2 604.3 649.0 693.4 737.4 780.9 824.0 866.6 908.6 991.2 1071.3 1149.0 1223.9 1295.9
6.5 33.4 587.8 635.3 682.4 729.1 775.4 821.2 866.6 911.5 955.9 1043.0 1127.7 1209.8 1289.1 1365.5
6.6 33.9 617.4 667.3 716.8 765.9 814.7 862.9 910.7 958.0 1004.7 1096.6 1185.9 1272.7 1356.6 1437.5
6.7 34.3 647.9 700.4 752.4 804.0 855.3 906.0 956.3 1006.0 1055.2 1151.9 1246.1 1337.7 1426.3 1511.9
6.8 34.7 679.5 734.5 789.1 843.4 897.2 950.5 1003.3 1055.6 1107.4 1209.1 1308.3 1404.8 1498.4 1588.8
6.9 35.1 712.1 769.8 827.1 884.0 940.4 996.4 1051.9 1106.8 1161.2 1268.2 1372.6 1474.2 1572.8 1668.2
7.0 35.5 745.6 806.1 866.2 925.9 985.1 1043.8 1102.0 1159.7 1216.8 1329.1 1438.9 1545.8 1649.6 1750.2
7.2 36.4 816.0 882.3 948.1 1013.6 1078.5 1143.0 1206.9 1270.3 1333.1 1456.8 1577.7 1695.7 1810.6 1922.0
7.4 37.2 890.6 963.1 1035.1 1106.7 1177.7 1248.3 1318.3 1387.8 1456.6 1592.3 1725.2 1855.0 1981.6 2104.6
7.6 38.0 969.7 1048.7 1127.2 1205.3 1282.9 1359.9 1436.4 1512.2 1587.5 1735.9 1881.5 2023.9 2162.9 2298.3
7.8 38.9 1053.3 1139.2 1224.6 1309.6 1394.0 1477.9 1561.2 1643.9 1726.0 1887.9 2046.9 2202.7 2354.9 2503.4
8.0 39.7 1141.6 1234.8 1327.6 1419.8 1511.5 1602.6 1693.2 1783.0 1872.3 2048.6 2221.8 2391.6 2557.9 2720.2
8.5 41.8 1383.8 1497.0 1609.8 1722.0 1833.6 1944.6 2055.0 2164.6 2273.6 2489.2 2701.5 2910.2 3115.0 3315.6
9.0 43.9 1658.1 1794.0 1929.4 2064.3 2198.5 2332.1 2464.9 2597.1 2728.5 2988.8 3245.5 3498.4 3747.1 3991.3
9.5 45.9 1966.4 2128.0 2288.9 2449.2 2608.9 2767.9 2926.1 3083.6 3240.2 3550.9 3857.7 4160.4 4458.7 4752.3
10.0 48.0 2311.0 2501.0 2690.5 2879.3 3067.5 3254.9 3441.5 3627.3 3812.2 4179.2 4542.2 4900.8 5254.7 5603.5
5.4 Thermally separated profiles
Structural performance of composite thermal barrier framing system (Simplified) AAMA TIR-A8:2004
Member L Unsupported span of the member [mm] 7.5.3
A ≈ 0.4(a1+a2) Effective shear area of aluminium [mm²]
E Modulus of elasticity of the member [N/mm²]
D = h − ( c11 + c22 ) Distance between centroid axes [mm]
Thermal Gc Design shear modulus of thermal separator [N/mm²] 7.5.3

break b, Dc Width and depth of thermal break (core), respectively [mm]
∆F
c = Gc ( b Dc ) = Elasticity constant (may be determined from test) [N/mm/mm]
∆δ ⋅ L
Moment of I o = I o1 + I o 2 Lower bound on I’e (non-composite) [N/mm²] 7.5.4

inertia & 2 Transfer inertia [N/mm²]
constants
I c = a1 a 2 D ( a1 + a 2 )
I = Io + Ic Upper bound on I’e (full composite) [N/mm²]
ID 2
Gp = c Geometric and core material parameter [N]
I c Dc
C y = Gp ( EI o ) Buckling slope formula
r = L Cy 2 Complementary constant Table 5
Uniformly EI o I c Table 3
D0 =
loaded Gp I2
beam
LI c L3
D1 = − −
2G p I 24 EI
Ic
D2 =
2G p I
L
D3 =
12 EI
1
D4 = −
24 EI
Ic
F1 = −
Table 5
(
C y G p I 1 + e 2r )
Effective D4 L4 D3 L3 D2 L2 D1 L 7.5.4
moment of y= + + + + D0 + 2F1 e r Unit deformation [mm]
16 8 4 2
inertia
L4 4 7.5.4
Ie = Effective moment of inertia without shear deformation [mm ]
76.8 Ey
Ie 4
I e′ = Eff. moment of inertia considering shear deformation [mm ] 7.5.5
1 + 25.6 I e L2 A ( )
Section 7.5.6
modulus (
y ′′ = 3D4 L2 + 3D3 L + 2 D2 + 2C y F1 e r ) L8
2
1 3
S e1 = Effective section modulus at face 1 [mm ]
1 − EI o y ′′
+ Ec11 y ′′
a1 D
1 3
Se 2 = Effective section modulus at face 2 [mm ]
1 − EI o y ′′
+ Ec22 y ′′
a2 D
Shear flow 7.5.7

per unit load
y ′′′ = 6 D3 + C y 1.5 F1 1 − e 2r( )
Vc = L 2 − EI o y ′′′ Shear resisted by thermal break per unit load [N/(N/mm)]
qc = Vc D Shear flow per unit load [(N/mm)/(N/mm)]
5.5 Fasteners
5.5.1 Materials for fasteners
Mechanical properties of stainless steel fasteners AAMA-TIR-A9:1991 Tables 23 - 28
Yield strength, Tensile strength,
Material Alloy Group Description Condition* 2 2
Fy [N/mm ] Fu [N/mm ]
Steel SAE Grade 2 204.1 510.2
SAE Grade 5 331.0 827.4
A 307 137.9 413.7
A 325 303.4 827.4
A 490 372.3 1 034.2
Stainless 1 304, 304L AF 345 586
steel
A 207 517
2 316, 316L
CW 448 690
3 321, 347 SH 655 827
4 430, 430F A 241 483
H 620 758
5 410, 416
HT 827 1103
Grade 50 210 500
A2 / A4 Grade 70 450 700
Grade 80 600 800
Note: *AF - Headed and rolled from annealed stock and then reannealed.
A - Machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock thus retaining the properties of the original material,
or hot-formed and solution-annealed.
CW - Headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of cold work; sizes 20mm and larger
may be hot worked and solution-annealed.
5.6 Metric fasteneners
5.6.1 Hole Dimensions and Distances
Maximum size of bolt holes [mm] AAMA TIR-A9:1991 Table 1
Bolt Diameter Standard Oversize Short-Slot* Long-Slot*
d [mm] [Diameter] [Diameter] [Diameter × Length] [Diameter × Length]
< M12 d+1 d+2 (d + 1) × (d + 6) (d + 1) × (50 - d)
≥ M16 d+2 d+3 (d + 2) × (d + 6) (d + 2) × (50 - d)

Note: * Slots longer than these dimensions may be used for expansion or anchor alignment purposes with
appropriate engineering analysis or testing.
5.6.2 Metric thread to ISO 724
Metric screw thread ISO 724:1993
3
H = P sin(60°) = P ≈ 0.866254P
2
5 5 3
d1 = d − 2 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P
8 8
3 3 3
d2 = d − 2 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P
8 8
Tensile stress area ≤ M24
2
A(S) = 0.7854 ( d − 0.9382 P )
Thread root area ≤ M24
2
A(R) = 0.7854 ( d − 1.2269P )
Thread-stripping area (Internal thread - nut)
1 1 
TSA(I) = π d min  +
2
( d min − d 2 ,max ) 
 3 
Thread-stripping area (External thread - bolt)
1 1 
TSA(E) = π D1,max  +
2
( d 2,min − D1 ,max ) 
 3 
Size Pitch Major Minor Pitch Bolt Pullout Screw chase

dia. dia. dia.
Tensile Thread
P D d1 d2 stress, A(S) root, A(R) TSA(I) TSA(E) α Re sec(c)
2 2 2 2
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm ] [mm ] [mm /mm] [mm /mm] [°] [-] [-]
M4 0.70 4.0 3.24 3.54 8.80 7.75 9.58 6.87 71.7 0.28 3.60
M5 0.80 5.0 4.13 4.48 14.21 12.68 12.57 9.09 68.5 0.27 3.85
M6 1.00 6.0 4.92 5.35 20.17 17.89 16.50 11.59 69.9 0.27 4.31
M8 1.25 8.0 6.65 7.19 36.68 32.84 24.35 16.96 67.6 0.26 4.82
M10 1.50 10.0 8.38 9.03 58.10 52.29 33.37 23.03 66.2 0.26 5.28
M12 1.75 12.0 10.11 10.86 84.42 76.25 43.60 29.75 65.3 0.25 5.70
M16 2.00 16.0 13.84 14.70 156.91 144.12 62.83 43.46 60.3 0.23 6.09
M20 2.50 20.0 17.29 18.38 245.17 225.19 90.33 61.11 60.3 0.23 6.81
M24 3.00 24.0 20.75 22.05 353.04 324.27 122.54 81.49 60.3 0.23 7.46
M30 3.50 30.0 26.21 27.73 561.38 518.99 170.81 113.25 58.2 0.22 8.06
5.6.3 Metric fastening design

Metal curtain wall fasteners (UNC threads) AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000
Area For ≤ M24 (stainless steel); ≤ M16 (steel): 6
2 2
A( S ) = 0.7854 ( d − 0.9382 P ) Tensile stress area [mm ]
2
2 Thread root area [mm ]
A( R ) = 0.7854 ( d − 1.2269 P )
For bigger bolts and screws: 2
Tensile and shear stress area [mm ]
A( S ) = A( R ) = 0.7854d 2
Tension Tensile strength [N]

{
Ft = A(S) ⋅ min 0.75F y ; 0.4Fu }
Shear  0.75 0.4  Shear strength [N]
Fv = A(R) ⋅ min  Fy ; Fu 
 3 3 
Combined  Pt
2
  Pv 
2
Tension   +  ≤ 1.0
and Shear  Ft   Fv 
Bearing Bearing on steel: Allowable bearing force [kN] 6

Fb = 1.2 d t Fu Values of Fby acc. to The Aluminum Association,
Correction factors: Specifications for aluminum structures, 3rd Edition.
Edge distance, e < 2.4d e/2d Alloy Fby ≈ (Fy + Fu)/1.5
Countersunk head 1- tk/2t 5052 O 156.7
Long slot 1/1.2 3003 H14, 5005 H34 165.5
Bearing on aluminum: 6061 T6 386.1
Fb = d t Fby 1.65 ; Fby ≥ 1.6F y 6063 T5 165.5 7
Correction factors: 6063 T6 275.8
Edge distance, e < 2d e/2d Minimum Distances:
Countersunk head 1- tk/2t Minimum Distances Edge Spacing
Long slot 1/1.5 Steel 1.5D 3D
Aluminum 1.5D 2.5D
Pullout Failure mode Thickness Pull-out strength Addendum

π Fty
1.5mm ≤ t < 2mm F p = 0.560 dt ≈ 0.3386 d t Fty
3 3
Yield
π Fty
2mm ≤ t ≤ 3mm F p = 0.665 dt ≈ 0.4020 d t Fty
3 3
Fty 1.16 F
Transition 3mm < t ≤ 6mm F p = 1.2d ( 6 − t ) + TSA( I ) ( t − 3 ) tu
3 P 3
t Ftu
Shear strength 6mm < t ≤ 10mm Fp = TSA( I )
3P 3
Note: * Values can be increased by 1/3 stress under wind loads. Whether or not to use the increase is left to the
discretion of the structural engineer on the job.
5.6.4 Screw chase
Metal curtain wall fasteners (UNC threads) AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000
Data  d1  Angle defining limits of screw engagement in screw 12
α = 2 cos −1   chase [°]
 d 
 π 
d 2 α − sin α  Ratio of engaged thread area to total thread area [-]
Re =  180 
2
(
π d − d12
)
Pull-out F p′ = Re F p Pull-out strength with Addendum 2000 [N]
Sliding t Thickness of screw engagement to screw chase [mm]

friction T Tightening torque [N·mm]
f = 0.47
Coef. of friction for mild steel on aluminum [-]
2 2
 12 ( d − d 1 )  + ( 8.5 P )
sec ( c ) =
12 ( d − d 1 )
Re  T   P + π d 2 f sec ( c )  t
SF =   Sliding friction strength [N]
2.34  d 2  π d 2 − P f sec ( c )  P
5.6.5 Metric fastener design tables

Fastener strength table [ASD] AAMA-TIR-A9:1991
Fu Size M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20
Fy 2
Material / Condition A(S) [mm ] 8.80 14.20 20.20 36.70 58.10 84.40 156.90 245.20
2 2
[N/mm ] A(R) [mm ] 7.80 12.70 17.90 32.80 52.30 76.30 144.10 225.20
510.2 Ft [kN] 1.35 2.17 3.09 5.62 8.89 12.92 24.02 37.53
Grade 2
204.1 Fv [kN] 0.69 1.12 1.58 2.90 4.62 6.74 12.74 19.90
SAE
827.4 Ft [kN] 2.18 3.53 5.01 9.11 14.42 20.95 38.95 60.87
Grade 5
331.0 Fv [kN] 1.12 1.82 2.57 4.70 7.50 10.94 20.65 32.28
A307 400.0 Ft [kN] 1.21 1.96 2.79 5.06 8.01 11.64 21.64 33.82
Steel
(4.6) 183.9 Fv [kN] 0.62 1.01 1.43 2.61 4.16 6.08 11.47 17.93
ASTM A325 800.0 Ft [kN] 2.82 4.54 6.46 11.74 18.59 27.01 50.21 78.46
(EN) (8.8) 586.1 Fv [kN] 1.44 2.35 3.31 6.06 9.66 14.10 26.62 41.61
A490 1000.0 Ft [kN] 3.52 5.68 8.08 14.68 23.24 33.76 62.76 98.08
(10.9) 827.4 Fv [kN] 1.80 2.93 4.13 7.57 12.08 17.62 33.28 52.01
586 Ft [kN] 2.06 3.33 4.73 8.60 13.62 19.78 36.78 57.47
1 - AF
345 Fv [kN] 1.06 1.72 2.42 4.44 7.08 10.33 19.50 30.48
(304, 304L)
Ft [kN]
Stainless steel
2 517 1.37 2.20 3.14 5.70 9.02 13.10 24.36 38.07

-A
(316, 316L) 207 Fv [kN] 0.70 1.14 1.60 2.94 4.69 6.84 12.92 20.19
3
655 Ft [kN] 2.31 3.72 5.29 9.62 15.22 22.11 41.11 64.24
(321, 347) - CW
827 Fv [kN] 1.18 1.92 2.71 4.96 7.91 11.54 21.80 34.07
700 Ft [kN] 2.46 3.98 5.66 10.28 16.27 23.63 43.93 68.66
A2 / A4 70
450 Fv [kN] 1.26 2.05 2.89 5.30 8.45 12.33 23.29 36.41
5.7 Spaced thread fasteners
5.7.1 Spaced thread fastener design
Metal curtain wall fasteners (Spaced threads) AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000
2
Area A( R ) = 0.7854d 1 2 Thread root area [mm ] 9
Tension Ft = A(R) ⋅ 0.4Fu Tensile strength [N] 9
Shear Fv = A(R) ⋅ 0.4 3 Fu Shear strength [N] 9
Combined 2 2 6
( Pt Ft ) + ( Pv Fv ) ≤ 1.0
Bearing Bearing on steel: Allowable bearing force [kN] 6

Fb = 1.2 d t Fu Values of Fby acc. to The Aluminum Association,
Correction factors: Specifications for aluminum structures, 3rd Edition.
Edge distance, e < 2.4d e/2d Alloy Fby
Countersunk head 1- tk/2t 3003 H14, 5005 H34 165.5
Long slot 1/1.2 6061 T6 386.1
Bearing on aluminum: 6063 T5 165.5
Fb = d t Fby 1.65 ; Fby ≥ 1.6F y 6063 T6 275.8 7
Correction factors: Minimum Distances:
Edge distance, e < 2d e/2d Minimum Distances Edge Spacing
Countersunk head 1- tk/2t Steel 1.5d 3d
Long slot 1/1.5 Aluminum 1.5d 2.5d
Pullout Failure mode Thickness Pull-out strength Addendum
1mm ≤ t < 2mm F p = 0.560 π 3 d t Fty 3 ≈ 0.3386 d t Fty

Yield π Fty
2mm ≤ t ≤ 2P F p = 0.665 dt ≈ 0.4020 d t Fty
3 3
Fty Ftu
Transition 2P < t ≤ 4P F p = 1.2d ( 4 P − t ) + 3.26d ( t − 2 P )
3 3
π Ftu
Shear strength 4P < t ≤ 8mm F p = 0.9 d t ≈ 0.544 d t Ftu
3 3
Note: * Values can be increased by 1/3 stress under wind loads. Whether or not to use the increase is left to the
discretion of the structural engineer on the job.
Self-tapping screw strength table [ASD] AAMA-TIR-A9:1991
Size ST 2.9 ST 3.5 ST 3.9 ST 4.2 ST 4.8 ST 5.5 ST 6.3
k [mm] 2.08 2.51 2.77 2.95 3.43 3.99 4.70
Alloy Condition 2
A(R) [mm ] 3.40 4.95 6.03 6.83 9.24 12.50 17.35
P [mm] 1.10 1.30 1.30 1.40 1.60 1.80 1.80
Ft [kN] 0.69 1.01 1.23 1.39 1.89 2.55 3.54
Grade 2
Fv [kN] 0.40 0.58 0.71 0.80 1.09 1.47 2.04
Steel
SAE
Ft [kN] 1.13 1.64 2.00 2.26 3.06 4.14 5.74
Grade 5
Fv [kN] 0.65 0.95 1.15 1.31 1.77 2.39 3.32
Ft [kN] 0.80 1.16 1.41 1.60 2.17 2.93 4.07
1 - AF
(304, 304L) Fv [kN] 0.46 0.67 0.82 0.92 1.25 1.69 2.35
Stainless steel
2 Ft [kN] 0.70 1.02 1.25 1.41 1.91 2.59 3.59

-A
(316, 316L) Fv [kN] 0.41 0.59 0.72 0.82 1.10 1.49 2.07
3 Ft [kN] 0.89 1.30 1.58 1.79 2.42 3.28 4.55
(321, 347) - CW
Fv [kN] 0.51 0.75 0.91 1.03 1.40 1.89 2.62
Ft [kN] 0.95 1.39 1.69 1.91 2.59 3.50 4.86
A2 / A4 70
Fv [kN] 0.55 0.80 0.97 1.10 1.49 2.02 2.80
III-6 GLASS DESIGN

6.1 Properties
6.1.1 Glass
Glass constants ADM:2005 cl. 3.1
Density Unit weight Modulus of elasticity Modulus of rigidity Poisson’s ratio Coef. of thermal exp.
γ ρ E G = E/[2(1+ν)] ν α
2 2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
24.5 2 500 71 700 29 400 0.22 9·10
6.1.2 Interlayer
Laminated glass interlayer
Shear Modulus [N/mm²]
Interlayer Thickness [mm] Load Duration
Temp.
3s 1m 10 m 1 hr 24 h 1 mo 10 yr
PVB 30°C 0.97 0.75 0.5 0.44 0.28 0.07 0.05

Polyvinyl xx.1 xx.2 xx.3 xx.4
Butyral [mils] 15 30 45 60
[mm] 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52 50°C 0.44 0.29 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
30°C 141 110 65* 59.9 49.7 11.6 5.31

SG [mils] 35 60 90 120 50°C 26.4 11.3 4.0* 4.0 2.82 2.18 2.0
Sentryglas [mm] 0.89 1.52 2.28 3.05
60°C 8.18 3.64 2.0* 1.7 1.29 1.08 0.97
80°C 1.32 0.83 0.4 0.32 0.25 0.21 0.18
Note: *According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016.
6.1.3 Laminated glass effective thickness

Laminated glass effective thickness ASTM E1300:2009a
Data h1 = h2 Glass ply 1 & 2 minimum thickness [mm]
hv Interlayer thickness [mm]
2
E= 71 700 N/mm2 Glass young’s modulus [N/mm ]
2
G Interlayer storage shear modulus [N/mm ]
Effective 1 X11
Γ = Shear transfer coefficient [-]
thickness Eh h
1 + 4.8 1 2 v
Gb
2
I s = h1 ( h1 + hv ) 2
hef ,w = 3 2 ⋅ h13 + 12 Γ I s Effective thickness for glass deflection [mm]

hef3 ,w
hef ,σ = Effective thickness for glass stress [mm]
h1 + Γ ( h1 + hv )
6.2 Glass design
6.2.1 Stress design
Glass Design (Failure prediction model) ASTM E1300:2012
Method Values Notes Clause
LOAD Pb = 0.008 Probability of breakage [-] 3.2.8.2
CHART d Duration of load [sec]
2
Criteria: Uniform lateral load (3 second gust) [kN/m ]
q3 ≤ LR Equivalent 3 sec. load of a di second duration qi load.
Equivalent 3 sec duration load: Values of n & LDF: X5
q3 = ∑ ( qi LDF ) Type n 3 s 10 m 1 h 24 h 30day 1 yr ∞
1 AN 16 1.00 0.72 0.64 0.53 0.43 0.36 0.31
LDF = ( 3 d i ) n
HS 32 1.00 0.85 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.60 0.53
FT 48 1.00 0.89 0.86 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.66
Single glass Values of GTF:

LR = NFL × GTF Single Insulating glass (IG) Tables
glass Lite No. 2 1, 2 & 3
Insulating glass (IG)
Lite No. 1 Lite AN HS FT
GTF
LR1 = NFl1 × GTF1 × LS1 No.1 GTF1 GTF2 GTF1 GTF2 GTF1 GTF2
AN 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.9 1.0 3.8
Lite No. 2 HS 2.0 1.9 1.0 1.8 1.8 1.9 3.8
LR2 = NFl2 × GTF2 × LS2
FT 4.0 3.8 1.0 3.8 1.9 3.6 3.6
where: Values of NFL:
Monolithic Laminated
(
LS1 = t 1 3 + t 2 3 ) t13
Support Figure Support Figure
LS 2 = ( t 1
3
+ t23 ) t2 3 4-side A1.1 - A1.12 4-side A1.27 - A1.33
3-side A1.13 - A1.24 3-side A1.34 - A1.40
2-edge A1.25 2-edge A1.41
1-edge A1.26 1-edge A1.42
STRESS K Surface flaw parameter X6

ANALYSIS A Glass surface area
Allowable stress
Allowable stress [N/mm²] 3s 10 m 1h ∞
1
X6
 Pb 7 AN 23.3 16.8 14.9 7.2
σ allowable = 
Surface stress HS 46.6 39.6 37.3 24.7
 k ( d 3 )7 n
A 

FT 93.1 82.8 80.1 61.4
AN 16.6 11.9 10.0 5.1
Clean cut X7
HS n/a n/a n/a n/a
edges [ASTM
FT n/a n/a n/a n/a E2751
AN 18.3 13.2 11.7 5.7 Table 1]
Edge Seamed
HS 36.5 30.9 29.2 20.3
stress edges
FT 73.0 65.3 63.0 49.4
AN 20.0 14.4 12.8 6.2
Polished
HS 36.5 31.0 29.2 19.3
edges
FT 73.0 65.0 62.8 48.2
6.2.2 Deflection
Centre of glass deflection ASTM E1300:2012
Data a Long dimension [mm]
b Short dimension [mm]
E= 71 700 N/mm2 Interlayer thickness [mm] X1.1
Deflection X1.1
{
x = ln ln  q ( ab )

2
}
Et 4 

2 3
a a a
r0 = 0.53 − 3.83   + 1.11   − 0.0969  
 
b  
b b
2 3
a a a
r1 = − 2.29 + 5.83   − 2.17   + 0.2067  
b b b
2 3
a a a
r2 = 1.485 − 1.908   + 0.815   − 0.0822  
b b b
w = t⋅e
( r0 + r1 x + r2 x 2 )
FAÇADE NOTES
ANNEX
DESIGN AIDES
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
Table of Contents
A GLASS 5
A.1 Glass dead load holders 5
A.2 Glass deflection 6
B WINDOWS AND DOORS 7

B.1 Sliding doors 7
B.2 Design of window sash 8
C CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS 9

C.1 Schüco stick system 9
C.2 Raico stick system 13
C.3 Raico glass chairs 15
D ALUMINIUM 17
D.1 Aluminium Extrusion Guidelines 17
D.2 Aluminium Mechanical Properties 18
D.3 Aluminium temper designation 23
E FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS 27

E.1 Snap-fit design 27
E.2 Serrated washer 27
E.3 Sleeve sizes 27
E.4 List of fasteners 28
E.5 Group of fasteners 32
E.6 Screw channels 34
E.7 Spring pin 40
E.8 Lifting tools 41
F ANCHORS 45
F.1 HILTI Anchor Selector 45
F.2 HILTI concrete anchor approvals 48
F.3 HALFEN Cast-in channel 51
F.4 HILTI Cast-in channels 56
G FORMULAS 57
G.1 Conversion 57
G.2 Stresses 58
G.3 Cross-sectional property formulas 59
G.4 Beam formulas 63
G.5 Arc formulas 69
G.6 Cable structures 71
DESIGN AIDES 3
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES GLASS
A Glass
A.1 Glass dead load holders
Dead load for glass holders
Values Figures
General W = γgA
A = bh − ( b − b1 ) ( h − h1 ) 2
2
b 2 h − ( b − b1 ) ( h − h1 ) 3
x =
2A
Case 1:  h − h1 
b1 ≤ 160mm θ = tan −1  
 b − b1 
x
h1
2 2 W
S= ( b − b1 ) + ( h − h1 )
 90° − θ 
e x = b1 + a ⋅ tan   a
s
 2 
Pg1
Pg 1 = W ( b − x − e x ) ( S − a − a s )
ex
Pg 2 = W cos θ − Pg 1
a
Pgh = (P g1 )
+ Pg 2 sin θ Pgh
b1 a Pg2
Case 2:  h − h1 
b1 > 160mm; x ≤ (a + b - b1 ) θ = tan −1  
 b − b1 
= ( b − a − a s cos θ ) cos θ
h1
sx x
W
sy = ( h − h1 − a − as sin θ ) sin θ
W (b − x − a ) a
s
Pg 1 =
( sx + s y ) Pg1
Pg 2 = W − Pg 1 sin θ
a
Pgh = Pg 1 cos θ Pgh

a
b1
Pg2
Case 3: Pg 1 = W ( b − x − a ) ( b1 − a − a s )
b1 > 160mm; x > (a + b - b1 ) Pg 2 = W − Pg 1
W x
h1
a as
b1
Pg2 Pg1
Case 4: Pg 1 = W ( x − a ) ( b1 − 2a )
Pg 2 = W − Pg 1
x
h
W
h1
a a
b
Pg1 Pg2
DESIGN AIDES 5
GLASS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
A.2 Glass deflection
Minimum roof slope to prevent ponding
Data L Glass dimension along flow direction, [mm]
δD Dead load deflection of glass, [mm]
Minimum C≈L Chord length, [mm]
slope C2 δD α R -δ
Ro = + O D
8δ D 2 Radius of curvature, [mm]

 C  R
Required minimum slope, [°]
O
slope
α = sin -1   C
 2 Ro 
C 180 α
≈ × δ D
2Ro π
Edge slippage of simply supported glass

Data L Glass dimension along slip direction, [mm]
δ Maximum centre of glass deflection, [mm]
Edge slip δ  L 180  Solve equation to determine radius of curvature, [mm]
= 1 – cos  ×  Ro
Ro  2 Ro π 
L
 L  Edge slippage, [mm]
∆ = L – 2 Ro sin  
 2 Ro  δ
∆
6 DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES WINDOWS AND DOORS
B Windows and Doors

B.1 Sliding doors
In the analyis of sliding door framing profiles, combine the central mullions and apply the appropriate lateral
loads on both the fixed and the sliding panels.
To ensure airtightness at the sliding interface, the mullion moment of inertias of the fixed panel should be
greater than that of the sliding panel,
IF2 ≥ IF1
DESIGN AIDES 7
WINDOWS AND DOORS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
B.2 Design of window sash
Structural design of window frame
Forces Wt = γ g BH
V = Wt
H = Wt ( B 2 − a ) ( H − a)
a = 100 mm
c = 200 mm
Side hung Vertical member, M1
H ⋅ a ⋅ h ( H + a ) 3h ( H + a ) a
Iz ≥
27 H ⋅ E ⋅ 3mm H c
1.35 H ⋅ a ⋅ h
Wz ≥
H ⋅ fy γ M1
Wt e
Vertical member, M2
5 ( qw B 2 ) y 4 z
Iy ≥
384 E ⋅ y 180 H M1 y
M2
1.5 ( qw B 2 ) y 2
Wy ≥
8 fy γ M1
H ⋅ c3
Iz ≥
3E ⋅ c 180 V
1.35 ( H ⋅ c + V ⋅ e ) c
Wz ≥
fy γ M1
Horizontal member, T T
V ⋅ a ⋅ b ( B + a ) 3b ( B + a ) a
Iz ≥
27 B ⋅ E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm} B
1.35V ⋅ a ⋅ b
Wz ≥
B ⋅ fy γ M1
Top hung Vertical member, M1

without struts Iy ≥
Wy ≥
Horizontal member, T
Iz ≥
(
V ⋅ a 3B 2 − 4a 2 )
48 E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}
1.35V ⋅ a
Wz ≥
2 fy γ M1
Top hung Vertical member, M1

with struts Iy ≥
Wy ≥
Horizontal member, T
Iz ≥
(
V ⋅ a 3B 2 − 4a 2 )
48 E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}
1.35V ⋅ a
Wz ≥
2 fy γ M1
Bottom hung
8 DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
C Curtain Wall Systems

C.1 Schüco stick system
+ +
FW 50 FW 60 Schüco
Profile BT W A Iy Iz W el,y W el,z W pl,y W pl,z It Wt Profile BT W A Iy Iz W el,y W el,z W pl,y W pl,z It Wt
FW 50+ FW 60+
No. [mm] [kg/m] [cm2] [cm4] [cm4] [cm3] [cm3] [cm3] [cm3] [cm4] [cm3] No. [mm] [kg/m] [cm2] [cm4] [cm4] [cm3] [cm3] [cm3] [cm3] [cm4] [cm3]
323 540 - 1.3 4.8 10.8 4.2 4.3 1.8 6 3.7 1.2 0 324 680 - 1.5 5.5 19.0 5 6.3 2 8.6 4.3 0.7 0.8
322 250 50 2.1 7.6 31.3 19.3 8.2 7.7 13.3 10.2 18.5 6.8 324 010 50 2.4 8.9 35.1 35 8.8 11 15.7 15 28.2 6.1
322 260 65 2.2 8.1 55.5 22.8 12.6 9.1 18.7 11.6 29.6 9.3 324 020 65 2.6 9.7 63.1 42.3 13.7 14.1 22.3 17.5 47.9 12.8
322 270 85 2.5 9.3 108.3 28.1 19.9 11.3 28.9 14 46.3 13 324 030 85 3.1 11.3 124.3 53.3 21.9 17.8 34.3 21.6 79.5 18.7
322 280 105 2.6 9.8 167.1 32.4 27 13 36.6 15.7 62.1 16.7 324 040 105 3.3 12.2 195.1 62.4 30.1 20.8 44.2 24.6 110.6 24.3
Standard
Standard
322 290 125 3.1 11.3 278.5 38.4 37.2 15.4 51.6 18.5 80.5 20.3 324 050 125 3.8 14.2 325.1 74.4 41.7 24.8 62 29.2 144.4 26.2
322 300 150 3.3 12.3 423.6 44.4 48.9 17.7 66.1 20.9 102.1 26.3 324 060 150 4.2 15.7 500.4 86.8 55.6 28.9 80.3 33.5 186.9 32.6
322 310* 175 3.9 14.5 661.9 52.8 66.8 21.1 88.7 24.7 122.9 17.5 324 070 175 5.0 18.4 787.0 103.1 81.3 34.4 108.6 39.5 224.8 20.9
326 250 175 4.8 17.6 730.0 68.2 75.9 27.3 101.8 31.6 161.3 17.3 324 080 200 5.4 19.9 1,083.1 115.6 99.8 38.5 132 43.9 267 23.2
326 030 200 5.2 19.1 1,008.9 76.7 92.1 30.7 124.3 35.2 190.3 19.2 324 090 225 5.8 21.4 1,445.4 128.1 119.9 42.7 157.8 48.3 312.8 28.5
336 230 225 5.6 20.7 1,352.3 85.3 110.4 34.1 149.2 38.9 222.5 25.7 336 270 250 6.2 23 1,876.3 140.7 140.7 46.9 185.6 52.7 358.3 30.9
336 240 250 6.0 22.2 1,759.1 93.8 129.9 37.5 176 42.5 253.6 25.2 324 220 85 4.0 14.9 168.2 108.4 28 17.5 45.1 33 97.6 11.8
322 520 65 2.8 10.2 68.1 40.3 14.8 7.9 23.6 16.2 31.4 10.6 323 420 65 - 250 1.7 6.3 53.6 18.2 9 4.9 15.9 9 26.2 4.9
Corner
322 510 85 3.7 13.6 173.9 81.1 28.9 12.8 44.4 25.5 82.5 11.8 323 430 65 - 250 1.8 6.7 68.6 20.7 11 5.5 18.8 10.5 29.6 8.8
322 500 105 3.5 13 209.5 61.5 29.2 13.9 47.1 23.6 3.3 0 323 440 65 - 250 1.6 5.9 39.8 19.2 7.4 4.9 13 8.9 23.5 4
Corner
323 420 65 - 250 1.7 6.3 53.6 18.2 9 4.9 15.9 9 26.2 4.9 324 100 85 2.4 8.8 81.7 11.1 15.4 3.8 23.2 8.3 6.8 2.6
323 430 65 - 250 1.8 6.7 68.6 20.7 11 5.5 18.8 10.5 29.6 8.8 324 110 85 1.9 7.2 49.6 12 10.3 3.3 16.9 7.7 5.3 2.4
323 440 65 - 250 1.6 5.9 39.8 19.2 7.4 4.9 13 8.9 23.5 4 324 120 105 2.7 10 136.9 12.7 21.8 4.3 32.5 9.6 11 2.7
Installation
Mullion
323 940 85 2.0 7.4 71.5 6.5 13.3 2.9 19.7 5.9 4.8 1.7 324 130 105 2.3 8.4 91.0 13.4 15.7 3.7 24.7 9 9.2 4.1
923 950 85 1.6 5.8 42.5 6.5 8.9 2.3 14.1 5.2 3.8 2.7 324 140 125 3.1 11.3 212.1 14.3 28.9 4.8 43.1 11 15.5 5.9
323 960 105 2.2 8.2 119.2 7.4 18.4 3.3 27.3 6.7 7.5 2.4 324 150 125 2.6 9.7 149.3 14.7 22 4 33.8 10.2 13.6 5.4
Installation
323 970 105 1.8 6.6 76.7 7.3 13.3 2.6 20.3 6 6.3 3.8 324 160 150 3.5 12.8 337.9 16.2 39.2 5.3 58.1 12.6 20.7 8.1
Mullion
323 980 125 2.5 9.1 182.7 8.3 24.1 3.7 35.9 7.6 10.2 3.6 324 170 150 3.0 11.2 249.7 16.3 31.2 4.4 46.9 11.8 19.1 8.7
323 990 125 2.0 7.4 124.2 8.1 18.4 2.9 27.3 6.8 0.6 0 324 180 85 3.0 11.2 122.7 51.4 21.4 17.1 33.9 21 76.5 18.3
326 010 150 2.7 10.1 287.8 9.4 32.3 4.1 47.8 8.6 13.6 6.8 324 190 105 3.2 12 192.7 60.6 29.5 20.2 43.6 24 107.1 23
326 020 150 2.3 8.5 204.7 9.1 25.5 3.2 37.3 7.8 12.3 7.7 324 200 125 3.8 14.1 320.8 72.6 40.9 24.2 61.2 28.7 141.2 23.2
Faceted Out
323 040 85 2.5 9.1 106.9 26.8 19.5 10.7 28.6 13.5 44.2 12.7 324 210 150 4.2 15.6 494.0 85 54.5 28.3 79.4 33 183.5 28.2
323 050 105 2.6 9.6 165.0 31.1 26.5 12.4 36.2 15.2 59.9 16 324 990 175 4.7 17.5 741.5 97.3 74 32.4 102.9 37.3 228.4 33.2
Faceted Out
323 060 125 3.0 11.2 274.6 37.1 36.4 14.8 51 18 78.5 20.3 327 010 200 5.1 19 1,021.9 109.7 91.1 36.6 125.2 41.7 271.1 42.6
328 640 150 3.3 12.2 418.1 43 47.8 17.2 65.2 20.4 100.1 21.4 327 020 225 5.6 20.6 1,365.6 122.3 109.7 40.8 150 46.1 315.5 59.3
328 650 175 4.5 16.8 687.4 64.4 69.9 25.8 96.3 29.8 163 27.6 336 290 250 6.0 22.1 1,773.8 134.8 129.6 44.9 176.7 50.5 360.9 44.9
328 660 200 4.9 18.3 950.9 72.9 86.2 29.1 117.7 33.4 193.2 32.4 324 300 85 2.2 8.1 41.4 13.9 12.5 5.2 16.8 9.4 2.5 0
322 720 85 2.1 7.9 39.5 11.7 12.1 5.2 16.1 8.6 2.3 0 324 310 105 2.6 9.7 78.5 16.5 17.3 6.2 25 11.4 25.4 10
Reinforcement
322 730 105 2.5 9.4 74.9 14.3 16.7 6.4 24 10.6 25.4 9.1 324 320 125 2.9 10.7 125.8 18.6 22.3 7 32.4 12.9 2.6 0
201 216 105 4.1 5.2 49.1 8.3 11.4 3.7 14.6 6.2 0.4 0 324 330 150 3.3 12.2 236.9 21.4 35.2 8.1 48.7 14.9 2.3 0
322 740 125 2.8 10.4 120.4 16.4 21.5 7.3 31.2 12.1 32.7 11.3 324 340 175 3.7 13.6 357.5 24.2 43.6 9.1 62.3 16.9 2.4 0
201 217 125 4.6 5.8 80.7 9.3 15.5 4.2 19.7 7 0.4 0 324 350 200 4.1 15.1 519.3 27 54 10.2 77.6 18.9 2.5 0
Reinforcement
322 750 150 3.2 11.9 227.6 19.2 34.2 8.5 47.1 14.1 42.8 14.3 324 360 225 4.5 16.5 727.6 29.8 66.2 11.2 94.8 21 2.6 0
322 760* 175 3.6 13.4 344.1 22 42.4 9.8 60.3 16.1 52.8 17.7 324 690 - 1.3 4.8 21.0 5.4 7 2.6 8.8 4.2 0.1 0.2
326 270 175 2.8 10.3 282.3 14.9 33.8 6.9 48.5 11.5 34.4 8.7 324 400 0 0.7 2.6 6.1 0.4 2 0.4 3.2 0.7 0.1 0.2
326 050 200 3.1 11.3 404.9 16.6 41.1 7.7 59.6 12.8 40.3 15.9 324 410 16 1.3 4.7 16.4 3.4 5.4 1.8 7.4 3.3 5.2 2.7
336 250 225 3.3 12.2 560.3 18.3 49.6 8.5 71.6 14.1 46.9 11.8 324 420 22 1.4 5.1 19.4 5.9 6.5 2.8 8.4 4.6 9.3 3.7
336 260 250 3.6 13.2 753.1 20 59.2 9.3 85.3 15.3 53.3 13.5 324 430 40 1.7 6.2 28.4 19 9.5 6.6 11.6 9.7 26.4 7
323 270 85 0.4 1.6 2.2 0.2 1.3 0.2 1.7 0.5 0.1 0 324 440 50 2.0 7.3 33.5 32.9 11.1 9.4 13.5 14.2 38.2 8.9
323 280 105 0.6 2.3 7.5 0.3 2.7 0.3 3.7 0.7 0.1 0 324 450 65 2.2 8.3 58.5 41 13.9 13.7 20.1 16.1 56.7 11.7
323 290 125 0.8 3.1 17.4 0.4 4.7 0.3 6.4 0.9 0.1 0 324 460 85 2.6 9.5 107.4 51 20.7 17 28.9 19.6 85.2 15.4
Level 1
323 550 - 1.0 3.8 10.7 3.9 4.3 2 5.5 2.9 0.4 0 324 470 105 2.9 10.7 175.2 61.1 28.4 20.4 39.1 23.2 115.9 19.2
322 370 0 0.6 2.4 3.6 0.4 1.4 0.3 2.3 0.7 0.1 0.1 324 480 125 3.3 12.1 270.9 71.3 37.4 23.8 51.4 26.8 149.9 22.9
322 380 16 1.1 3.9 8.9 3 3.6 1.7 4.9 2.8 3.8 2.2 324 490 150 3.7 13.7 419.1 83.8 49.5 27.9 67.6 31.2 187.2 27.6
322 460 22 1.1 4.2 10.4 5.1 4.1 2.5 5.6 3.8 6.6 3.1 324 500 175 4.1 15.2 610.3 96.4 62.8 32.1 85.7 35.6 229 32.2
Transom
323 840 40 1.4 5 16.0 14.7 5.8 5.9 7.8 7.4 17.2 5.8 326 940 200 4.5 16.8 849.0 109 77.5 36.3 105.7 40 271.5 36.9
322 390 50 1.6 5.9 28.0 17.1 8.2 6.9 11.9 8.5 0.9 0 324 370 50 2.1 7.8 33.9 25.7 9.4 8.6 14.6 12.1 26.7 6
322 400 65 1.8 6.5 49.4 20.8 12 8.3 16.5 10 35 9.9 324 550 50 1.3 4.9 24.8 9.9 6.9 3.3 10.2 6.3 0.1 0.1
Level 1
322 410 85 2.0 7.4 89.3 25.6 17.6 10.2 23.5 12 50.4 13.1 324 560 50 1.2 4.6 23.6 8 6.6 2.7 9.5 5.3 0.1 0.2
322 420 105 2.2 8.2 144.0 30.4 23.8 12.2 31.3 14 65.5 16.3 324 510 85 2.6 9.5 100.6 48.1 19.1 16 28.1 18.7 77.3 14.3
Level 2
322 430 125 2.5 9.2 221.1 35.3 31.1 14.1 40.9 16.1 82.5 19.5 324 520 105 2.9 10.8 166.8 58.1 26.7 19.4 38.2 22.2 107.6 18.1
322 440 150 2.8 10.5 354.5 42 41.5 16.8 55.2 19 106.9 23.5 324 530 125 3.3 12.2 261.1 68.4 35.8 22.7 50.7 25.9 141.6 21.8
Transom
322 450 175 3.1 11.6 509.4 48 52 19.2 69 21.5 128.3 27.5 324 540 150 3.7 13.7 407.7 80.9 47.8 27 66.9 30.3 177.2 25.9
322 490 50 1.6 5.8 25.5 14.6 7.7 5.8 10.6 7.9 16.4 5.8 80×50×3 105 - 200 5.7 7.2 61.1 29.4 15.3 11.8 18.8 13.6 64.8 21.6
322 630 50 1.1 4.1 21.3 5.4 6.2 2.4 8.6 4.1 0.1 0.1 336 090 125 - 200 3.4 12.6 201.5 55.6 32.4 21.4 44.7 25.2 3 0
Reinf.
322 640 50 1.0 3.8 19.7 4.4 5.4 1.9 7.6 3.5 0.1 0.1 100×50×3 125 - 200 6.6 8.4 106.5 36.1 21.3 14.4 26.7 16.4 88.3 27.2
322 330 85 2.0 7.5 84.6 24 16.4 9.6 22.9 11.4 45.6 10.2 120×50×3 150 - 200 7.5 9.6 168.0 42 28.1 17 35.7 19.3 112 32.8
322 340 105 2.2 8.3 138.4 28.8 22.7 11.5 30.8 13.4 60.5 14.4 150×50×5 175, 200 8.9 11.4 298.5 52.6 39.8 21.1 51.4 23.5 149.9 41.4
Level 2
322 350 125 2.5 9.3 215.2 33.8 30.1 13.5 40.7 15.6 77.6 17.4
322 360 150 2.9 10.6 347.6 40.4 40.6 16.1 55 18.4 101.6 21.1
80×40×2 105 - 175 3.5 4.5 37.4 12.7 9.3 6.4 11.6 7.2 29.3 11.8
351 980 125 - 175 3.3 12.4 194.0 40.1 30.9 17.8 43.3 21.3 2.9 0
Reinf.
100×40×3 125 - 175 6.1 7.8 92.3 21.7 18.5 10.8 23.7 12.4 58.8 21.4
120×40×3 150, 175 7.1 9 148.0 25.7 24.7 12.8 32.2 14.6 74.2 25.8
150×40×3 175 8.5 10.8 266.1 32 35.5 16 47 17.9 97.9 32.5
DESIGN AIDES 9
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
+
FW 50
10 DESIGN AIDES
+
FW 60
DESIGN AIDES 11
+
FW 50 S Schüco
+ Profile BT W A Iy Iz Wel,y Wel,z Wpl,y Wpl,z It Wt
FW 50
No. [mm] [kg/m] [cm ]
2
[cm ]
4
[cm ]
4 3
[cm ]
3
[cm ]
3
[cm ]
3
[cm ] [cm ]
4 3
[cm ]
322 530 85 3.0 11 122.8 15.4 21.7 6.2 33.9 10.7 6.2 2.9
322 540 125 3.6 13.4 311.2 16.3 41 6.5 59.2 12 9.3 4.1
322 550 175 4.4 16.4 700.8 17.4 69.6 7 97.1 13.9 13.7 5
323 870 250 7.2 26.8 2,029.2 16.8 144 6.7 207 13.2 5.4 4.7
I&T
160 790 125 3.5 12.9 337.5 13.6 43.4 5.4 60.2 11.1 14.7 6.6
322 580 85 2.4 8.9 78.6 9.5 14.5 3.8 22.1 7.3 5.9 2.7
Mullion
322 570 125 3.1 11.3 215.4 10.4 28.1 4.1 43 8.7 9 4.2
322 560 175 3.9 14.3 518.5 11.5 50.3 4.6 76.3 10.5 13.4 4.9
326 870 85 1.8 6.7 50.9 5 8.8 2.4 15 4.5 1.9 1.1
326 860 85 1.3 4.7 29.5 2.1 6.6 1.1 10.2 2.5 0.8 0.4
Installation
326 630 125 2.2 8.3 140.1 5.2 17.1 2.5 28.6 5 2.6 1.8
326 640 125 1.6 6.1 91.1 2.5 13.7 1.4 20.9 3.2 1.4 0.7
326 890 175 2.8 10.3 339.7 5.5 30.7 2.6 51.8 5.8 3.6 2.4
326 880 175 2.3 8.5 244.8 3 26.8 1.8 40.2 4 2.5 1.1
322 370 0 0.6 2.4 3.6 0.4 1.4 0.3 2.3 0.7 0.1 0.1
322 380 16 1.1 3.9 8.9 3 3.6 1.7 4.9 2.8 3.8 2.2
326 900 50 1.4 5.3 20.9 4.6 6 1.8 9.4 4 3.1 1.5
Level 1
326 920 85 2.6 9.8 193.8 11.3 24.7 4.5 38.4 8.4 12 4.7
Transom
323 900 125 2.1 7.8 69.8 10.5 12.3 4.2 19.6 7.2 9.3 3.6
323 910 85 2.9 10.6 116.0 38.9 21.9 7.8 31.9 16.1 9.4 2.8
323 920 125 3.3 12.4 292.7 42.9 40.5 8.2 55.3 17.6 12.1 3.9
323 930 175 3.8 14.1 634.6 46.4 65.8 8.7 86.1 18.9 15.2 7.8
326 910 85 2.2 8.3 69.9 9.2 12.6 3.7 20.1 6.9 7 3.5
L. 2
336 100 125 2.7 9.9 189.4 9.9 24.1 4 38 8 9.6 5.7
12 DESIGN AIDES
C.2 Raico stick system
Right-angled profiles Expansion Profiles
Right-Angled Profiles
+
THERM 50
+
THERM 56
Expansion Profiles
+
THERM 50
+
THERM 56
DESIGN AIDES 13
Insertion Profiles for CW 50 and 56
T-Profile
14 DESIGN AIDES
C.3 Raico glass chairs
Raico glass chair
Description Detail
Variante 1: ≤ 400 kg
DESIGN AIDES 15
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM
D Aluminium
Alloy Deisgnations
D.1 Aluminium Extrusion Guidelines

The figure below shows maximum profile
dimensions for the largest Swedish press of
Sapa.
Note: The entire cross section of the desired

profile must fit within the bold line.
Recommended Wall Thickness, [mm] Sapa Design Manual
t = 2.0+Ø/125
t ≈ 1.5+Ø/133
t ≈ 1.0+Ø/129
t ≈ 0.8+Ø/148
Circumscribing Circle [mm]

• Legend: Solid (open) profiles Hollow (closed) profile
6060 / 6063 6060 / 6063
6005A 6005A
6082 6082
DESIGN AIDES 17
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
D.2 Aluminium Mechanical Properties

Aluminium Sheets/Plates EN 485-2:2008
18 DESIGN AIDES
DESIGN AIDES 19
20 DESIGN AIDES
Aluminium Extrusions EN 755-2:2008
DESIGN AIDES 21
Aluminium Extrusions EN 755-2:2008
22 DESIGN AIDES
D.3 Aluminium temper designation
Temper Descriptions to BS EN 515
Temper Description
F As fabricated (no mechanical property limits specified).
O Annealed - products achieving the required annealed properties after hot forming processes may be
designated as O temper.
O1 Thermally treated at approximately the same time and temperature required for solution treatment and
slow cooled to room temperature (formerly designated as T41).
O2 Thermomechanically processed to enhance formability, such as required for super-plastic forming (SPF).
O3 Homogenized.
H12 Strain-hardened - ¼ hard.
H14 Strain-hardened - ½ hard.
H16 Strain-hardened - ¾ hard.
H18 Strain-hardened - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
H19 Strain-hardened - extra hard.
Hxx4 Applies to embossed or patterned sheet or strip, fabricated from the corresponding Hxx temper.
Hxx5 Strain-hardened - applies to welded tubes.
H111 Annealed and slightly strain-hardened (less than H11) during subsequent operations such as stretching or
levelling.
H112 Slightly strain-hardened from working at an elevated temperature from a limited amount of cold work
(mechanical property limits specified).
H116 Applies to aluminium-magnesium alloys with a magnesium content of 4% or more and for which
mechanical property limits and exfoliation corrosion resistance are specified.
H22 Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ¼ hard.
H24 Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ½ hard.
H26 Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ¾ hard.
H28 Strain-hardened and partially annealed - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
H32 Strain-hardened and stabilized - ¼ hard.
H34 Strain-hardened and stabilized - ½ hard.
H36 Strain-hardened and stabilized - ¾ hard.
H38 Strain-hardened and stabilized - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
H42 Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ¼ hard.
H44 Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ½ hard.
H46 Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ¾ hard.
H48 Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
W Solution heat-treated (unstable temper). The period of natural ageing (W2h..) may also be specified.
W51 Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5%
to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring). The products
receive no further straightening after stretching.
W510 Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to
3% for extruted rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube). The products receive no further
straightening after stretching.
W511 Same as W510 except minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.
W52 Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of
1- 5%.
DESIGN AIDES 23
W54 Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die (die forging).
T1 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged.
T2 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked and naturally aged.
T3 Solution heat-treated, cold worked and naturally aged.
T31 Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 1% and naturally aged.
T351 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5%
to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and
rolled ring) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after
T3510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod,
bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and naturally aged. The products receive no further
T3511 Same as T3510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard
tolerances.
T354 Solution heat-treated stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and naturally aged.
T39 Solution heat-treated and cold worked to an appropriate degree to achieve the specified mechanical
properties. Cold work may be carried out before or after natural ageing.
T4 Solution heat-treated and naturally aged.
T42 Solution heat-treated and naturally aged. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper
or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.
rolled ring) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
bar shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and naturally aged. The products receive no further
tolerances.
T452 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and
naturally aged.
T454 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and naturally aged.
T5 Cooled from an elavated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged.
T51 Cooled from an elavated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged in underageing conditions
to improve formability.
T56 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged - mechanical property
level higher than T5 achieved through special control of the process (6000 series alloys).
T6 Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged.
T61 Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability.
to 3% for plate) and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability. The products
receive no further straightening after stretching.
T62 Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F
temper or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.
T64 Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions (between T6 and T61) to improve
formability.
rolled ring) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
24 DESIGN AIDES
bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially aged. The products receive no
further straightening after stretching.
tolerances.
T652 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then
artificially aged.
T654 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially aged.
T66 Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged - mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved
through special control of the process (6000 series alloys)..
T7 Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged.
T73 Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
T732 Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any
temper by the user.
rolled ring) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance. The
products receive no further straightening after stretching.
bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the
best stress corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
tolerances.
artifi-cially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
T7354 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially overaged in
order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
T74 Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76).
rolled ring) and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76). The products receive no further
bar shapes and tube 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76).
The pro-ducts receive no further straightening after stretching.
tolerances.
artifi-cially overaged (between T73 and T76).
T7454 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially overaged (bet-
ween T73 and
T76 Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion
resistance.
resistan-ce. (applies to 7475 sheet and strip).
resistan-ce. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated
from any tem-per by the user.
rolled ring) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance. The
products recieve no further straightening after
DESIGN AIDES 25
bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good
exfoli-ation corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
tolerances.
artifi-cially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.
T7454 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking in the finish die and then artificially overaged in order to
achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.
T79 Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged (very limited overageing).
bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged (very limited overageing).
The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T8 Solution heat-treated, cold worked and then artificially aged.
T82 Solution heat-treated by the user, controlled stretched with a minimum permanent set of 2% and then artifi-
cially aged (alloy 8090).
T832 Solution heat-treated, cold worked a controlled specific amount and then artificially aged (applies to 6063
drawn tube).
T841 Solution heat-treated, cold worked and then artificially underaged (sheet and strip in alloys 2091 and
8090).
T851 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to
3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled
ring) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
bar, profiles and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially aged. The products receive no
further straightening after stretching.
T8511 Same as T8510 except for minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard
tolerances.
artifi-cially aged.
T854 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially aged.
T86 Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 6% and then artificially aged.
T87 Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 7% and then artificially aged.
T89 Solution heat-treated, cold worked to an appropriate degree to achieve the specified mechanical properties
and then artificially aged.
T9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged and then cold worked.
26 DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
E Fasteners & Connections

E.1 Snap-fit design
Formulas are derived from theory of cantilever beam with concentrated load (also conforms to BASF design).
Design resistance of aluminium structures http://snapfit4.cmg.net/SnapFit/workspace.jsp
Perpendicular Uniform beam Uniform beam Tapered beam
force [N] bt 3 E
P= Y
4L3
Tapered beam
bt 3 E
P= Y
6.52L3
Mating force ( µ + tan α )

W = P Push-on force [N]
( 1 − µ ⋅ tan α )
( µ + tan α´ ) Pull-off force [N]
W´ = P
( − µ ⋅ tan α´ )
1
values of µ: Coefficient of friction [-]
0.6 Raw surface
0.3 Anodised surface
E.2 Serrated washer

Additional tension due to serration angle (θ) of washer and friction (µ):
Ft´ = Fv/tan(θ+φ) N
-1
F´t
φ = tan (µ) θ+φ
Fv
Frictional coefficients http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm
Static Sliding
Material Material
Dry Greasy Dry Greasy
Aluminium Aluminium 1.05-1.35 0.3 1.4 -
Aluminium Steel (mild) 0.61 - 0.47 -
Steel (mild) Steel (mild) 0.74 - 0.57 0.09-0.19
Steel (hard) Steel (hard) 0.78 0.05-0.11 0.42 0.029-0.12
Cast iron Cast iron 1.1 0.15 0.07
Nylon Nylon 0.15-0.25
E.3 Sleeve sizes

Sleeve sizes
Bolt size 1.4301/1.4404 6060 T6 Screw size 1.4301/1.4404 6060 T6
M4 - Ø8×1.5 ST 2.9 Ø6×1.0* -
M5 Ø8×1.0* Ø10×2.0 ST 3.5 Ø6×1.0* Ø7×1.5
M6 Ø10×1.5 - ST 3.9 Ø8×1.5* Ø7×1.5
M8 Ø12×1.5 Ø12×1.5 ST 4.2 Ø8×1.5* Ø8×1.5
M10 Ø15×2.0* Ø15×1.5 ST 4.8 Ø8×1.5* Ø8×1.5
M12 Ø17.2×2.3 Ø16×1.5 ST 5.5 - Ø10×2.0
M16 Ø21.3×2.0 Ø20×1.5 ST 6.3 Ø10×1.5 Ø13×3.0
M20 Ø26.9×2.6 -
DESIGN AIDES 27
E.4 List of fasteners
28 DESIGN AIDES
DESIGN AIDES 29
Bolts and screws commonly used in façade construction
Metric thread bolts and screws
Reference Figure Description
ISO 4014 Hexagonal head bolts
DIN 931
ISO 4017 Hexagonal head screws

DIN 933
ISO 4762 Hexagonal socket head cap screws

DIN 912
DIN 6912 Hexagonal socket thin head cap screws with pilot recess for wrench
key
ISO 10642 Hexagonal socket countersunk head screws

DIN 7991
ISO 7046 Cross recessed countersunk head screws

DIN 965
DIN 7500 Thread rolling screws for ISO metric thread

D+SHB
C-Z
M-Z
M
ISO 8752 Spring-type straight pins, slotted, heavy duty
DIN 1481
ISO 2338 Parallel pins, of unhardened steel and austenitic stainless steel
DIN 7
ISO 4026 Hexagonal socket set screws with flat point

DIN 913
DIN 975 Threaded rod
30 DESIGN AIDES
Spaced thread screws

Reference Figure Description
ISO 1479 Hexagonal head tapping screws
DIN 7976
ISO 14585 Hexalobular socket pan head tapping screws

DIN 7504
ISO 14586 Hexalobular socket countersunk head tapping screws
ISO 7049 Cross recessed pan head tapping screws

DIN 7981
ISO 7050 Cross recessed countersunk head tapping screws

DIN 7982
ISO 15480 Hexagonal washer head drilling screws with tapping screw thread
DIN 7504
ISO15482 Cross recessed raised pan head drilling screws with tapping screw
DIN 7504 thread
DIN 571 Cross recessed raised countersunk head drilling screws with tapping
screw thread
Hexagonal head wood screws
DESIGN AIDES 31
E.5 Group of fasteners
Group of fasteners in tension or shear
Fastener Layout Shear Tension
M ⋅ y1
Ft1 =
y1 2 +y2 2 + ...yn 2
M ⋅ yn
Ftn =
y1 +y 2 2 + ...yn 2
2
M ⋅ y1
Fv1 =
y1 +y2 2 + ...yn 2
2
M ⋅ yn
Fvn =
y1 2 +y2 2 + ...yn 2
M ⋅ ( 2x 1 +x 2 ) x'1 = ( 2 x1 + x 2 ) 3
Fv1 =
( 2
2 x1 +x1 x 2 + x 2 2
) x' 2 = ( x1 − x 2 ) 3
M ⋅ x1 − x 2 x' 3 = ( x1 + 2 x 2 ) 3
Fv2 =
( 2
2 x1 +x1 x 2 + x 2 2
)
M ⋅ ( x1 +2x 2 )
Fv3 =
(
2 x1 2 +x1 x 2 + x 2 2 )
M ⋅ x'1 x'1 = ( 3 x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 ) 4
Fv1 =
x'1 +x' 2 2 + x' 3 2 + x'4 2
2
x' 2 = ( − x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 ) 4
x' 3 = ( x1 + 2 x2 − x3 ) 4
x'4 = ( x1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x3 ) 4
Group of fasteners in shear

Fastener Layout Shear X component Shear Y components
M⋅y M⋅x
Fvx = Fvy =
(
2 x +y 2 2
) (
2 x 2 +y 2 )
Fvx1 = Fvx2 M⋅x

Fvy1 =
2x 2 +3y 2
M⋅y
Fvx1 =
2x 2 +3y 2 Fvy2 = 0
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 M ⋅ ( 2x 1 +x 2 )

Fvy1 =
M ⋅ 3y  8 ( x1 +x 1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2 
2
Fvx1 =  
 8 ( x1 +x 1 x 2 +x 2
2 2
) +9y 2

  M ⋅ x1 − x 2
Fvy2 =
 8 ( x1 2 +x1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2 
 
M ⋅ ( x1 +2x 2 )
Fvy3 =
 8 ( x1 2 +x1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2 
 
32 DESIGN AIDES
Fvx1 = Fvx2 M ⋅ x1
Fvy1 =
(
2 x1 +x 2 2 +2y 2
2
)
M⋅y
Fvx1 = M ⋅ x2
(
2 x 1 2 +x 2 2 +2y 2 ) Fvy2 =
(
2 x1 +x 2 2 +2y 2
2
)
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 M ⋅ x1

Fvy1 =
2x 1 +2x 2 2 +5y 2
2
M⋅y M ⋅ x2
Fvx1 = Fvy2 =
2x1 2 +2x 2 2 +5y 2 2x1 2 +2x 2 2 +5y 2
Fvy3 = 0
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = ... Fvxn M ⋅ x1

Fvy1 =
(
2 x 1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2
2
)
M⋅y
Fvx1 = M ⋅ x2
(
2 x1 2 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2 ) Fvy2 =
(
2 x1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2
2
)
M ⋅ xn
Fvyn =
(
2 x 1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2
2
)
Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvy1 = Fvy3
M⋅y M⋅x
Fvx1 = Fvy1 =
4x 2 +3y 2 4x 2 +3y 2
Fvx3 = 0 Fvy2 = 0
Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvy1 = Fvy3
M⋅y M ⋅ x1
Fvx1 = Fvy1 =
(
4 x1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2 ) (
4 x 1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2 )
Fvx3 = Fvx4 = 0 Fvy2 = Fvy4
M ⋅ x2
Fvy2 =
(
4 x1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2 )
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 Fvy1 = Fvy4
M⋅y M ⋅ x1
Fvx1 = Fvy1 =
4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2 4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2
Fvx4 = Fvx5 = 0 Fvy2 = Fvy5
M ⋅ x2
Fvy2 =
4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2
Fvy3 = 0
DESIGN AIDES 33
E.6 Screw channels
Screw channel with self-tapping screws ST4.8×30 / A2
Lindner AG appointed Labor für Stahl und Leichtmetallbau, Hochschule München to conduct a test on the
design shear and tension loads of screw channels. ST4.8×32mm A2 with DIN912 head is used. The
following characteristic and design values at 5% fractile test values are obtained from the official report Doc.
Nr. 2009-2037.
Screw channel capacities [kN]

Screw channel Incidence Base extrusion Anodised extrusion
Interaction formula
type angle Fv,k Fv,d Ft,k Fv,k Fv,d Ft,k
a) 0° < α < +45°
F+90° 1.8 1.35 2.0 1.50
Fα Fα
α
Fα F+45° 3.4 2.56 3.5 2.63 α
Fα
F0°
F0° 4.6 3.46 6.8 3.6 2.71 6.8 Fα =
α
 2 ⋅ F0° 
cos ( α ) +  − 1  sin ( α )
 F 
 +45° 
F-45° 5.6 4.21 5.1 3.83
b) +45° < α < +90°
α α
F-90° 4.9 3.68 4.9 3.68 Fα

α
α
F+90° 1.8 1.35 1.9 1.43
F+90°
α Fα =
 2 ⋅ F+90° 
F+45° 3.4 2.56 3.1 2.33  − 1  cos ( α ) + sin ( α )

 F+45° 
α
F0° 3.7 2.78 8.3 3.0 2.26 7.6

c) -45° < α < 0°
F-45° 5.5 4.14 6.0 4.51

α
Fα Fα
F
F-90° 5.1 3.83 5.2 3.91
F0°
Fα =
 2 ⋅ F0° 
F+90° 2.8 2.11 2.8 2.11 cos ( α ) −  − 1  sin ( α )
 F 
 −45° 
F+45° 1.8 1.35 1.9 1.43 d) -90° < α < -45°

Fα
F0° 2.8 2.11 7.6 2.8 2.11 7.7
α
Fα F Fα
F-45° 5.9 4.44 6.2 4.66
F−90°
Fα =
 2 ⋅ F−90° 
 − 1  cos ( α ) − sin ( α )
F-90° 4.3 3.23 5.3 3.98 
 F−45° 
Note: Material factor γM = 1.33 is used for the design values according to DIN 1055-100 Basis of structural design.
34 DESIGN AIDES
Screw channel with metric screw M5×25 / A2
Test conducted on 02.11.2011 by GBD LAB GmbH, Austria.
F0,k
F//,k
F90,k
F//,k F0,k F90,k
DESIGN AIDES 35
Fastener approvals
Blind rivet, Ø4.8 mm AlMg2.5 (EN AW-5052) DIBt Z-14.1-537
Pull-out capacity by local bending of aluminium around screw head DIBt Z-14.1-537
36 DESIGN AIDES
Self-drilling screw, Pan-head ST4.8 (1.4301) DIBt Z-14.1-537
DESIGN AIDES 37
38 DESIGN AIDES
Self-drilling screw, Hexagonal head JT4-4-4.8×L/JT9-4-4.8×L (1.4301) DIBt Z-14.1-537
Self-drilling screw, Hexagonal head JT4-6-5.5×L/JT9-6-5.5×L (1.4301) DIBt Z-14.1-537
DESIGN AIDES 39
E.7 Spring pin
Slotted spring pin ISO 8752 Table 1
Note: Applies to steel (St) and martensitic (C) corrosion resistant steel products only. For austenitic (A) stainless
steel pins no double shear strength are specified.
40 DESIGN AIDES
E.8 Lifting tools
Shackles [EN 13889]
Sample designation: 9.5mmØ / EN 13889 – Grade 6 – 0.75 ton D (or B) W (or X)
Note: *Appropriate factor of safety (2.0 to 4.0) should be considered to determine the working load limit WLL.
DESIGN AIDES 41
Schackle [Federal Specification RR-C-271 F]
Sample designation: 3/8” / RR-C-271F, Type IV A, Grade A
Note: *Appropriate factor of safety (2.0 to 4.0) should be considered to determine the working load limit WLL.
42 DESIGN AIDES
Eye bolt [DIN 580]
Swivel hoist [CROSBY SS-125M]
DESIGN AIDES 43
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ANCHORS
F Anchors
F.1 HILTI Anchor Selector
DESIGN AIDES 45
ANCHORS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
46 DESIGN AIDES
DESIGN AIDES 47
F.2 HILTI concrete anchor approvals
Stud anchor HST ETA - 98/0001:2013
48 DESIGN AIDES
Screw anchor HUS 6/8/10/14 ETA – 08/0307:2013
DESIGN AIDES 49
Wedge anchor DBZ 6 ETA – 06/0179:2011
50 DESIGN AIDES
F.3 HALFEN Cast-in channel
HALFEN cast-in channels B 13-E
DESIGN AIDES 51
HTA Product Range and Dimensioning B 13-E
HR-Q
CF
HR-Q
HR-Q
CF
HR
CF
HR
CF
CF
CF
52 DESIGN AIDES
T-BOLT B 13-E
DESIGN AIDES 53
54 DESIGN AIDES
T-BOLT with nib B 13-E
DESIGN AIDES 55
F.4 HILTI Cast-in channels
56 DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES FORMULAS
G Formulas
G.1 Conversion
Sheet Metal
Guage 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 4
[in.] .018 .024 .030 .036 .048 .060 .075 .090 .105 .120 .135 .150 .164 .180 .194 .224
[mm] .46 .61 .76 .91 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3 3.4 3.8 4 4.6 4.9 5.7
Fasteners
Number #6 #8 #10 #12 #14 1/4" 5/16" 3/8" 1/2" 5/8" 3/4" 7/8" 15/16" 1-1/4" 1-3/16"
[in.] .138 .164 .190 .216 .250 .250 0.313 0.375 0.50 0.625 0.75 0.875 0.938 1.063 1.181
[mm] 3.5 4.2 4.8 5.5 6.3 6 8 10 12 16 20 22 24 27 30
DESIGN AIDES 57
FORMULAS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
G.2 Stresses
Principal stresses
Stresses
Type Action Notes
Von Mises Design stress is typically maximum surface stress
stress (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + (σ 1 − σ 3 ) 2 (simple loading) or Von Mises stress (complex
σv =
2 loading conditions).
The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding
where: occurs when the Von Mises, σv stress exceeds the
σ1, σ2, σ3, are principal stresses yield strength in tension.
??? 2 Glass stress

σ xx + σ yy  σ xx − σ yy  2
σ = +   + τ xy
2  2 
Torsional Stress
Torsion of Rectangular cross-section Aircraft Structures J. Perry and J. J. Azar
Type Action Notes
Rectangular Non-linear torsional constant [mm³]
section
(J r ) 1
= α 1 bc 2
(J r ) 2
= α 2 bc 2
T
τ= Torsion stress [N/mm²]
( )
J
r
T Torsional rotation [rad]
θ= 3
β Gbc
Multiple Individual torsional constant [mm³]
rectangular (J r ) i
= α i bi t i 2
sections Individual shear constant [mm ]
4
K i = β i bi t i 3
(
K = ∑ β i bi t i 3 ) Total shear constant [mm ]
4
T Ki
τi = Individual shear stress
( )
J
r i
K
T Torsional rotation [rad]

θ=
G⋅K
Constants J  bc 2 3
r  = 2 3 4
 1 c c c c
1+0.6095 + 0.8865   − 1.8023   + 0.91  
b b b b
58 DESIGN AIDES
G.3 Cross-sectional property formulas
Section Properties – Solid Cross Sections
Shape Area Centroid Moment of Section Plastic Torsional
inertia Modulus Modulus Inertia/Constant
Rectangle A=bd - bd 3 bd 2 bd 2 db 3  b b5 
Iy = Zy = Sy = J=  1 − 0.63 +0.052 5 
12 6 4 3  d d 
d b3 d b2d b2d
y
Iz = Zz = Sz =
12 6 4
Triangle bd d bd 3 bd 2 8bd 2
A= z= Iy = Zy = Sy =
2 3 36 24 81
d b3 d b2d 8b 2 d
Iz = Zz = Sz =
z y
36 24 81
Spandrel bd b bd 3 bd 2
A= y= Iy = Zy =
n+1 n+1 (n+1)12 (n+2)6
y n°
d d
y z= b3 d b2d
z n+1 Iz = Zz =
(n+1)12 (n+2)6
Circle πD 2 - πD 4 πD 3 D3 πD 4
A= I= Z= S= J=2I=
4 64 32 6 32
2J πD 3
d y C= =
D 16
Semi-circle πD 2 2d πD 4 πD 3
A= y= Iy = Zy =
8 3π 128 64
y
I z =0.0069D 4 Zz =0.0138D3
d y
Section Properties – Hollow Cross Sections

Shape Area Moment of inertia Section Plastic Modulus Torsional
Inertia/Constant
Error! Reference
source not found.
RHS A=BD-(B-2t)(D-2T) BD3 -(B-2t)(D-2T)3 2I y D 
2
2(B-t) 2 (D-T) 2 t 1
Iy = Zy = S y =BT(D-T)+2t  -T  J=
12 D 2  (B-t)+(D-T)
T 2
B D-(B-2t)3 (D-2T)
3
2I
B 
2
C=2(B-t)(D-T)t
y Iz = Zz = z
12 B Sz =Dt(B-t)+2T  -t 
t 2 
CHS π[D 2 -(D-2t) 2 ] π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 2I D3 -(D-2t)3 π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 3

A= I= Z= S= J=2I=
4 64 D 6 32
t
D 2J π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 3
y
C= =
D 16D
1
Note: Salmon and Johnson 1980 - resolved and omitting the effect of corner radius.
2
Salmon and Johnson 1980, Seaburg and Carter 1997 - resolved and omitting the effect of corner radius.
3
Stelco 1981, Seaburg and carter 1997
DESIGN AIDES 59
Section Properties – Structural Cross Sections

Shape Area Centroid Moment of inertia Section Modulus Plastic Modulus Torsional Inertia/Constant Error!
Reference source not found.
I-beam A=2BT+(D-2T)t - BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 D 
2
2BT 3 +(D-T)t 3 1
z Iy = Zy = S y =BT(D-T)+  -T  t J=
12 6D 2  3
T
D
2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 B2 T  D  t 2 B3 (D-T) 2 T 2
y Iz = Zz = Sz = +  -T  C=
t 12 6B 2 2 2 24
Channel A=2BT+(D-2T)t 2B2 T+(D-2T)t 2 BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 2I y Iz D 

2
( 2B-t ) T 3 +(D-T)t 3 3
y= Iy = Zy = Zz = S y =BT(D-T)+  -T  t J=
2 [ BT+(D-2T)t ] 12 D B-y 2  3
y T 3
D 2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 B 
2
 t
2
 t  t
y
Iz = +2BT  -y  +(D-2T)  y-  t Sz =(B-y) 2 T+2y 2 T+(D-2T)  y-  t 2
 B-  (D-T) t
t 12 2   2  2  2 4
C=
13
Tee A=BT+(D-T)t BT 2 +(D+T)(D-T)t BT 3 +t(D-T)3  T

2
 D+T 
2
 T t bT 3 +(D-T)t 3
z= Iy = +BT  z-  +(D-T)t  z-  S y =BT  z-  +  (D-z) 2 +(z-T) 2  J= ≈ 0 for small t
z 2 [ BT+(D-T)t ] 12  2   2   2 2 3
T
3
Dz y B3 T+(D-T)t 3 Iy 2I B 2 T+(D-T)t 2  T 3
Zz = z Sz = D- t
B T  2 
Iz = Zy = 3 2
12 D-z B 4 5
t
C= +
144 36
Angle A=(b+d-t)t b 2 +(d-t)t t(d-z)3 +bz 3 -(b-t)(z-t)3 Iy -  t  t  3
w y= Iy = Zy =  b-   d-  t
J= 
tz 2(b+d-t) 3 (d-z) 2  2 
≈ 0 for small t
d y 3 3 3 3
z
v
α
2
d +(b-t)t t(b-y) +dy -(d-t)(y-t) Iz
y z= Iz = Zz =
T 2(b+d-t) 3 (b-y)
b  t 3  t 3  3
 b-  +  d-   t
I v =I y cos 2 α+I z sin 2 α-Ksin2α  2   2  
 t  t C= 
Iz
1  2K  v=  z-  sinα+  y-  cosα Zv =
α= tan -1    2  2 I w =I y sin 2 α+I z cos 2 α+Ksin2α (d-z)cosα+zsinα 36
2  Iy-Ix 
 t  t Iw
bd(b-t)(d-t)t w=  z-  cosα-  y-  sinα I y +I z =I v +I w Zw =
K=  2   2 (b-y)coα-ysinα
4(b+d-t)
1 2 3 4 5
Note: Galambos 1968. Galambos 1968, Picard and Beaulieu 1991. SSRC 1998. Galambos 1968 and, SSRC 1998 – simplified. Bleich 1952, Picard and Beaulieu 1991
DESIGN AIDES 61
Section Properties – Thin-wall Cross Sections

Shape Area Centroid Moment of inertia Section Modulus Shear Centre Torsional Inertia/Constant Error!
Reference source not found.
C A= [ D+2(B-t) ] t D  BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2t)3 2I y Iz 3B 2 [ D+2(B-t)] t 3
B2 +  -t  t Iy = Zy = Zz = e= J=
z
y= 2  12 D B-y 6B+D 3
t
t D+2(B-t) 3 3 2 2
B d t  2+3 B D 
3 2
D (D-2t)t +2B t  t B  C=
y Iz = +t(D-2t)  y-  +2Bt  -y   
12  2 2  12  1+6 B D 
y
Lipped C A= [ D+2(B+c-2t) ] t D  BD 3 -(B-2t)(D-2t)3 -t(D-2c)3 2I y Iz BD 2 ct  1 B 2c 2  [ D+2(B+c-2t)] t 3

B 2 +  -t  t+(c-t) ( 2B-t ) Iy = Zy = Zz = e=  + -  J=
z
y= 2  12 D B-y I y  2 4c 3D 2  3
c
t D+2(B+c-2t) 2
t (D+2c-4t)t 3 +2B3 t  t
2
B 
2
 t
2 B t
D y
Iz = +t(D-2t)  y-  +2Bt  -y  +2(c-t)t  B-y-  C=
6
( 4c3 +3D2 c-6Dc2 +BD 2 ) -I y e2
12  2   2   2 
y
z A= [ D+2(B-t) ] t - BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2t)3 2I y Iz - [ D+2(B-t)] t 3

Iy = Zy = Zz = J=
t 12 D B 3
y
D
(D-t)t 3 +8B3 t
t Iz =
Z 12
Lipped Z A= [ D+2(B+c-2t) ] t - BD 3 -(B-2t)(D-2t)3 -t(D-2c)3 2I y Iz - [ D+2(B+c-2t)] t 3
Iy = Zy = Zz = J=
z 12 D B 3
t 3 3 2
y (D+2c-3t)t +8B t  t  c +D 2 ( B 2 +2BD+4Bc+6Dc ) 
2
t Iz = +2(c-t)t  B-   
12  2
B 2 t  +4c ( 3BD+3D +4Bc+2Dc ) 
2 2
c
C=
12 2B+D+2c
U Refer to C shape (interchange y and z

axes)
y
z
t
Omega A= [ B+2(D+c-2t) ] t B  (B+2c-4t)t 3 +2D 3 t  t

2
D 
2
 t
2
[ B+2(D+c-2t)] t 3
z t D 2 +  -t  t+(c-t) ( 2D-t ) Iy = +t(B-2t)  y-  +2Dt  -y  +2(c-t)t  D-y-  J=
z= 2  12  2 2   2 3
D y
B+2(D+c-2t)
z
3 3
B D+t(B+2c-2t) -(D-t)(B-2t) 3 I Iz 2

B Dct 1 D 2 c 2
 D 2
t
 C= 6 ( 4c +3B c-6Bc +B D ) -I y e
y 3 2 2 2 2
Iz = Zy = Z = e=  + -
t 12 D-z z B I y  2 4c 3 B 2 
+c-t
2
62 DESIGN AIDES
G.4 Beam formulas
Simple beam formulas
Case Moment Deflection Reactions
PL PL3 P
M max = δ max = R1 = R 2 =
4 48 ( EI ) 2
Pab Pab(L+b) Pb Pa
M max = δ max = 3a ( L + b) R1 = ; R2 =
L 27 ( EI ) L L L
M max = Pa Pa R1 = R 2 = P
δ max =
24 ( EI )
( 3L2 -4a 2 )
when n is odd: when n is odd: (n − 1)P

R1 = R 2 =
PL(n 2 − 1) PL3  1  1 1  2
M max = δ max =  n −  3 −  1 − 2 
8n 192 ( EI )  n  2 n 
when n is even: when n is even:
nPL PL3  1 4 
M max = δ max = n 3 − 1 + 
8 192 ( EI )  2  n 2  
[ P1 (L − a)+P2 c] a - P1 (L-a)+P2 c
M1 = R1 =
L L
M2 =
[ P2 (L − c)+P1a ] a R2 =
P2 (L-c)+P1a
L L
2
wL 5wL4 wL
M max = δ max = R1 = R 2 =
8 384 ( EI ) 2
w ( 3L2 -4a 2 ) wL4  a

2
a 
4 w ( L-a )
M max = δ max =  25-40   +16    R1 = R 2 =
24 1920 ( EI )  L  L   2
M max = 0.06415wL2 wL4 wL wL

δ max = 0.00652 R1 = R2 =
@ x = 0.5774L ( EI ) 6 3
@ x = 0.5193L
2
wL wL4 wL
M max = δ max = R1 = R 2 =
12 120 ( EI ) 4
wa 2 2
wx  a ( 2L-a )
2 2
 wa
M max = 2 (
2L-a ) δ1 =   R1 = ( 2L-a )
8L 24 ( EI ) L  -2ax 2 (2L-a)+Lx 3  2L
a wa 2
@x= ( 2L-a ) wa 2 ( L − x ) R2 =
δ1 δ2 2L δ2 =  4Lx-2x 2 -a 2  2L
0≤x≤a a ≤ x ≤ (a+b) 24 ( EI ) L 
 4aL  wb ( b+2c ) x  2a ( 2L-a ) +b(b+2c)-2x 2  wb

wb ( 2c+b )   1
δ = R1 = ( 2c+b )
 +b ( 2c+b )  24 ( EI ) L 2L
M max =
8L2
 4  b ( b+2c ) x   2a(2L-a)  
b w ( x-a ) +   2 
@ x = a+ ( 2c+b )   L   +b(b+2c)-2x   wb ( 2a+b )
δ1 δ2 2L δ2 =  R2 =
0≤x≤a a ≤ x ≤ (a+b) 24 ( EI ) 2L
10wL2 4wL4 wL
M max = δ max = R1 = R 2 =
96 384 ( EI ) 3
Ma = +
Moa M b
Mb = - o M o  3a 2  x3  R1 = +
Mo M
R2 = - o
L L
δx =  6a − − 2L  x − 
6 ( EI )  L  L L L
M = Mo M o L2 -
δ max =
8 ( EI )
DESIGN AIDES 63
Fixed-end beam formulas

PL PL3 P
M max = M A = M B = - δ max = RA = RB =
8 192 ( EI ) 2
A B
PL
L/2 L/2 M centre =
8
Pab 2 2Pa 3 b 2 Pb 2
MA = - max. when a < b δ max = RA = (3a+b)
L2 3 ( EI ) (3a+b) 2 L3
A B
Pa 2 b 2aL Pa 2
a b M B = - 2 max. when a > b @x= , for a > b R B = 3 (3b+a)
L 3a+b L
2Pa 2 b 2 Pa 3 b 3
MP = @ point of load δP = @ point of load
L3 3 ( EI ) L3
Pa(L − a) PL3   a  a  RA = RB = P
2 3
MA = MB = - δ max = 3   − 4   
L 24 ( EI )   L   L  
A B
Pa 2
a a MP = @ point of load
L
L
(n-1) forces
PL(n 2 − 1) when n is odd:
MA = MB = -
12n PL3  1  1  1 
A B δ max =  n −  1 −  1 − 2 
L L L L L
192 ( EI )  n  2 n 
n n n n n
when n is even:
PL3   1  4   1 
δ max =  3 −  1+  n − 2  n −  
192 ( EI )   2  n 2    n 
wL2 wL4 wL
M max = M A = M B = - δ max = RA = RB =
12 384 ( EI ) 2
A B
wL2 wx 2
M centre = δ= (L − x )
2
L 24 24 ( EI )
5wL2 wL4 wL
MA = - δ centre = RA =
192 768 ( EI ) 8
A B
11wL2 3wL
L/2 M max = M B = - RB =
L 192 8
wL2 wL4 wL
MA = - δ centre = RA =
30 768 ( EI ) 6
A B
wL2 wL
M max = M B = - RB =
L 20 3
w 5wL2 7wL4 wL
MA = MB = - δ centre = RA = RB =
96 3840 ( EI ) 4
A B
L/2 L/2
L
wL2 2wL4 wL
MA = MB = - δ max = RA = RB =
A B
15 384 ( EI ) 3
3wL2
M centre =
80
M Mb  3a  Ma  3b  2 2
M A -M A '
a  a  2a 
MA =  -1  M B = -
L  L 
 -1 
L  L 
ML2   1 −  1 −  R A = R B = a
A B δM = L  L  L
a  a a 
2
 2(EI)
a b M A ' = M  1 −  1 − 3   +6   
L
 L    L   L   @ load
6(EI)∆ - 12(EI)∆
MA = - RA =
A
∆ L2 L
B
6(EI)∆ 12(EI)∆
MB = RB = -
L L2 L
64 DESIGN AIDES
Cantilever beam formulas

Case Moment Deflection & rotation Reactions
M max = PL PL3 PL2 R=P
δ= θ=
3 ( EI ) 2 ( EI )
θ δ
L
M max = Pa Pa 2 PL2 R=P
δ= ( 3L-a ) θ =
6 ( EI ) 2 ( EI )
θ δ
a
wL2 wL4 wL3 R = wL

M max = δ= θ=
θ δ 2 8 ( EI ) 6 ( EI )
wa 2 wa 4  4b  R = wa
M max = δ=  1+ 
δ 2 8 ( EI )  3a 
a b
 b
M max = wa  a+  wa ( 8a 3 +18a 2 b+12ab 2 +3b 3 ) R = wb
δ=
δ  2 24 ( EI )
a b
L
 b
M max = wa  a+  wa ( 8a 3 +18a 2 b+12ab 2 +3b 3 +12a 2 c+12abc+4b 2 c )
δ=
δ  2 24 ( EI )
a b c R = wb
2 4 3
wL wL wL wL
M max = δ= θ= R=
δ
6 30 ( EI ) 24 ( EI ) 2
θ
wa 2 wa 4  5b  wa
M max = δ=  1+  R=
δ 3 15 ( EI )  4a  2
a b
2wL2 11wL4 wL
M max = δ= R=
δ 3 60 ( EI ) 2
 2b 
M max = wb  a+  wb ( 20a 3 +50a 2 b+40ab 2 +11b 3 ) R=
wb
δ=
δ  3  60 ( EI ) 2
a b
M M max = M ML2 ML M
δ= θ= R=
2 ( EI ) ( EI ) L
θ δ
L
M max = M Ma 2  2b  M
δ=  1+  R=
δ
2 ( EI )  a  a
a b
ML2 ML
Note: δ = & θ= where M = moment at support and n = degree of moment curve.
n+2 ( EI ) n+1 ( EI )
DESIGN AIDES 65
Propped cantilever beam formulas

3
3PL PL 5P
M max- = M A = - δ max = 0.009317 , @ x = 0.447L RA =
16 ( EI ) 16
A B
5PL 11P
L/2 L/2 M max + = @ centre 7PL3 RB =
32 δ centre = 16
768 ( EI )
Pab when a < 0.586 L: Pa 2
M max- = M A = - (b+L) RA = (b+2L)
2L2 Pa b b 2
 b  2L3
δ max = , @x=L  1 − 
3L-a 
A B
Pa b 2
6 ( EI ) 3L - a  Pb
a b M max+ = (b+2L) @ load RB = (3L3 − b 2 )
2L3 when a > 0.586 L: 2L3
3
Pb ( L2 − b 2 ) 2L ( L2 − b 2 )
δ max = 2
,@x=
3 ( EI ) ( 3L2 − b 2 ) 3L2 − b 2
wL2 wL4 3wL

M max- = M A = - δ max = , @ x = 0.4215L RA =
8 185 ( EI ) 8
A B
9wL2 3 5wL
M max + = ,@x= L RB =
L 128 8 8
2
wa 2  a wa 4 wa
( 6 − 12p+7p 2 − p3 ) RA = 8 − p 2 ( 4 − p ) 
2−  8 
MA = - δC =
A C B
8  L  48 ( EI )
wap 2
a b  2
 (4 − p)
wa 2  8 − p (4 − p)  RB =
2
 a 8
L MC = - +4 − p ( 4 − p )  where: p =
8  16  L

2
wb 2  b wL4 q 3 wbq
MA = - 2−  δC =
48 ( EI )
( −q 4 +9q 2 − 14q+6 ) RA =
8
(6 − q2 )
A C B
8  L
wb 2 wb 3
a
L
b
MC = ( 6q − q3 − 4 ) RB =
8
( q − 6q+8 )
8
b
where: q =
L
w wb M
M A = - 2 ( d 2 − c 2 )( 2L2 − c 2 − d 2 ) RA = ( 2c+b ) + A
A B
8L 2L L
wb MA
a b c RB = ( 2a+b ) −
2L L
wL2 0.00235wL4 2wL
MA = - δ max = , @ x = 0.447L RA =
A B
15 ( EI ) 5
M max = 0.0298wL2 @ x = 0.447L wL
RB =
10
7wL2 0.003wL4 9wL

MA = - δ max = , @ x = 0.598L RA =
A B
120 ( EI ) 40
M max = 0.0423wL2 @ x = 0.67L 11wL
RB =
40
wa 2 wa  a ( 5L − a ) 
2
MA = -
120L2
( 3a 2 − 15aL+20L2 ) RA = 1 − 
A B 2  20L3 
a b w 3
Mx = RBx − (x − b) wa 3
6a RB = ( 5L − a )
40L3
a2 a
M max @ x = b+ 1−
2L 5L
wb 2 wb
MA = -
120L2
(10L2 − 3b 2 ) RA =
2
− RB
A B
w w
a b M x = R A x+M A − ( x − a )
3
RB =  L4 (11L − 15a ) +a4 ( 5L − a ) 
6b 40bL3 
66 DESIGN AIDES
Beam with one side over-hang
Pb ( L − b ) Pab  b2  Pb
M max = δC = −  2L+ − 3b  RA =
L 6 ( EI )  L  L
A B C
b
@ load 3 P (L − b)
Pb ( L2 − b 2 ) RB =
2
L a L2 − b 2 L
δ max+ = @x=
9 3 ( EI ) 3
M B = − Pa Pa 2 Pb
δC = − ( L+a ) RA =
A B C
3 ( EI ) L
P (L − b)
PaL2 L RB =
L a δ max+ = @x= L
9 3 ( EI ) 3
wa 2 waL3 w ( L+a )( L − a )
MB = − δC = 3p 3 + 4p 2 − 1 RA =
A B C
2 24 ( EI )  2L
2
a w ( L+a )
L a p= RB =
L 2L
w 2 3 4
wL waL 5wL wL
M max = δC = − ; δ max+ = RA = RB =
A B 8 24 ( EI ) 384 ( EI ) 2
L a
wa 2 wa 3 wa 2
MB = − δC = − ( 4L+3a ) RA = −
A B C 2 24 ( EI ) 2L
wa 2 L2 wa
δ max- = − @x=
L RB = ( 2L+a )
2L
18 3 ( EI ) 3
Pa PL3  a 2 a3   3a 
MA = δC = + R A = − P 1 + 
A B C
2 ( EI )  4L2 3L3   2L 
M B = − Pa 3Pa
RB =
2L
Pa PL3 3Pa
MA =
2
δC =
12 ( EI )
( 4p 2 +6pq+3p+3q ) RA = −
2L
A B D C
M B = − Pa  3a 
PaL2 L R B = P 1 + 
a b δ max+ = @x=  2L 
where: p = ; q= 27 ( EI ) 3
L L
w 2 wL4  5 3p 2 
MA = −
8
( L − 2a 2 ) δC = ( 8p 3 +6p 2 − 1) ( p+q ) − 2p 4 
48 ( EI )   R A = wL  − 
A B D 8 4 
wa 2 wL4
L a b MB = − δx =  2n 4 + ( 6p 2 − 5 ) n 3 − ( 6p 2 − 3 ) n 2   3p 2 3
2 48 ( EI )   R B = wL 
4
+p+ 
8
 
x
where: n = δ max+ @ x = 15 − 18p 2 − 324p 4 − 156p 2 +33 
L  
wa 2 wL4 3wa 2
MA = δC =  p 2 ( 8p+6 ) q+6p 3 ( p+1)  RA = −
A B D C 4 48 ( EI )  4L
wa 2 wL4 p 2  3a 
L a b MB = − δ max- = − R B = wa  1 + 
2 54 ( EI )  4L 
wa 2 wa 2
MA = RA = −
A B C 12 4L
wa 2 wa  a 
L a MB = − RB = 1 + 
6 2  2L 
M M M   4b   3Pa
MA = δC =  L ( a+b ) +a 2  2+   RA = −
A B D C
2 4 ( EI )   a  2L
MB = − M  3a 
ML2 L R B = P 1 + 
L a b δ max- = - @x=
27 ( EI ) 3  2L 
DESIGN AIDES 67
Continuous beam formulas
Case Moment / Deflection Reactions
6PL 5PL 5P 11P
M max = M B = - ; MP = @ load RA = RC = ; RB =
A B C 32 32 16 8
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
L L
PL 2PL 2P 8P
M max = M B = - ; M P1 = @ first load RA = RC = ; RB =
A B C 3 9 3 3
L/3 L/3 L/3 L/3 L/3 L/3
3PL 13PL 13P 11P 3P

MB = − M max = @ load RA = ; RB = ; RC = −
A B C 32 64 32 16 32
L/2 L/2
L L 0.96PL3
δ max- = − @ x = 0.48L
64 ( EI )
Pab Pb
MB = − ( L+a ) RA =  4L2 − a ( L+a ) 
A B C 4L2 4L3 
a b
Pab Pa Pab
M max =  4L2 − a ( L+a )  RB =  2L2 +b ( L+a )  ; R C = − 3 ( L+a )
4L2  2L3  4L
wL2 9wL2
M max = M B = − ; M max+ =
A B C
8 128 3wL 5wL
RA = RC = ; RB =
L L
wL4 8 4
δ max = 0.00541 @ x = 0.4215L
( EI )
wL2 49wL2 7L 7wL 5wL wL
MB = − ; M max+ = @x= RA = ; RB = ; RC = −
A B C
16 512 16 16 8 16
More continuous beam formulas

Three equal spans Four equal spans
68 DESIGN AIDES
G.5 Arc formulas

Circular arc formulas
Diagram Distance Expression
Ratio, N R L R2 R+ R 2 – L2
– 0.25 – 0.25
2Q 2Q C2 2L
Included angle, θ L V R 2 – L2 L
B sin θ = cos θ = 1 – cos θ = tan θ =
R 2R R R – L2
2
Arc length, S R × θ (radians)

L A
Chord length, C R 2RQ L2 + Q 2
Q
W 2
N + 0.25
Distance at tangent, L RN 2QN

2RQ – Q 2 C2 – Q2
V Y
N + 0.5
θ
2 X Offset from tangent, Q R C2 L R– R 2 – L2 C 2 – L2
2 ( N + 0.25 )
2
2R 2N
C
Radius, R C N + 0.5 C
2
L2 + Q
2
L N 2 + 0.25 C2 V
+
2Q ( N + 0.5 ) 2Q 2Q N 8V 2
R R
θ Versine or middle R – CN
1  N  R C2
ordinate, V R– 4R 2 – C2 R  1 –  for >5: V ≈
2 2 C 8R
 N + 0.25 
External distance,  N 2 + 0.25  R

R – 1 for >5: W ≈ V
W   C
 N 
A QC
Approximate formulas for R > 5·x’: L
R > 5·x'
R B R C
2
Q
2
R
α L+ for >5: A ≈ 4V
y' N L L C
Ordinate at any point, Y V–R+ R 2 – X2
x'2 x'
y' ≈ α≈
2R R
DESIGN AIDES 69
G.6 Cable structures
Properties of cable materials SCI Steel detailers manual Table 5.1
Material Young’s modulus, E Ultimate tensile strength, Fu
2 2
[N/mm ] [N/mm ]
Solid steel 210 000 400 - 2000
Strand 150 000 2000
Wire rope 112 000 2000
Polyester fibres 7 500 910
Aramid fibres 112 000 2800
Elementary cable mathematics SCI Steel detailers manual 5.3.2.1

Mode Values Notes
Circular arc T = PR Tension [kN]
loaded radially S2 d
R = +
8d 2 Radius of cable [m]
Catenary WS 2
loaded H =
8d
vertically
WS
V =
2
T = H 2 +V 2
Prestressed Solve “T“ by iteration:

cable* T − T0 2T  SW 
= sin −1  −1
EA SW  2T 
 S 
L = 2 R sin −1  
 2R 
(L− S)
ε=
S
T = T0 + ε AE
R= T W
Solve “d” by iteration:
4d 2 − 8 Rd + S 2 = 0
Note: *The straight cable (or flat fabric) is a special problem. To be straight, the cable must have an initial or
prestress tension and theoretically zero weight. In order to carry load the cable must stretch and sag to a radius R.
DESIGN AIDES 71

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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S

Structural Engineer/Façade Specialist – Structures & Facades, Switzerland │2014 –

I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 26

I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 31

I-4 STEEL DESIGN 33

I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 41

I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN 51

I-7 TIMBER DESIGN 53

I-8 GLASS DESIGN 59

I-9 STONE DESIGN 75

I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING 77

I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 86

I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS 105

• Actions during execution – EN 1991-1-6, Table 4.1

Fall Arrest – Protection against fall from a height

Class B - Transportable temporary anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.2]

Class C - Horizontal flexible anchor line 6 kN [5.3.4.1] 100 kg mass at a

Class E - Dead weight anchors

Temporary Edge Protection

Static loads: - Maximum lateral deflection of 55mm under All

Sample of temporary edge protections Class A

Class B & C Class C

Alpine Region ( 0.642 Z + 0.009 )  1 + ( A 728 ) 

( 0.264 Z + 0.002 )  1 + ( A 256 ) 

Roof α Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] Fig. 5.2

Canopy b1 Width of canopy projection 5.3.6

1.4.3 Seasonal factor, cseason

1.4.4 Probability factor, cprob

Return periods for climatic actions EN 1991-1-6:2005, 4.7 Table 3.1

ρ = 1.25 kg/m3 Air density

Figure 1.4-1 Exposure factor, ce(z) EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. 4.2

Figure 1.4-2 EU Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]

Wind load calculation for UK UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005

Iv(z)flat Turbulence intensity for flat terrain, [-] Fig. NA.5

Figure 1.4-4 Exposure factor, ce(z) UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.7

1.4.7 Wind load on cladding elements

External e = min{b; 2h} Scaling length, [m] Fig. 7.5

1.4.8 Pressure on walls with more than one skin

Wind load on signboards EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4.3

Reduction factor for square sections

Circular cf,0 = 1.0

max, wparapet min, wparapet a

min, wcw max, wcw L

CO100: D CO200: 1.35D Dead incl. member self-weight all

CO101: D + W p CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p Dead + wind pressure all

Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing EN 1990:2005 6.5.3

CO100: D CO200: 1.35D Dead incl. member self-weight all

CO103: D + W s CO203: D + 1.5W s Dead + wind uplift all

CO104: D + L CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L Dead + imposed H

CO301: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load

CO311: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load

CO313: D + W p + Hw Dead + wind pressure + winter climate

CO314: D + W s + Hw Dead + wind suction + winter climate

CO315: D + L + Hw Dead + imposed + winter climate

CO316: D + W p + Hs Dead + wind pressure + summer climate

CO317: D + W s + Hs Dead + wind suction + summer climate

I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS

Steel and Concrete design EN 1993:2005 & EN 1992:2004

Timber design EN 1995-1-1:2004

2.2 Structure tolerance

Vertical section Position in vertical ∆ = ± 20 G.10.3.b

Offset between floors Deviation between ∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 30;15} ≤ 30 10.4.b

Curvature between adjacent Curvature of a column or ∆ = max {h 300;15} ≤ 30 10.4.c

Position on plan of a column Position in plane of a ∆ = ± 25 G.10.4.a

Position on plan of a wall Position in plane of a wall ∆ = ± 25 G.10.4.b

Distance apart Free space between ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 60 G.10.4.c

Bearing Position of bearing axis ∆ = ± max {l 20;15} 10.5.b

Structural Engineer's Facade Notes

Structural Engineer's Facade Notes