Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FETAL AND NEONATAL PHYSIOLOGY Lectured by: Mitzi Trinidad Aseron, MD, DPPS
Transcribed by: Alexander Josef Dumlao and Rene Kevin Plan
GROWTH
OF
THE
FETUS
• However,
cellular
development
in
each
organ
is
usually
far
from
complete
and
requires
the
full
remaining
5
months
of
pregnancy
for
complete
development.
• Even
at
birth,
certain
structures,
particularly
in
the
nervous
system,
the
kidneys,
and
the
liver,
lack
full
development.
I. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
II.
FORMATION
OF
BLOOD
CELLS
(HEMATOPOIESIS)
o Yolk sac
At
20
weeks
AOG,
weight
is
less
than
500
g
(460
g)
2.
Hepatic
(starts
at
6th
–
8th
week
AOG;
yolk
sac’s
role
ceases
around
10-‐12
weeks
AOG)
Age
of
viability
is
20
weeks
o Liver
(remains
predominant
until
24
weeks
AOG)
37
weeks
AOG:
3,000
grams
for
Filipinos/3KG
3.
Myeloid
37
weeks
AOG:
49-‐50
cm
in
length
o Bone
marrow
(principal
source
of
RBCs,
even
DEVELOPMENT
OF
THE
ORGAN
SYSTEMS
WBCs)
• Within
1
month
after
fertilization
of
the
ovum,
the
III.
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
gross
characteristics
of
all
the
different
organs
of
the
fetus
have
already
begun
to
develop,
and
during
the
• Respiration
cannot
occur
during
fetal
life
because
there
is
next
2
to
3
months,
most
of
the
details
of
the
no
air
to
breathe
in
the
amniotic
cavity.
different
organs
are
established.
• However,
attempted
respiratory
movements
do
take
• Beyond
month
4,
the
organs
of
the
fetus
are
grossly
place
beginning
at
the
end
of
the
first
trimester
of
the
same
as
those
of
the
neonate.
pregnancy.
Tactile
stimuli
and
fetal
asphyxia
especially
cause
these
attempted
respiratory
movements.
• During
the
last
3
to4
months
of
pregnancy,
the
respiratory
movements
of
the
fetus
are
mainly
inhibited,
for
reasons
unknown,
and
the
lungs
remain
almost
completely
deflated
Page 1 of 7
• The
inhibition
of
respiration
during
the
later
months
of
• Abnormal
kidney
development
(e.g.
renal
anomalies,
fetal
life
prevents
filling
of
the
lungs
with
fluid
and
debris
bladder
outlet
obstruction)
or
severe
impairment
of
from
the
meconium
excreted
by
the
fetus’s
kidney
function
in
the
fetus
greatly
reduce
the
gastrointestinal
tract
into
the
amniotic
fluid.
formation
of
amniotic
fluid
(oligohydramnios)
and
• Also,
small
amounts
of
fluid
are
secreted
into
the
can
lead
to
fetal
death.
lungs
by
the
alveolar
epithelium
up
until
the
• Although
the
fetal
kidneys
form
urine,the
renal
moment
of
birth,
thus
keeping
only
clean
fluid
in
the
control
systems
for
regulating
fetal
extracellular
fluid
lungs.
volume
and
electrolyte
balances,
and
especially
acid-‐
base
balance,
are
almost
nonexistent
until
late
fetal
IV.
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
life
and
do
not
reach
full
development
until
a
few
months
after
birth.
• Most
of
the
reflexes
of
the
fetus
that
involve
the
• Fluids
and
electrolytes
regulation,
acid-‐base
balance
spinal
cord
and
even
the
brain
stem
are
present
by
are
handled
by
the
placenta
(powerful
organ)
the
third
to
fourth
months
of
pregnancy.
• Upon
birth,
renal
function
(glomerular
filtration,
• Spontaneous
movements
tubular
mass,
renal
plasma
flow)
will
approximate
o Squinting,
mouth
opens,
finger
closure,
adult’s
by
2nd
year
of
life.
plantar
flexion
of
toes
(10th
week)
o Swallowing,
respiration
(16th
week
VII.
FETAL
METABOLISM
gestation)
• The
fetus
uses
mainly
glucose
for
energy,
and
it
has
o Eyes
are
sensitive
to
light
(28th
week
of
a
high
capability
to
store
fat
and
protein,
much
if
gestation)
-‐
Blurry
vision
not
most
of
the
fat
being
synthesized
from
glucose
o Sensitive
to
sound
(24th
week
of
gestation)
rather
than
being
absorbed
directly
from
the
• Cerebral
cortex
does
not
participate
in
CNS
functions
mother’s
blood.
o Myelinization
complete
after
1
year
of
post
natal
life
(grossly,
brain
is
complete
and
it
• In
addition
to
these
generalities,
there
are
special
must
be
supplied
by
AHA
and
DHA
in
the
problems
of
fetal
metabolism
in
relation
to
calcium,
milk)
phosphate,
iron,
and
some
vitamins.
V.
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
• The
fetal
kidneys
begin
to
excrete
urine
during
the
*Iron
accumulates
in
the
fetus
even
more
rapidly
second
trimester
pregnancy
(12-‐16
weeks
than
calcium
and
phosphate.
Most
of
the
iron
is
in
AOG).
Fetal
urine
accounts
for
about
70
to
80
per
the
form
of
hemoglobin,
which
begins
to
be
formed
cent
of
the
amniotic
fluid.
as
early
as
the
third
week
after
fertilization
of
the
• Urine
production:
10
ml/hr
at
30
weeks
then
28
ovum.
*Small
amounts
of
iron
are
concentrated
in
ml/hr
at
40th
week
of
gestation
the
mother’s
uterine
progestational
endometrium
Page 2 of 7
even
before
implantation
of
the
ovum;
this
iron
is
depressed
respiratory
center)
ingested
into
the
embryo
by
the
trophoblastic
cells
o Causes
of
Prolonged
fetal
hypoxia
and
is
used
to
form
the
very
early
red
blood
cells.
Ø Compression
of
umbilical
cord
About
one
third
of
the
iron
in
a
fully
developed
fetus
Premature
separation
of
placenta
is
normally
stored
in
the
liver.
This
iron
can
then
be
(abruption
placenta)
used
for
several
months
after
birth
by
the
neonate
Ø Excessive
contraction
of
uterus
for
formation
of
additional
hemoglobin.
(uterine
tetany)
Ø Excessive
anesthesia
of
mother
VIII.
Utilization
and
Storage
of
Vitamins
• Degree
of
Hypoxia
that
an
Infant
Can
Tolerate
o Permanent
and
serious
brain
impairment
• The
fetus
needs
vitamins
equally
as
much
as
the
ensues
if
breathing
is
delayed
more
than
8
adult
and
in
some
instances
to
a
far
greater
extent.
to
10
minutes
(GUYTON,
but
in
general
VITAMINS
FUNCTIONS
practice
–
5
minutes)
o Hypoxic
ischemic
encephalopathy
VIT.
B12
and
Folic
acid
RBC
and
CNS
• Expansion
of
the
Lungs
at
Birth
o Lungs
are
collapsed
(because
of
the
surface
VIT.
C
Bone
matrix
and
fibers
of
tension
of
the
viscid
fluid
that
fills
them)
connective
tissue
o More
than
25
mm
Hg
of
negative
inspiratory
pressure
in
the
lungs
is
usually
VIT.
D
Bone
growth
required
to
open
the
alveoli
for
the
first
Absorption
of
Calcium
by
time.
the
mother
o But
once
the
alveoli
do
open,
further
respiration
can
be
effected
with
relatively
VIT.
E
Normal
Development
weak
respiratory
movements.
(absence
can
lead
to
o Fortunately,
the
first
inspirations
of
the
spontaneous
abortion)
normal
neonate
are
extremely
powerful,
usually
capable
of
creating
as
much
as
60
VIT.
K
Formation
of
Factor
VII,
mm
Hg
negative
pressure
in
the
PT
and
coagulation
intrapleural
space.
factors
• “First
breath”
(deficiency
can
lead
to
o compliance
curve
haemorrhage)
• Most
vitamin
K
is
formed
by
bacterial
action
in
the
mother’s
colon,
the
neonate
has
no
adequate
source
of
vitamin
K
for
the
first
week
or
so
of
life
after
birth
until
normal
colonic
bacterial
flora
become
established
in
the
newborn
infant.
ADJUSTMENTS
OF
THE
INFANT
TO
EXTRAUTERINE
LIFE
FIRST
BREATH
A.
ONSET
OF
BREATHING
–
THE
•
After
normal
delivery
from
a
mother
who
has
not
been
depressed
by
anesthetics,
the
child
ordinarily
begins
to
breathe
within
seconds
and
has
a
normal
respiratory
rhythm
within
less
than
1
minute
after
birth.
• Stimulation
for
respiration
*Pressure-‐volume
curves
of
the
lungs
(“compliance”
curves)
of
o Changes
in
temperature
a
neonate
immediately
after
birth,
showing
the
extreme
o Decline
in
PaO2
forces
required
for
breathing
during
the
first
two
breaths
of
o Rise
in
PCO2
life
and
development
of
a
nearly
normal
compliance
curve
• Delayed
or
Abnormal
Breathing
at
Birth
–
Danger
of
within
40
minutes
after
birth.
Hypoxia
o Intracranial
hemorrhage
(causes
a
• Respiratory
Distress
Syndrome
Caused
When
concussion
syndrome
with
a
greatly
Surfactant
Secretion
Is
Deficient
Page 3 of 7
o A
small
number
of
infants,
especially
operate
much
differently
from
that
of
the
newborn
premature
infants
and
infants
born
of
baby.
diabetic
mothers.
Develop
severe
o Ductus
venosus
respiratory
distress
in
the
early
hours
to
the
o Foramen
ovale
first
several
days
after
birth,
and
some
die
o Ductus
arteriosus
within
the
next
day
or
so.
*
What’s
with
diabetic
mothers
that
Placenta
decrease
the
surfactant?
↓
-‐
The
mother
has
hyperglycemia
that
oxygenated
blood
is
carried
by
the
umbilical
vein
eventually
delivers
the
glucose
to
the
baby.
↓
Then
this
baby
has
high
glucose
inside
but
Ductus
venosus
(bypassing
the
Liver)
the
baby
is
not
diabetic.
So
the
baby’s
Inferior
vena
cava
insulin
will
adapt
to
get
the
glucose
inside
↓
the
cell,
so
eventually
the
baby
will
develop
right
atrium
hyperinsulinemia.
That
insulin
decreases
↓
the
surfactant
synthesis
by
your
cortisol.
Most
blood
is
shunted
to
Foramen
ovale
↓
o The
alveoli
of
these
infants
at
death
contain
left
atrium
large
quantities
of
proteinaceous
fluid,
↓
almost
as
if
pure
plasma
had
leaked
out
of
mitral
valve
the
capillaries
into
the
alveoli.
↓
o The
fluid
also
contains
desquamated
left
ventricle
alveolar
epithelial
cells.
↓
o This
condition
is
called
HYALINE
Aorta
MEMBRANE
DISEASE
because
microscopic
↓
slides
of
the
lung
show
the
material
filling
Upper
part
of
the
fetus
the
alveoli
to
look
like
a
hyaline
membrane.
Superior
vena
cava
o One
of
the
most
characteristic
findings
in
↓
respiratory
distress
syndrome
is
failure
of
Right
atrium
the
respiratory
epithelium
to
secrete
↓
adequate
quantities
of
surfactant.
Tricuspid
valve
o Surfactant
is
a
substance
normally
secreted
↓
into
the
alveoli
that
decreases
the
surface
Right
ventricle
tension
of
the
alveolar
fluid,
therefore
↓
allowing
the
alveoli
to
open
easily
during
Pulmonary
artery
inspiration.
(20-‐25
weeks
of
AOG)
↓
o The
surfactant-‐secreting
cells
(type
II
Ductus
arteriosus
(bypassing
lungs)
alveolar
epithelial
cells
or
pneumocytes)
↓
do
not
begin
to
secrete
surfactant
until
the
Descending
aorta
last
1
to
3
months
of
gestation.
↓
o Many
premature
babies
and
a
few
full-‐term
Lower
part
of
fetus
babies
are
born
without
the
capability
to
secrete
sufficient
surfactant,
which
causes
both
a
collapse
tendency
of
the
alveoli
and
development
of
pulmonary
edema.
B.
CIRCULATORY
READJUSTMENTS
AT
BIRTH
• Because
the
lungs
are
mainly
nonfunctional
during
fetal
life
and
because
the
liver
is
only
partially
functional,
it
is
not
necessary
for
the
fetal
heart
to
pump
much
blood
through
either
the
lungs
or
the
liver.
• The
fetal
heart
must
pump
large
quantities
of
blood
through
the
placenta.
Therefore,
special
anatomical
arrangements
cause
the
fetal
circulatory
system
to
Page 4 of 7
sufficient
to
supply
the
infant’s
needs
for
only
a
few
hours.
• The
liver
of
the
neonate
is
still
far
from
functionally
• 55
per
cent
of
all
the
blood
goes
through
the
adequate
at
birth,
which
prevents
significant
placenta,
leaving
only
45
per
cent
to
pass
through
all
gluconeogenesis.
the
tissues
of
the
fetus
• Therefore,
the
infant’s
blood
glucose
concentration
• During
fetal
life,
only
12
per
cent
of
the
blood
flows
frequently
falls
the
first
day
to
as
low
as
30
to
40
mg/dl
through
the
lungs;
immediately
after
birth,
virtually
of
plasma,
less
than
one
half
the
normal
value.
all
the
blood
flows
through
the
lungs.
• Fortunately,
however,
appropriate
mechanisms
are
available
for
the
infant
to
use
its
stored
fats
and
Changes
in
the
Fetal
Circulation
at
Birth
proteins
for
metabolism
until
mother’s
milk
can
be
Decreased
Pulmonary
and
Increased
Systemic
Vascular
provided
2
to
3
days
later.
Resistance
at
Birth
• Special
problems
are
also
frequently
associated
with
• SVR:
increases
aortic
pressure,
left
ventricular
and
getting
an
adequate
fluid
supply
to
the
neonate
atrial
pressure
because
the
infant’s
rate
of
body
fluid
turnover
• PVR:
Reduces
pulmonary
arterial
pressure,
right
averages
seven
times
that
of
an
adult,
and
the
mother’s
ventricular
pressure
and
right
atrial
pressure
milk
supply
requires
several
days
to
develop.
• Closure
of
the
foramen
ovale
• Ordinarily,
the
infant’s
weight
decreases
5
to
10
per
o Low
right
atrial
pressure
cent
and
sometimes
as
much
as
20
per
cent
within
the
o High
left
atrial
pressure
first
2
to
3
days
of
life.
• Closure
of
ductus
arteriosus
• Most
of
this
weight
loss
is
loss
of
fluid
rather
than
of
o Elevated
aortic
pressure
(SVR)
body
solids.
(“PHYSIOLOGIC
WEIGHT
LOSS”)
o Decreased
pulmonary
arterial
pressure
(PVR)
o Functional
closure
vs.
anatomic
closure
o Failure
to
close:
PATENT
DUCTUS
ARTERIOSUS
SPECIAL
FUNCTIONAL
PROBLEMS
IN
THE
NEONATE
Ø results
from
excessive
ductus
dilation
caused
by
vasodilating
prostaglandins
A.
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
in
the
ductus
wall.
In
fact,
administration
of
the
drug
• Normal
RR:
40
breaths
per
minute
indomethacin,
which
blocks
synthesis
o Tidal
air:
16
ml
of
prostaglandins,
often
leads
to
o total
minute
respiratory
volume:
640
ml/min
closure.
(2x
adult)
• Closure
of
ductus
venosus
• Functional
residual
capacity
o Immediately
after
birth,
blood
flow
through
the
o Only
½
of
adult
in
relation
to
body
weight
umbilical
vein
ceases,
but
most
of
the
portal
blood
o Difference
causes
unstable
ABG
if
RR
becomes
still
flows
through
the
ductus
venosus,
with
only
a
lower.
small
amount
passing
through
the
channels
of
the
liver.
B.
CIRCULATION
o However,
within
1
to
3
hours
the
muscle
wall
of
the
• Blood
Volume:
300-‐375
ml
ductus
venosus
contracts
strongly
and
closes
this
• Cardiac
Output:
500
ml/min
avenue
of
flow.
• Arterial
Pressure:
70/50
mm
Hg
after
birth
(this
o
As
a
consequence,
the
portal
venous
pressure
rises
increases
slowly
during
the
next
several
months
to
from
near
0
to
6
to
10
mm
Hg,
which
is
enough
to
about
90/60)
force
portal
venous
blood
flow
through
the
liver
• Blood
Characteristics
sinuses.
o RBC:
4
M
–
4.75
M
per
cubic
millimeter
o Although
the
ductus
venosus
rarely
fails
to
close,
we
o Average
RBC
count
<
4M
by
6-‐8
weeks
of
age
know
almost
nothing
about
what
causes
the
closure.
(physiologic
anemia)
Ductus
venosus
becomes
the
ligamentum
venosum.
• Physiologic
hyperbilirubineamia
-‐
due
to
inability
of
the
immature
liver
to
conjugate
bilirubin;
associated
C.
NUTRITION
OF
THE
NEONATE
with
jaundice
•
Erythroblastosis
Fetalis
–
most
important
abnormal
• Before
birth,
the
fetus
derives
almost
all
its
energy
from
cause
of
serious
neonatal
jaundice
glucose
obtained
from
the
mother’s
blood.
• After
birth,
the
amount
of
glucose
stored
in
the
infant’s
body
in
the
form
of
liver
and
muscle
glycogen
is
Page 5 of 7
*Fall
in
body
temperature
of
the
neonate
immediately
after
birth,
and
instability
of
body
temperature
during
the
first
few
days
of
life.
• Nutritional
Needs
During
the
Early
Weeks
of
Life
*Changes
in
the
red
blood
cell
count
and
in
serum
bilirubin
o Need
for
Calcium
and
Vitamin
D
concentration
during
the
first
16
weeks
of
life,
showing
o Necessity
for
Iron
in
the
diet
physiologic
anemia
at
6
to
12
weeks
of
life
and
physiologic
o Vitamin
C
deficiency
in
Infants
(Ascorbic
acid
hyperbilirubinemia
during
the
first
2
weeks
of
life.
(vitamin
C)
is
not
stored
in
significant
quantities
in
the
fetal
tissues;
yet
it
is
required
for
proper
formation
of
cartilage,
bone,
and
other
intercellular
structures
of
the
infant.)
FLUID
BALANCE,
ACID-‐BASE
BALANCE
AND
RENAL
F.
IMMUNITY
FUNCTION
• Inherits
antibodies
from
the
mother
(gammaglobulins)
• The
rate
of
metabolism
in
the
infant
is
also
twice
as
o Decrease
in
1
month
great
in
relation
to
body
mass
as
in
the
adult,
which
means
that
twice
as
much
acid
is
normally
formed,
o Returns
to
normal
by
age
12
to
20
months
which
gives
a
tendency
toward
acidosis
in
the
infant.
o Antibodies
from
the
mother
protect
the
infant
for
• Dehydration
about
6
months
against
major
infectious
diseases
(e.g.
measles,
diphtheria,
polio)
• Overhydration
(rarely)
• Allergy
D.
LIVER
FUNCTION
o Eczema,
GI
abnormaliites,
anaphylaxis
• Poor
conjugation
of
bilirubin
G.
ENDOCRINE
PROBLEMS
• Deficient
in
plasma
protein
formation
(infant
may
• Hermaphroditism
(mother
treated
with
androgenic
develop
hypoproteinemic
edema)
hormone
or
with
androgenic
tumor)
• Deficient
gluconeogenesis
(may
lead
to
physiologic
• Neonates
breasts
form
milk
(hormones
secreted
during
hypoglycemia)
pregnancy)
à
witch
milk
• Little
blood
factors
formation
(prone
to
bleeding)
• Hypertrophy
and
hyperfunction
of
the
islets
of
Langerhans
(infant
of
an
untreated
diabetic
mother)
E.
DIGESTION,
ABSORPTION,
A
ND
METABOLISM
OF
ENERGY
o Blood
glucose
may
drop
to
20
mg/dl
shortly
after
FOODS;
AND
NUTRITION
birth
(pathologic
hypoglycemia)
• Ability
to
digest,
absorb
and
metabolize
foods
is
no
• Hypofunctional
adrenal
cortices
different
from
that
of
older
child
with
the
following
• Neonates
with
hyperthyroid
mothers
(infant
is
likely
exceptions:
to
be
born
with
a
temporarily
hyposecreting
thyroid
o Pancreatic
amylase
secretion
is
deficient
gland)
(neonate
uses
starches
less
adequately
than
do
older
children)
• Fetus
lacking
thyroid
hormones
o Less
absorption
of
fats
o Cretin
dwarfism
(bones
grow
poorly
and
MR)
o Unstable
and
low
glucose
concentration
SPECIAL
PROBLEMS
OF
PREMATURITY
• Increased
Metabolic
Rate
and
Poor
Body
Temperature
Regulation
A.
IMMATURE
DEVELOPMENT
O
F
THE
PREMATURE
INFANT
• Respiration
o Vital
capacity
and
Functional
Residual
Capacity
are
small
o Surfactant
secretion
is
depressed
or
absent
Ø Respiratory
Distress
Syndrome
Ø Cheyne
Stokes
Breathing
(periodic
breathing)
• Gastrointestinal
Function
Page 6 of 7
o Poor
fat
absorption
o Difficulty
in
Calcium
absorption
–
rickets
*Note
especially
that
these
parallel
each
other
almost
exactly
• Function
of
Other
Organs
until
the
end
of
the
first
decade
of
life.
Between
the
ages
of
11
o Immaturity
of
Liver
–
poor
coagulation
factors
and
13
years,
the
female
estrogens
begin
to
be
formed
and
o Immaturity
of
Kidneys
–
predisposing
to
acidosis
and
cause
rapid
growth
in
height
but
early
uniting
of
the
fluid
balance
abnormalities
epiphyses
of
the
long
bones
at
about
the
14th
to
16th
year
of
o Immaturity
of
blood
forming
mechanism
of
bone
life,
so
that
growth
in
height
then
ceases.
This
contrasts
with
marrow
–
rapid
development
of
anemia
the
effect
of
testosterone
in
the
male,
which
causes
extra
o Depressed
formation
of
gamma
globulin
–
serious
growth
at
a
slightly
later
age—mainly
between
ages
13
and
infection
17
years.
The
male,
however,
undergoes
much
more
prolonged
growth
because
of
much
delayed
uniting
of
the
B.
INSTABILITY
OF
THE
HOMEOSTATIC
CONTROL
SYSTEMS
IN
epiphyses,
so
that
his
final
height
is
considerably
greater
than
THE
PREMATURE
INFANT
that
of
the
female.
• Acid-‐base
balance
• Hypoproteinemic
edema
BEHAVIORAL
GROWTH
• Hypocalcemic
tetany
• principally
a
problem
of
maturity
of
the
nervous
system
• Instability
of
Body
Temperature
(hypothermia)
C.
DANGER
OF
BLINDNESS
CAUSED
BY
EXCESS
OXYGEN
THERAPY
IN
THE
PREMATURE
INFANT
• Retrolental
fibroplasia
(retinopathy
of
prematurity)
*Because
premature
infants
frequently
develop
respiratory
distress,
oxygen
therapy
has
often
been
used
in
treating
prematurity.
However,
it
has
been
discovered
that
use
of
excess
oxygen
in
treating
premature
infants,
especially
in
early
prematurity,
can
lead
to
blindness.
The
reason
is
that
too
much
oxygen
stops
the
growth
of
new
blood
vessels
in
the
retina.
Then
when
oxygen
therapy
is
stopped,
the
blood
vessels
try
to
make
up
for
lost
time
and
burst
forth
with
a
great
mass
of
vessels
growing
all
through
the
vitreous
humor,
blocking
light
from
the
pupil
to
the
retina.
And
still
later,
the
vessels
are
replaced
with
a
mass
of
fibrous
tissue
where
the
eye’s
clear
vitreous
humor
should
be.
END
OF
TRANSCRIPTION
References:
• Powerpoint
presentation
(direct
transfer)
• Lecture
Notes
and
recording
• Past
trans
of
batch
2016
(@itsmebob8)
“I
guess
that’s
just
part
of
loving
people:
You
have
to
give
things
up.
Sometimes
you
even
have
to
give
them
up.”
-‐Lauren
Oliver,
Delirium
(via
feellng)
Page 7 of 7