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No of sto-
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reys
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Division of
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diameter into Terrace if any (alindra)
the height of the gopuram walls (ghana) (aghana)
parts
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ries angular pillars) Breadth to Height
estal)
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CHAPTER 1 anti-Brahmanical thought, came to be considered the philosophi-

cal portion of the Vedas. Both the Vedas and Upanisads, in spite
1 Sharma, Arvind and Villiers, John. “Hinduism.” In Grove Art of their apparent contradictions, were melded into part of the tex-
Online. Oxford Art Online,http://www.oxfordartonline.com. tual basis of the Hindu religion. In addition, the Upanisads were
proxy.library.nd.edu/subscriber/article/grove/art/T038197 (ac- the fountainhead for the non-Vedic, that is, heterodox, thinking of
cessed July 22, 2012). other Indic religions, including Buddhism and Jainism.” - Susan
L. Huntington The Art of Ancient India, New York (Weatherhill,
2 Metcalf, Barbara Daly, and Thomas R. Metcalf. 2002. A concise 1985): pp. 28-29
history of India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
11 Mahabharata - Literally translated as the great tale of the
36KDUPD$UYLQG2QKLQGXKLQGXVWƗQKLQGXLVPDQGKLQ- Bharata, is a story composed of Sanskrit epic poem that relates the
dutva. Numen 49 (1): pp. 1-36. preaching’s of Bhagvat Gita through the words of Lord Krishna.

4 Levitt, Stephan Hillyer. “The Dating of the Indian Tradition.” 12 Ramayana – Similar to Mahabharata, Ramayana is a story
Anthropos Institute, Bd. 98, H. 2. (2003), pp. 341-359 composed of Sanskrit epic poem and is the second most popular
preaching after Mahabharata in Hindu mythology. This saga re-
5 Hiltebeitel, Alf. “The Indus Valley ‘Proto-ĝiva’, Reexamined ÀHFWVWKHJRRGTXDOLWLHVH[SHFWHGRXWRIWKHYDULRXVPHPEHUVRI
WKURXJK5HÀHFWLRQVRQWKH*RGGHVVWKH%XIIDORDQGWKH6\PERO- the community and their role in society.
ism of vƗhanas,” Anthropos Institute, Bd. 73, H. 5./6. (1978), pp.
767-797. 13 Just before the start of the Common Era, Vedism, an earlier
form of Hinduism, was scattered and known only to the learned
6 Clark explains that various lab tests on the soot like material seen members of the tribes, who could study and relate to the Vedas. It
RQWKH¿JXULQHVVKRZHGWKDWLWZDVERQHDVKDQGZDVSXUSRVHO\ accommodates a variety of complex folklores and Vedic ideolo-
different than the mineral paint found on other pottery used by the gies in the spectrum of religious understanding. Vedism or Vedic
Harappans. Clark, Sharri R. 2009. Material matters: Representa- Brahmanism – historical form of Hinduism that was based primar-
tion and materiality of the harappan body. Journal of Archaeologi- ily on the mythic stories and ritual ideologies as presented in the
cal Method and Theory 16 (3, The Materiality of Representation) Vedas.
(Sep.): pp. 231-261.
14 It bears repetition that the studies of astronomy and astrology
7 Clark, Sharri R. 2009. Material matters: Representation and ma- were at this time indistinguishable. While the practice of the for-
teriality of the harappan body. Journal of Archaeological Method mer may differ from the latter insofar as its primary concern is
and Theory 16 (3, The Materiality of Representation) (Sep.): pp. REVHUYDWLRQDQGQRWLWVVLJQL¿FDQFHQHLWKHUZDVFRQVLGHUHGVXI-
231-261. ¿FLHQWXQWRLWVHOI7KHDVWURQRPLFDOLQIRUPHGWKHDVWURORJLFDODQG
vice versa.
8 Susan L. Huntington writes extensively about the Indo Aryan
culture and their impact on Indian culture and society. She ex- 15 Vijay Nath, From ‘Brahmanism’ to ‘Hinduism’: Negotiating
plains, “The Indo-Aryan newcomers did not come into the Indic the Myth of the Great Tradition, Social Scientist 2001, pp. 19–50.
lands all at once, nor did they settle in a single place. Although the
contribution of the Indo-ƖU\DQV to the material culture and art of 16 Ibid.
ancient India is unknown, their literature became one of the most
LPSRUWDQW DQG HQGXULQJ LQÀXHQFHV RQ ,QGLF FLYLOL]DWLRQ«7KH\ 17 The poem is called “Johar Mai Baap Johar”. For more on
are credited with the composition and perpetuation of one of the Chokhamela and untouchability, see Dalit Literature: A Critical
PRVWLPSRUWDQWERGLHVRI,QGLFOLWHUDWXUHWKHIRXU9HGD6DPKLWƗV Exploration, edited by Amar Nath Prasad and M. B. Gaijan; Sarup
(collection of knowledge). These poetic hyms in the Sanskrit lan- & Sons, New Delhi, 2007.
guage give linguistic, religious, historical, and sociological infor-
mation about the people who composed them.” - Susan L. Hun- *RKDLQ+LUHQ7KHODE\ULQWKRIEKDNWL2QVRPHTXHV-
tington, The Art of Ancient India, New York (Weatherhill, 1985): tions of medieval Indian history. Economic and Political Weekly
pp. 26-27. 22 (46) (Nov. 14): pp. 1970-1972.

9 For more on this see Singh Upinder, Cults and Shrines in Early 19 Das, Bhagavan. The Cultural Heritage of India, The Ramak-
Historical Mathura (c. 200 BC-AD 200), published in World Ar- rishna Mission Institute Of Culture Calcutta, Vol IV, pp. 166-172.
chaeology, Vol. 36, No. 3, The Archaeology of Hinduism, Taylor
& Francis Ltd., (Sep., 2004), pp. 378-398.  0DQ\ GHEDWH WKH LQÀXHQFH RI ,VODPLF 6X¿¶V RQ WKH %KDNWL
movement in India. The interaction of the lower most caste with
10 Upanishads – “Upanisads, believed to have been composed preachers of other religions could have let to the need of many to
around 800-450 B.C., that it might be suggested that the Upa- understand their own religion better. Sanskrit being the language
QLVDGVFRXOGUHÀHFWWKH¿QDOL]DWLRQRIFRQFHSWVWKDWKDGEHHQH[- RIWKHHGXFDWHGFODVVPDGHLWGLI¿FXOWWRXQGHUVWDQGIRUWKHFRP-
WDQWVLQFH+DUDSSƗWLPHV´SS mon man, thus being a strong reason for support of Bhakti move-
ment that was based on communicating gods words in the com-
“The heartland of Upanisadic throught seems to have been the mon languages of India.
Gangetic Valley, an area which was not dominated by Vedic cul-
ture. Eventually, in later Hinduism, the Upanisads, in spite of their *RKDLQ+LUHQ7KHODE\ULQWKRIEKDNWL2QVRPHTXHV-


tions of medieval Indian history. Economic and Political Weekly CHAPTER 3
22 (46) (Nov. 14): pp. 1970-1972.
1 Recent additions to these texts have been made by Dr. V. Ga-
22 This experience of energy with time and space was experienced napati Sthapati. Read, Ganapathi, V. 2001. Building architecture
by Alan Croker at the Sri Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram, in of SthƗpatya Veda. Chennai: Published by Dakshinaa Pub. House.
the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Croker, Alan. Fabrications, Also read, Sthapati, V. Ganapati. 2003. Quintessence of SthƗpatya
1993, pp. 108 to 123. Veda: the science and technology of traditional building architec-
ture: fundamental concepts. Chennai: Dakshinaa Pub. House and
23 See G. B. Milner, ed., Natural Symbols in South East Asia Ganapati, V. 2005. Sthapatya Veda: The Science and Technology
(London, 1978). RI 9DDVWX 6KDVWUD  UHGH¿QHG UHLQWHUSUHWHG DQG ,WV 5HOHYDQFH
DQG $OOWLPH 8QLYHUVDO $SSOLFDELOLW\ UHHVWDEOLVKHG $UFKHW\SDO
24 Sikhara is a term used to describe the cone shape towards the Building Forms Illustrated and Punctuated with Apt Quotations.
tip of a mountain. This term is also used to describe the spire shape New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publ.
rising on top of a temple form and is consistently used so in this
book. 2 The basic study of the Sthapatya Veda or the study and science of
architecture also deals with science of Vastu-vidya. Vastu-vidya,
25 Mabbett, I. W. 1983. The symbolism of mount meru. History of also known as Vastu-sastra embodies the basic principles of design
Religions 23 (1) (Aug.): pp. 64-83. XVHGVLQFHDQFLHQWWLPHVWRRUJDQL]HDV\VWHPDWLFPHWKRGIRUVLWH
orientation, planning, and the proportional design of a building.
CHAPTER 2 Vastu means “dwelling place,” vidya means “knowledge,” and
sastra means “science.”
1 For more on this see Singh Upinder, Cults and Shrines in Early
Historical Mathura (c. 200 BC-AD 200), published in World Ar- 3 Stella Kramrisch, in her book The Hindu Temple, Volume 1
chaeology, Vol. 36, No. 3, The Archaeology of Hinduism, Taylor explains the meaning of Vastu-sastra as, “The science of architec-
& Francis Ltd., (Sep., 2004), pp. 378-398. ture, called as a rule, Vastu-sastra, is also named Sthapatya (from
Sthapati or architect)-sastra-veda. It is the knowledge of ordered
2 For more on this, see Ghosh, A. (ed.) 1989. An Encyclopaedia of and planned extension (vastu) and is put into practice by the mas-
Indian Archaeology, Vol. 1. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, ter who makes existing things (vastu) abide in order.” Read book,
pp. 277. Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier, The Hindu temple, Vol-
ume 1, (Motilal Banarsidass Publication 1976), pp. 11.
3 Numerous episodes in Hindu mythology attest to the making
of spontaneous shrines. In the south-Indian epic Kirata Arjuniya, 4 There are passing references to building and town planning
when Shiva disguises himself as a tribal and tests Arjuna. in various ancient texts. The oldest known reference comes in
$UWKDĞƗVWUDZKHUHEULHIGHVFULSWLRQRQDUP\VHWWOHPHQWVDQGSODQ
ĞƗVWUDZKHUHEULHIGHVFULSWLRQRQDUP\VHWWOHPHQWVDQGSODQ
stra, where brief description on army settlements and plan-
4 The word devasthana derives from two Sanskrit words: deva ning is made. Dated between 4th Century BCE and 4th Century CE.
(God) and sthana (place) and is used here to communicate the idea Look at I. W. Mabbett, The Date of the ArthaĞƗstra, Journal of
of the shrine under the tree. There are several regional linguistic WKH$PHULFDQ2ULHQWDO6RFLHW\Vol. 84, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1964),
variations of this word across the Indian geography. pp. 162-169 and also Trautmann, Thomas R. 1971. .DX‫ܒ‬LO\DDQG
the ArthaĞƗVWUDDVWDWLVWLFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKHDXWKRUVKLSDQG
5 See Huyler Stephen P., Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devo- HYROXWLRQRIWKHWH[W. Leiden: Brill.
tion, pg 105-106, Yale University Press, 1999.
5 Scholars like Michael Meister, has done a series of studies that
6 Ibid. present the co-relation between the plans of temples and the man-
dala form. Look at, Meister, Michael W., Madhusudan A. Dhaky,
7 Ibid. and Krishna Deva. 1983. Encyclopaedia of Indian temple archi-
tecture. New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies. Also see
8 Pradakshina or Parikrama meaning circumambulation, is a con- are the article by the same author in, Williams, Joanna Gottfried.
sistent Hindu ritual of worship where devotees walk around the 1981. KalƗdarĞana = KalƗdarĞana : American studies in the art of
garbha-griha (sanctum sanctorum) clockwise in odd number of India. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH in collaboration with American
times, in a symbolic union with the Divine. In the Encyclopedia of Institute of Indian Studies, pp. 77 to 90.
Religion, Diana Eck lists several meanings of circumambulation.
Among them are: honoring, centering, bonding, setting apart, and 6 Read, Kramrisch, Stella. 1958. Traditions of the indian crafts-
UHDI¿UPDWLRQRIWKHVDFUHGWHUULWRULDOFODLP$GGLWLRQDOO\FLUFXP- man. The Journal of American Folklore 71 (281, Traditional India:
DPEXODWLRQPD\V\PEROL]HWKHÀXLGLW\RIPHDQLQJFKDUDFWHULVWLF Structure and Change) (Jul. - Sep.), pp. 224-230.
RI+LQGXWKRXJKWVXFKDVFRPSOHWHQHVV\HWFRQWLQXLW\IXO¿OOPHQW
\HWTXHVWFRQWHQWPHQW\HWSXUVXLWFRPSUHKHQVLRQ\HWP\VWHU\ )URPWKHZD\VLGHVKULQHWRWKHPDWHULDOL]DWLRQRIDIXOO\DUWLFX-
lated temple complex, the Hindu temple largely derives its philo-
9 Campal is an intermediate area within the city of Panaji in Goa; sophical, architectural, religious and cultural existence from the
and the shrine is dedicated to the Lord Ganesh, hence its name ancient Vedic texts.
Campal Ganesh. Information about the law suit against the mu-
nicipality was complied by me through talks with locals in No- 8 M. V. Janardana, Reference to Vastu in the Scriptures, Vastu,
vember 2005. $VWURORJ\ DQG$UFKLWHFWXUH 3DSHUV SUHVHQWHG DW WKH ¿UVW$OO ,Q-
dia Symposium on Vastu, Bangalore, held on June 3-4, 1995, Ed.
10 See Hoskote Ranjit, “Look Out! Darshana Ahead” in The Hin- Gayatri Devi Vasudev, (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
GX0DJD]LQHVHFWLRQ6XQGD\-DQ Limited, Delhi 1998), pp. 181.
11 Based on author’s interview with the wandering hermit named %ORRP¿HOG0DXULFH+\PQVRIWKH$WKDUYD9HGDWRJHWKHU
Mastanji, in July 2007. ZLWKH[WUDFWVIURPWKHULWXDOERRNVDQGWKHFRPPHQWDULHV. Oxford:
&ODUHQGRQ3UHVV$OVRUHDG*ULI¿WK5DOSK7+The hymns
RI WKH $WKDUYDYHGD %HQDUHV (- /D]DUXV $QG 5RWK 5XGROI
von, and William Dwight Whitney. 1856. >$WKDUYDYHGDVDۨKLWƗ]


 $WKDUYD9HGD6DQKLWD. Berlin: Ferd. Dümmler. 'DJHQV%UXQR0/%DUD]HU%LOORUHWDQG9LQFHQW/HIqYUH
2005. Temple Architecture in India at the beginning of the 6th
10 Silpa-sastra – Simply means Silpa (artist or architect) and sas- century according to VarƗhamihira’s BrhatsamhitƗ Le temple
tra (knowledge or science), and can be translated as the science et les traits,7UDLWpVWHPSOHVHWLPDJHVGXPRQGHLQGLHQpWXGHV
of architects or artists. Govinda Krishna Pillai in his book, The d’histoire et d’archéologie. [Pondichéry]: Institut Français de
Hindu Architecture (Silpa-sastra), refers to the term Silpa-sastra, Pondichéry: pp. 81-96.
as, “The chief sources of information (from ancient times) are the
Silpa-sastra, Puranas and Agamas. The Silpa-sastra are treatises 21 %‫܀‬KDWVDۨKLWƗ by VarƗhamihirƗcƗrya with the commentary
on Architecture and Sculpture; the Puranas and Agamas contain RI %KD৬৬RWSDOD DQG 9DUDK 9LKƗrƯ Tripathi. 1968. %‫܀‬KDWVDۨKLWƗ.
ancient practice, both religious and secular. The Silpa-sastra must VƗrƗ৆asyƗm: SampnjU৆DQDQG6DূVN৚WD9LĞvavidyƗlayƗh.
originally have been written by the Silipis or the Architects.” Pg1.
22 VarƗhamihira, and Hendrik Kern. 1864. 7KH%‫܀‬KDW6DxKLWi 
11 Each Agama consists of four partsof which the third part speci- %‫܀‬KDWVDۨKLWD. Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica: a Collection of Orien-
¿HV UXOHV IRU WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WHPSOHV DQG IRU VFXOSWLQJ DQG tal Works, pp. 48.
FDUYLQJWKH¿JXUHVRIGHLWLHVIRUZRUVKLSLQWKHWHPSOHV%HVLGHV
Hindu texts, early Jain and Buddhist scriptures are also called 23 VarƗhamihira, and M. Ramakrishna Bhat. 1981. %UKDWVDۨKLWƗ
Agama texts. = VarƗKDPLKLUD¾V%‫܀‬KDWVD‫ۦ‬KLWƗ. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

12 Kramrisch states an extensive description of the vedic altars 24 Shastri, Ajay Mitra. 1969. ,QGLDDVVHHQLQWKH%‫܀‬KDWVD‫ۦ‬KLWƗ of
DQGWKHVDFUL¿FLDOULWXDOWKDWLVEHOLHYHGWREHVRXUFHGIURPRUJLQDO VarƗhamihira. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Kalpa texts.
25 Ibid
13 There may be other aspects of temple design that are not being
GLVFXVVHG LQ WKH FKDSWHU DV WKH\ DUH QRW UHOHYDQW WR WKH VSHFL¿F 26 VarƗhamihira, and H. Kern. 1982. The Brihat sanhita of
process of execution of temple design on site. These include but Varaha-Mihara. Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag. Reprint. Originally
are not limited to cults, community beliefs, political position, role published: Calcutta: Published under the superintendence of the
of the temple owner etc. Asiatic Society of Bengal ; printed at the Baptist Mission Press,
%৚KDW6DীKLWƗWUDQV%\+.HUQ-RXUQDORIWKH5R\DO$VL
ƗWUDQV%\+.HUQ-RXUQDORIWKH5R\DO$VL
, trans. By H Kern, Journal of the Royal Asi-
14 Mlecko, Joel D. 1982. The guru in hindu tradition. Numen 29 atic Society, new series 4-7 (1869-1874).
(1) (Jul.), pp. 33-61.
27 Otter Felix presents an overall discussion on the text with a
15 Ibid. strong indication that the work is a compilation of many texts. This
book is also primarily dealing with the translation of the chapters
5DP5D]JLYHVUHIHUHQFHWRWKLVVXEMHFWZKHQKHVWDWHVWKDWWKH related to residential architecture. Read, Otter, Felix.5HVLGHQWLDO
religion and literature, as well as the political constitution of the Architecture in Bhoja’s Samaranganasutradhara (Delhi: Motilal
South, were derived from the North, the earliest seat of the Hindu Banarasidass, 2009).
empire as well as of arts and sciences, and that the southern pen-
insula was before that period a vast uncultivated forest, inhabited 28 ĝukla, DvijendranƗtha, and Bhojaraja. 1967. 5R\DOSDODFHDQG
by small insulated tribes. While in this state of society, the sage royal arts. Lucknow: Vastuvanmaya-Prakasna-Sala. Also read,
AgastyaDSSHDUVWRKDYHEURXJKWKLWKHUWKH¿UVWFRORQ\RI%UDK- BhojarƗja, and SudarĞana ĝarmƗ. 2007. SamarƗৄgana snjtradhƗra
mans and other classes from the north, and with them the Hindu RI%KRMDGHYD3DUDPƗra ruler of DhƗrƗ): an ancient treatise on
religion and literature, in form the same as at the present day. He DUFKLWHFWXUHDQLQWURGXFWLRQ6DQVNULWWH[W(QJOLVKWUDQVODWLRQ
is believed to have been the inventor of the letters now in use in and notes). Delhi: Parimal Publications. Also see interpretative
WKH7DPLODQGWKH¿UVWZKRUH¿QHGWKDWODQJXDJHRQWKHSULQFLSOHV drawings and translation of two Dravida chapter (61, 62) by Adam
of the Sanskrit or northern dialect; and as this personage is stated Hardy. Read, Hardy, Adam, (With translation by Mattia Salvini),
DOVRWRKDYHRI¿FLDWHGERWKDVPLQLVWHUDQGVSLULWXDOWHDFKHUWRWKH 2009. DrƗYL‫ڲ‬D 7HPSOHV LQ WKH 6DPDUƗ۪JD۬DVnjtradhƗUD 6RXWK
founder of the Pandya principality, it is not unlikely, that the use- Asian Studies 25, pp 41-62.
fulness of the art of building to such an infant state, should have
LQGXFHGKLPWRZULWHDWUHDWLVHRQWKHVXEMHFW5DP5D]$UFKLWHF- 29 Salvini, Mattia. 2009. The Samarangana Sutradhara, pub-
ture of the Hindus (London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great lished online by PRƖSƖDA, Cardiff University.
Britain and Ireland, 1834), pp.11.
$V5DP5D]WKH¿UVWQDWLYHDXWKRUWRWUDQVODWHWKHManasara
17 Andreas Volwahsen writes, “It was handed down orally from and the Mayamata into English writes, “It is true that the Hindus
father to son. Not until the Middle Ages did it become necessary were in possession of numerous treatises on architecture, sculp-
WRSXWWKLVNQRZOHGJHGRZQLQZULWLQJ)RUGXULQJWKHÀRXULVKLQJ ture, which collectively are called the Silpa Sastra, but unfortu-
period of temple-building the instructions relating to the rules of nately few traces of them remain. There appears to have been, ac-
proportion become so numerous, and the ritual so complex, that it cording to some, thirty –two, and according to others sixty-four,
was no longer possible to avoid compiling manuals and reference standard treatises on the above-mentioned arts, but of these, ex-
works in which these instructions were laid down.” See Volwah- cepting a few scattered fragments which are occasionally to be
sen, Andreas, Living Architecture: Indian, Hennessey & Ingalls, met with among the artists themselves, nothing but the titles of
New York1969. the works are now generally known to the learned.” He continues
further, “Of these, thirty-two are called Muchya or principal, and
%XUJHVV(EHQH]HU7UDQVODWLRQRIWKHV€U\DVLGGKkQWD$ WKLUW\WZR8SDRUVXERUGLQDWH´5HDG5DP5D]$UFKLWHFWXUHRI
text-book of hindu astronomy; with notes, and an appendix. Jour- the Hindus (London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain
nal of the American Oriental Society 6, pp. 141-498. and Ireland, 1834), pp. 1.

'DJHQV%UXQR0/%DUD]HU%LOORUHWDQG9LQFHQW/HIqYUH 31 The copy of 0DQDVDUDYDVWXVDVWUD studied by P.K.Acharya

2005. 7UDLWpV WHPSOHV HW LPDJHV GX PRQGH LQGLHQ pWXGHV consist of 70 to 71 adhyayas RU FKDSWHU V DQG WKDW E\ 5DP 5D]
d’histoire et d’archéologie. [Pondichéry]: Institut Français de FRQVLVW RI ¿IW\ HLJKW FKDSWHUV 8SRQ FRPSDULVRQ RI WKH FKDSWHUV
Pondichéry, pp. 81-113. covered under both editions, the text description is more or less the
same with different divisions to create more or less chapters. Both


authors look at the treatise entitled Sacaladhicara (the universal $SDUDMLWDSUFFKDRI%KXYDQDGHYD. Baroda: Oriental Institute. Also
authority) which is available only in part today, to have more ex- read, Dubey, Lal Mani. 1987. AparƗMLWDS‫܀‬FFKƗ D FULWLFDO VWXG\
tensive information than that stated in Manasara, encyclopaedic manual on art and architecture. Allahabad: Lak-
shmi Publications.
32 Mayamuni, and Bruno Dagens. 1985. Mayamata: an Indian
WUHDWLVH RQ KRXVLQJ DUFKLWHFWXUH DQG LFRQRJUDSK\. New Delhi, 43 Mandana has been credited as the author of various treatise
,QGLD6LWDUDP%KDUWLD,QVWLWXWHRI6FLHQWL¿F5HVHDUFK including 1) Davata-murti-prakaranam 2) Prasada Mandanam 3)
Rajavallabha 4) Rupamandana 5) Vastumandana 6) Vastusastra 7)
33 The French translation includes the original Sanskrit text for Vastusara 8) Ayatattva.
reference and can be useful to construct notes and for interpreta-
tions from the translation. Read, Dagens, Bruno. 1970. Maya- 44 Prãsãdas basically mean temple forms. Read, SnjtradhƗra
PDWDWUDLWpVDQVNULWG¶DUFKLWHFWXUH. Pondichéry: Institut français 0D৆ঌDQD DQG 5DJKXQƗWKD 3XUXVKRWWDPD .XODNDU৆Ư 
d’indologie. PrƗsƗGD 0D۬‫ڲ‬DQD RI 6njtradhƗUD 0D۬‫ڲ‬DQD 6DQVNULW WH[W DQG
English translation with notes and glossary. New Delhi: Munshi-
34 Dagens, Bruno. 1984. Architecture in the AjitƗgama and the ram Manoharlal Publishers.
5DXUDYƗJDPDDVWXG\RIWZR6RXWK,QGLDQWH[WV. New Delhi: Sita-
UDP%KDUWLD,QVWLWXWHRI6FLHQWL¿F5HVHDUFK 45 Nirañjana MahƗpatra, and Bettina Bäumer. 1994.
ĝilparatnakoĞa: a glossary of Orissan temple architecture. New
35 Agamas, The Sacred Texts Of Saivism, promotes that Shiva is Delhi [u.a.]: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts [u.a.].
the uppermost deity in the string of deities in India.
46 The Hindu vastu-vidya today can be found in Sanskrit treatises
36 Liyanaratne, Jinadasa. 1976. Le PurƗ৆a Mayamataya: Manuel like the Manasara, Mayamata, Casyapa, Vayghanasa, Sacaladhi-
astrologique singhalais de construction. Paris: Ecole Française cara, Viswacarmiya, Sanatcumara, Saraswatyam, Pancharatram
d’Extrême-Orient no. 109. HWF%RWK5DP5D]DQG3.$FKDU\DGLVFXVVWKHFRPPRQJURXQGV
of principles presented in these texts and then identify Manasara
 5DP 5D] VXJJHVWV WKH WUHDWLVH Sacaladhicara composed by as the main source of work for the Hindu silpa or vastu-sastra.
Agastya from the Puranas refers to the Pandya principality which
can be dated around three or four centuries before the Christian 7RGD\PDQXVFULSWVXVHGE\FUDIWVPHQDUH¿OOHGZLWKGUDZLQJV
era. 7KHRULJLQDOSDOPOHDIPDQXVFULSWVRI$JDPDV%৚KDWVDূKLWƗ0D
Ɨ0D
, Ma-
nasara and the Mayamata are not accompanied with any drawings.
38 Prasanna Kumar Acharya, trans., Indian architecture according
to MƗnasƗra-ĞilpaĞƗstra, (Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1995 48 Ramachandra Rao, Saligrama Krishna. 1979. The Indian tem-
ZLWKSULQWLQJLQ¿UVWSXEOLVKHG/RQGRQ2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\ SOHLWVPHDQLQJ. Bangalore: IBH Prakashana.
Press, 1934.
49 Parker, Samuel K. 2003. “Text and Practice in South Asian Art:
:KLOHTXRWLQJWKHZRUNRI5DP5D]3.$FKDU\DLQKLVERRN An Ethnographic Perspective,”Artibus Asiae, Vol. 63, No. 1, Arti-
,QGLDQ$UFKLWHFWXUH According to Manasara-silpa-sastra writes, bus Asiae Publishers, pp. 5-34.
“The etymological rendering of the word manasara is ‘the essence
of measurement,’ sara meaning essence and mana measurement. CHAPTER 4
It may, however, be rendered by ‘the standard measurement’ or
‘the system of proportion’ as has been done by the author of An Es- 1 Ramaswamy, Vijaya. 2004. Vishwakarma craftsmen in early
say on the architecture of the Hindus 5DP5D],QWKLVVHQVHWKH medieval peninsular India. Journal of the Economic and Social
full title Manasara-silpa-sastra would imply a silpa or YDVWXVDV- History of the Orient 47 (4), pp. 548-582.
tra or science of architecture, where the essence of measurement
is contained, the standard measurement followed, or the system of  5HDG 6njWUDGKƗUD 0D৆ঌDQD DQG 5DJKXQƗWKD 3XUXVKRWWDPD
proportions embodied.” Read, Prasanna Kumar Acharya, trans., .XODNDU৆Ư. 2005. 3UƗVƗGD 0D۬‫ڲ‬DQD RI 6njWUDGKƗUD 0D۬‫ڲ‬DQD
Indian architecture according to MƗnasƗra-ĞilpaĞƗstra, (New 6DQVNULW WH[W DQG (QJOLVK WUDQVODWLRQ ZLWK QRWHV DQG JORVVDU\.
'HOKL /RZ 3ULFH 3XEOLFDWLRQV  ZLWK SULQWLQJ LQ  ¿UVW New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. Also read, Kram-
published London: Oxford University Press, 1934), 2. Also read, risch, Stella. 1956. Artist, Patron, and Public in India. The Far
$UFKLWHFWXUHRIWKH+LQGRRVE\5DP5D] (DVWHUQ 4XDUWHUO\ $VVRFLDWLRQ IRU $VLDQ 6WXGLHV Vol. 15, No.
3, pp. 335-342. Kramrisch speaks about the relation between the
40 Manasara-silpa sastra – Hindus were in possession of numer- artists employed in various crafts in India and their relation with
ous treatises on architecture, sculpture, which collectively are the community and patrons of their skills. The insights given help
called the Silpa Sastra, but unfortunately few traces of them re- understand the relation between the skill and the skilled. It also
main. There appears to have been, according to some, thirty –two, presents the position of art in Indian culture.
and according to others sixty-four, standard treatises on the above-
mentioned arts. Manasara-silpa sastra is one of the most intact and 3 Read, Kramrisch, Stella. 1958. Traditions of the indian crafts-
well documented ancient Indian treatise identifying a building man. The Journal of American Folklore 71 (281, Traditional India:
code which was used for designing temples, houses, and planning Structure and Change) (Jul. - Sep.), pp. 224-230.
cities since vedic times.
4 As Ananda Coomaraswamy notes, “The Indian craftsman
41 The copy of Manasara-vastu-sastra studied by P.K.Acharya conceives of his art, not as the accumulated skill of ages, but as
consists of seventy to seventy-one adhyayas or chapters and that originating in the divine skill of Visvakarma as revealed by him.
E\5DP5D]FRQVLVWRI¿IW\HLJKWFKDSWHUV8SRQFRPSDULVRQRI Beauty, rhythm, proportion, ideas have an absolute existence on
the chapters covered under both editions, the text description is DQLGHDOSODQHZKHUHDOOZKRVHHNPD\¿QG7KHUHDOLW\RIWKLQJV
more or less the same with different divisions to create more or exists in the mind, not in the detail of their appearance to the eye.
less chapters. Both authors look at the treatise entitled Sacaladhi- Their inward inspiration, upon which the Indian artist is taught
cara (the universal authority) which is available only in part today, to rely, appearing like the still small voice of God, that God was
to have more extensive information than that stated in Manasara. conceived of as Visvakarma. He may be thought of as that part of
divinity which is conditioned by a special relation to artistic ex-
42 Bhuvanadeva, and Popatbhai Ambashankar Mankad. 1950.


pression or in another way, as the sum total of consciousness, the 20 Ibid, pp. 21.
group soul of individual craftsmen of all times and places.” Read,
Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish, The Indian craftsman (London &KULVWRSKHU-RKQ)XOOHU7KHFDPSKRUÀDPHSRSXODU+LQGX-
: Probsthain), 1909. ism and society in India, Princeton University Press, N.J.1992.

5 Read, Kramrisch, Stella. 1958. Traditions of the indian crafts- 22 Hosagrahar, Jyoti. 2002. South Asia: Looking back, moving
man. The Journal of American Folklore 71 (281, Traditional India: DKHDGKLVWRU\DQGPRGHUQL]DWLRQ-RXUQDORIWKH6RFLHW\RI$UFKL-
Structure and Change) (Jul. - Sep.), pp. 224-230. tectural Historians 61 (3) (Sep.): pp. 355-369.

6 Andreas Volwahsen writes, “The manuscripts relating to Vas- CHAPTER 5

tu-vidya, in most cases incised on palm-leaves, which were then
dried, are still today venerated in Hindu temples by the perfor- 1 The Temple in Andhradesa By A. Surykumari, A. Suryakumari
PDQFHRIDVDFUL¿FLDOULWH2QO\LQUDUHLQVWDQFHVKDYHKLVWRULDQVRI
DUFKLWHFWXUHKDGWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRDQDO\]HWKHIRUPDQGVWUXFWXUH 2 Fergusson, James.1876. History of Indian and Eastern Architec-
of surviving buildings in the light of these original palm-leaf man- ture, London: John Murray.
uscripts.” See Volwahsen, Andreas, Living Architecture: Indian,
Hennessey & Ingalls, New York1969. %KDWWDFKDU\D7ƗUƗSDGD$VWXG\RQYƗVWXYLG\ƗRU&DQ-
ons of Indian architecture.
7 The author suggests this as a theory that needs to be further sup-
ported by other similar astronomical studies that need to be made 4 Hardy, Adam, ,QGLDQ7HPSOH7\SRORJLHV1DJDUD'UDYLGDDQG
on various other temples located in South East Asia. The fact the 2WKHU 9DULHWLHV Draft of entry for Cambridge World History of
most of the planned Hindu temples lie on the exact east-west axis, Religious Architecture.
lies as a proof to this concept.
5 They are 1.Nagara 2.Dravida 3.Latina 4.Bhumija 5.Varata
8 The %UKDWVDۨKLWƗ suggests the attributes of a astrologer/ Brah- 6.Vimana 7.Misraka (Vesara) 8.Sandhara 9.VimanaNagara
mana should be able to interpret the four systems of measurement 10.Vimanapuspaka 11.Valabhi 12.Napumsaka or Phamsanakara
of time according to Indian calender and put it to use by correlat- 13.Simhavalokana 14.Ratharuha or Daruja. See Dubey, L. M.
ing it to the shadows projected by objects. The effect of other (1987). $SDUƗMLWDS‫܀‬FFKƗDFULWLFDOVWXG\(QF\FORSDHGLFPDQXDO
planets on earth and their orbits in relation to sun are also talked on art and architecture. Allahabad: Lakshmi Publications.
DERXW LQ DVWURQRPLFDO ZRUNV OLNH 6XU\DVLGGKƗQWD $U\DEKDWL\D
%UDKPDVSKXWDVLGGKƗQWD 5HDG 9DUƗKDPLKLUD DQG 0 5DPDN- 6 Jãti is a regular term used in India to represent a ‘caste,’ or a
rishna Bhat. 1981. %UKDWVDۨKLWƗ 9DUƗKDPLKLUD¶V%‫܀‬KDWVD‫ۦ‬KLWƗ. category.
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
7 Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier 1976. The Hindu tem-
9 Volwahsen, Andreas, Living Architecture: Indian, Hennessey & ple, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Ingalls, New York 1969.
8 Shukla, Dvijendra Nath. 1958. 9ƗVWXĞƗVWUD 9RO +LQGX 6FL-
10 Stencel, Robert, Fred Gifford, and Eleanor Morón. 1976. As- HQFH RI $UFKLWHFWXUH :LWK VSHFLDO UHIHUHQFH WR th century)
tronomy and cosmology at angkor wat. Science 193 (4250) (Jul. Bhoja’s Samarangana Sutradhara /XFNQRZ 9ƗVWX9ƗৄPD\D
23): pp. 281-287. 3UDNƗĞDQD6Ғ Ɨla.

11 Ibid. 9 Samir Younés, “Architecture and Language”, Chap. 2, in Samir

Younés, 7KH 7UXH WKH )LFWLYH DQG WKH 5HDO 7KH +LVWRULFDO 'LF-
12 Ibid. WLRQDU\RI$UFKLWHFWXUHRI$&4XDWUHPqUHGH4XLQF\, Papadakis,
London, 1999, pp. 36-42.
13 The head represents the main temple sanctum whereas the feet
represent the entrance gopuram as seen the drawing done by a 10 Van Pelt, Robert Jan and Westfall, Carroll William. 1991. Ar-
sthapati from Kanchipuram. Kalichemmal, G. Thirugnanam (Sil- chitectural Principles in the Age of Historicism, Yale University
pi), 8UXYDNNRGXJDO, T. Rajarajeswari Publishers, Mamallapuram, Press, New Haven and London.
1998.
%KD৬৬ƗFƗU\\H৆D7ƗUƗSDGD7KHFDQRQVRI,QGLDQDUWRU
14 Chola Dynasty and Pandya Dynasty ruled in South India from $VWXG\RQ9ƗVWXYLG\Ɨ. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
c. 850 CE - 1250 CE.
 5HDG %KD৬৬ƗFƗU\\H৆D¶V GHEDWH RQ FODVVL¿FDWLRQV RI ,QGLDQ
15 Ibid. WHPSOHVFKDSWHUIRXUWHHQLQ%KD৬৬ƗFƗU\\H৆D7ƗUƗSDGDThe
FDQRQVRI,QGLDQDUWRU$VWXG\RQ9ƗVWXYLG\Ɨ. Calcutta: Firma
16 Ramaswamy, Vijaya. 2004. Vishwakarma craftsmen in early K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
medieval peninsular india. Journal of the Economic and Social
History of the Orient 47 (4): pp. 548-582. 13 Chapter 56 of 7KH%ULKDWVDQKLWDUHDG9DUƗKDPLKLUDDQG+
Kern. 1982. The Brihat sanhita of Varaha-Mihara. Osnabrück:
17 Susan L. Huntington, The Art of Ancient India, Buddhist, Hin- Biblio Verlag.
du, Jain, John Weather Hill, Inc., of New York and Tokyo, 1985.
%RVH1LUPDO.XPDUDQG9LĞYDNDUPDCanons of Oris-
18 Read, Satish Kumar. 1996 (reprint 2007). Spiritual compass: san architecture. Calcutta: R. Chatterjee.
the three qualities of life. Totnes, Devon, [England]: Green Books.
Also read, Majumdar, Sarabhai V. 1933. Hindu system of morality 15 Burgess, pp. 178,179.
RUSKLORVRSK\RIWKHWKUHH*X۬DV6DWWYD5DMDVDQG7DPDV.
16 Look under the translation of the Manasara, Mayamata and Ca-
19 Boner, Alice, Principles of composition in Hindu sculpture: V\DSD JLYHQ E\ 5DP 5D]7KH$UFKLWHFWXUH RI WKH +LQGXV 5DP
cave temple period, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Delhi, 1990 (First 5D]/RQGRQ7KH5R\DO$VLDWLF6RFLHW\RI*UHDW%ULWDLQDQG,UH-
ed. Leiden, 1962), pp. 20. land, 1834), pp. 48.


17 Burgess. As Burgess suggests, “The shrines and mandapas
DUH VTXDUH DQG RQO\ VOLJKWO\ PRGL¿HG E\ DGGLWLRQV WR WKH ZDOOV
of parallel projections, which in the earlier examples, were thin;
the walls are raised on a molded plinth (pitha) of some height,
over which was a deep base (athisthana), the two together ris-
ing, roughly, to about half the height of the walls; over this is the
paralleled face of the wall, usually of less proportionate height
WKDQLQWKH&KDOXN\DQVW\OHDQGWKRXJKGHYRWHGWR¿JXUHVFXOS-
tures in compartments, the tall thin pilasters of the southern style
have disappeared, over this is the many-membered architrave, and
cornice, above which rise the spire and roof” Bugress further ex-
plains, “One of the most striking features of the style is the richly
carved domes over their mandapas or porches. These, with the di-
YHUVL¿HGDUUDQJHPHQWRIYDULRXVO\SODFHGDQGKLJKO\RUQDPHQWHG
pillars supporting them, produce a most pleasing impression of
symmetry and beauty.”
can be read in Meister, Michael W., Madhusudan A Dhaky, and
Krishna Deva, North India, Foundations of North Indian Style,
c.250B.C.-A.D.1100, Encyclopaedia of Indian temple architec-
ture. New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies; Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988.
5DP5D]VXJJHVWV³$VRIPRVWRWKHUVFLHQFHVDPRQJWKH+LQ-
dus, the rules and precepts of architecture and sculpture have been,
with some solitary exceptions, locked up in the Sanskrit language;
and, as the study of this language was limited, in general, to the
higher classes, the only means of improvement left to the artist,
who in all cases would be of a subordinate class, were the verbal
instructions delivered to him by these superiors, when they might
KDSSHQ WR UHTXLUH KLV DVVLVWDQFH´ 5DP 5D]$UFKLWHFWXUH RI WKH
Hindus (London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland, 1834), pp. 12.

18 Dhaky, Madhusudan A. 1977. The Indian temple forms in 3 Gnomon is an ancient Greek word to indicate a central pole that
.DU۬Ɨ‫ܒ‬DLQVFULSWLRQVDQGDUFKLWHFWXUH. New Delhi: Abhinav Pub- would be used to indicate time with the help of the shadows it
lications. casted.

19 Hardy, Adam, ,QGLDQ7HPSOH7\SRORJLHV1DJDUD'UDYLGDDQG 4 Bose, examines various editions of the manuscript, Bhubanapra-
2WKHU 9DULHWLHV Draft of entry for Cambridge World History of dipa in reference to write this book. The second half of the book
Religious Architecture. based on measurements and proportions is based on this book.
%RVH1LUPDO.XPDUDQG9LĞYDNDUPDCanons of Orissan
20 Hardy, Adam. 2002. ĝHNKDUƯ Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 62, architecture. Calcutta: R. Chatterjee.
No. 1, pp. 81-137.
5 Stella Kramrisch states, “The geometric form of the vastu-puru-
21 Ibid. VKDPDQGDODFDQEHH[SODLQHGE\UHIHUHQFHWRWKH9HGLFVDFUL¿FLDO
ULWHGXULQJWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIZKLFKWKH$U\DQVFDUULHGEUD]LHUV
22 Hardy, Adam, ,QGLDQ7HPSOH7\SRORJLHV1DJDUD'UDYLGDDQG IURPRQHDOWDUWRDQRWKHU$URXQGDOWDUV\PEROL]HVWKHWHUUHVWULDO
2WKHU 9DULHWLHV Draft of entry for Cambridge World History of ZRUOGDQGDVTXDUHRQHWKHFHOHVWLDO$FLUFXODUVKDSHV\PEROL]HV
Religious Architecture. movement—the cyclical movement of time as interpreted by the
+LQGXV$ VTXDUH FDQQRW EH PRYHG E\ LWVHOI EXW LV D ¿QDO DQG
0HLVWHU0LFKDHO:3KƗীVDQƗLQ:HVWHUQ,QGLDArtibus XQHTXLYRFDOIRUP$VDSHUIHFWIRUPLWLVXVHGE\WKH+LQGXVWR
Asiae , Vol. 38, No. 2/3, pp. 167-188 indicate the Absolute. If one considers the earth merely from its
physical, external form, it is depicted as a circle; if, however, it
24 Ibid. is regarded as the manifestation of the supreme principle, Brah-
PDQLWLVUHQGHUHGDVDVTXDUH¿[HGE\WKHFDUGLQDOSRLQWV´5HDG
25 Dagens, Bruno. 1984. $UFKLWHFWXUH LQ WKH$MLWƗJDPD DQG WKH book, Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier, The Hindu temple,
5DXUDYƗJDPDDVWXG\RIWZR6RXWK,QGLDQWH[WV. New Delhi: Sita- Volume 1, (Motilal Banarsidass Publication 1976). Also read, An-
UDP%KDUWLD,QVWLWXWHRI6FLHQWL¿F5HVHDUFK dreas Volwahsen, Living Architecture: Indian, (Grosset & Dunlap,
Inc., New York 1969), pp. 44.
26 Hardy, Adam. 1995. Indian temple architecture: form and
WUDQVIRUPDWLRQWKH.DU۬Ɨ‫ܒ‬D'UƗYL‫ڲ‬DWUDGLWLRQWKWRWKFHQWX-  3J  RI WKH %৚KDWVDPKLWD DV WUDQVODWHG E\ 6KDVWUL Shas-
ries. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. tri, Ajay Mitra. 1969. ,QGLD DV VHHQ LQ WKH %‫܀‬KDWVD‫ۦ‬KLWƗ RI
9DUƗKDPLKLUD. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
27 Acharya further states, “In the Dravida style, the garbhagriha
took the form of a miniature vimãna with other features exclu- 7 Otter, Felix, and Bhojaraja. 2010. 5HVLGHQWLDO DUFKLWHFWXUH LQ
sive to southern Indian temple architecture, such as the inner wall %KRMD¶V 6DPDUDQJDQDVXWUDGKDUD LQWURGXFWLRQ WH[W WUDQVODWLRQ
together with the outer wall, creating a pradakshina around the and notes. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers.
garbhagriha.” Prasanna Kumar Acharya, Manasara Series No:2,
Indian Architecture, According to Manasara-Silpasastra, (Low 8 Dubey, Lal Mani. 1987. $SDUDMLWDSUFKD D FULWLFDO VWXG\ HQ-
Price Publications, Delhi, First Ed. 1934, reprint 1995, 2004). cyclopaedic manual on art and architecture. Allahabad: Lakshmi
Publications, 1987.
28 As P.K. Acharya, translating the Manasara, writes, “The Dra-
YLGLDQWHPSOHVJHQHUDOO\FRQVLVWRIDVTXDUHEDVHRUQDPHQWHGH[- 9 Govind Krishna Pillai, The Hindu Architecture (Silpa Sastra),
ternally by thin tall pilasters, and containing the cell in which the Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, 2004.
image is kept. In front of this may be added a mantapam (man-
dapa) or hall, or even two, but they are not characteristic of the  7KH WHUPV IRU WKH  VTXDUHV SODQ DUH HNmVLWLSDGD DQG SDUD-
style. Over the shrine rises the sikhara, of pyramidal form, but PDVD\LND DQG  VTXDUHV SODQ DUH FDWXVVDVWLSDGD DQG FDQGLWD LQ
always divided into stories and crowned by a small dome, either WZRWUHDWLVHVRI%৚KDWVDীKLWƗDQG6DPDUDQJDQDVXWUDGKDUDUHVSHF-
circular or polygonal in shape.” Prasanna Kumar Acharya, Ma- tively.
nasara Series No:2, Indian Architecture, According to Manasara-
Silpasastra, (Low Price Publications, Delhi, First Ed. 1934, reprint 11 The Puranas are post-Vedic texts, which typically contain a
1995, 2004), pp. 177. complete narrative of the history of the Universe from creation to
destruction. More information can be found under, Mittal, Sushil,
CHAPTER 6 The Hindu World, Routledge, 2004, pp. 657.

1 Images and explanation to this Gupta Empire temple can be 12 Michael Meister, 1979. Mandala and Practice in Nagara ar-
found in the archives of the Archeological Survey of India and chitecture in North India, Journal of the American Oriental Soci-


ety, Vol.99, No.2, pp. 204 -219. cave temple period, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Delhi, 1990 (First
ed. Leiden, 1962), pp. 24.
13 Bhattacaryyena, Tarapada. 1963. 7KHFDQRQVRI,QGLDQDUWRU
$VWXG\RQ9DVWXYLG\D. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. 28 Thapar, Binda (2004). Introduction to Indian Architecture. Sin-
gapore: Periplus Editions, pp. 43.
14 Vibhuti Chakrabarti, the author of Indian Architectural Theo-
ry—Contemporary Uses of Vastu-vidya, suggests, “The mandala 29 Boner, Alice, Principles of composition in Hindu sculpture:
LVWKHJULGLQLWVLGHDOIRUPRIDVTXDUHDQGV\PEROL]HVWKH3XUXVKD cave temple period, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Delhi, 1990 (First
or the cosmic man who is pressed down on each of its subdivisions ed. Leiden, 1962), pp. 24.
by various divinities. This has a symbolic, a functional as well
as a ritualistic bearing.” Read, Vibhuti Chakrabarti, Indian Archi- 30 Author K. Krusche’s observations from studying plans of vari-
tectural Theory – Contemporary Uses of Vastu-vidya, (London: ous temples. The garbhagriha is 4:16 parts of the mandapa.
Routledge, c/o Taylor & Francis, Inc, 1999), pp. 7.
31 Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier, The Hindu temple,
15 Through his elaborate study of various mandalas in 2004, G. K. Volume 2, Shri Jainendra Press, New Delhi, 1996 (First edition
Pillai found that, “It is clear that the names of gods (deities) were University of Calcutta, 1946), pp. 393.
introduced as a guide to memory; but with the increase made in the
number of gods, other methods had to be introduced.” He contin- CHAPTER 7
XHV³$VWKHPHQWDOYLVXDOL]DWLRQRIDODUJHQXPEHURIVTXDUHVZDV
GLI¿FXOWDFRORUVFKHPHZDVLQWURGXFHGZKLFKGLIIHUHQWLDWHGRQH 1 Look at the An Essay on the architecture of the Hindus by Ram
VTXDUHIURPWKHRWKHU)HZHUFRORUVDQGPRUHVTXDUHVPDGHWKH 5D]SS
scheme a failure; then the gods were made to take place of colors,
that proved to be better, but to remember the relative position of 2 Dubey, Lal Mani. 1987. $SDUDMLWDSUFFKDDFULWLFDOVWXG\HQ-
VRPDQ\JRGVZDVVWLOODGLI¿FXOW\DQGWRRYHUFRPHWKLVWKHGH- cyclopaedic manual on art and architecture. Allahabad: Lakshmi
PRQ9DVWX3XUXVKDRU5DNVKDVDZDVIHOOHGRQWKHÀRRUDQGJRGV Publications.
were located on his body and limbs.” Read, Govinda Krishna Pil-
lai, The Hindu Architecture (Silpa Sastra), Delhi: Bharatiya Kala 3 Daigorǀ Chihara, Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast
Prakashan, 2004). Asia, The Netherlands: Brill, 1996.

16 Vibuti Sachdev and Giles Tillotson, Building Jaipur – The mak- 4 Prasanna Kumar Acharya, trans., Translation of the Manasara
ing of an Indian City, (London: Reaktion Books, 2002), 43. from Sanskrit to English, An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture,
0DQDVDUD 6HULHV9ROXPH9,, ¿UVW HG /RQGRQ 2[IRUG 8QLYHU-
17 Sonit Bafna, On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing De- sity Press, 1946, reprint India: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
vice in Indian Architectural Tradition, Journal of the Society of Pvt. Ltd).
Architectural Historians, Vol. 59, No. 1 (University of California
Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians Mar., 5 Though there are three measures given for the angula based on
2000), pp. 26- 49. the three separate measuring system units like the kiskuhasta, sibi-
kasanadi and the prajapatya, the study takes into consideration on
18 Ibid. the measuring units used in the prajapatya used for prasada forms.

19 Samir Younés, “Architecture and Language”, Chap. 2, in Samir 6 Translation of the Mayamata IV, Mayamata: An Indian Treatise
Younés, 7KH 7UXH WKH )LFWLYH DQG WKH 5HDO 7KH +LVWRULFDO 'LF- on Housing, Architecture, and Iconography, Mayamuni, Tr. Bruno
WLRQDU\RI$UFKLWHFWXUHRI$&4XDWUHPqUHGH4XLQF\, Papadakis, Degens, (Distributed by Indian Books Centre, 1985).
London, 1999, pp. 36-42.
7KHVHFRQGFKDSWHURIWKH$MLWmJDPDJLYHVGH¿QLWLRQVRIPHD-
20 Samir Younés, “Architecture and Language”, Chap. 2, in Samir surements that are used to measure small details:
Younés, 7KH 7UXH WKH )LFWLYH DQG WKH 5HDO 7KH +LVWRULFDO 'LF-
WLRQDU\RI$UFKLWHFWXUHRI$&4XDWUHPqUHGH4XLQF\, Papadakis, 8 paramanu (atoms) = 1 ratha dhuli (chariot dust or speck of dust)
London, 1999, pp. 36-42.
(paramanu, or atom, is the smallest measurement)
21 Van Pelt, Robert Jan and Westfall, Carroll William. 1991. Ar-
chitectural Principles in the Age of Historicism, Yale University 8 ratha dhuli = 1Yalagra (hair’s end)
Press, New Haven and London.
8 valagra = 1 liksha (nit)
22 Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda. 2004. The hidden power
in humans: Chakras and Kundalin, Ibera Verlag, pp. 54. 8 liksha = 1 yuka (louse)

23 Dubey, Lal Mani. 1987. $SDUDMLWDSUFFKDDFULWLFDOVWXG\HQ- 8 yuka = 1 yava (barley corn)

cyclopaedic manual on art and architecture. Allahabad: Lakshmi
Publications. 8 yava = 1 angula ZLGWKRIWKHEDVHRI¿QJHU

24 Dubey, Lal Mani. 1987. $SDUDMLWDSUFFKDDFULWLFDOVWXG\HQ- $VRQHDQJXODLVWKUHHTXDUWHUVRIDQLQFKRUFPWKHVPDOO-

cyclopaedic manual on art and architecture. Allahabad: Lakshmi est known dimension, the paramanu (or the “speck of dust” to the
Publications. Hindus) was 1/262144 of an angula, or 0.0000070 cm. This was
a highly accurate measurement for the time in which it was de-
25 Architecture, Mysticism and Myth, Sacred Geometry, William veloped.
Richard Lethaby (New York, Macmillan & Co., 1892).
8 Morris Hicky Morgan, trans., Vitruvius, Ten books on Archi-
26 Manual of the Science of Religion WHFWXUH +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV ¿UVW HG /RQGRQ +XPSKUH\
Milford, Oxford University Press, 1914).
27 Boner, Alice, Principles of composition in Hindu sculpture:


9 A highly contented discussion on comparisons of orders and trea- 25 Doric order is based on the orders seen in the cities of Doris,
tises like that of Vitruvius and Mansara has been posed previously the Ionic is based on the orders seen in Ionia, and the Corinthian
by Dr. P.K. Acharya. Many recent scholars have debunked many derives its name from the order used at the tomb built by Callima-
theories presented in this comparison based on the contentious chus around the country of Corinth (Vitruvius, IV.1).
dating and also status given to Manasara by Acharya. The present
author doesn’t stack any claim in this discussion but posses only 0DWV\D3XUDQDFKDSWHU$OVRVHH%৚LKDW6DূKLWƗ, VII:
the understanding that human form in many cultures was a tool 7KH%৚LKDW6DূKLWƗ is a 6th century Sanskrit encyclopedia
to derive measurements that later informed building proportions. by Varahamihira of wide ranging subjects of human interest, in-
cluding astrology, planetary movements, eclipses, rainfall, clouds,
10 Translation of the Manasara from Sanskrit to English, An En- architecture, growth of crops, manufacture of perfume, matrimo-
cyclopedia of Hindu Architecture, Prasanna Kumar Acharya, Ma- ny, domestic relations, gems, pearls, and rituals. It contains 106
QDVDUD 6HULHV9ROXPH 9,, ¿UVW HG /RQGRQ 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ chapters and is known as the «great compilation.
Press, 1946, reprint India: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.
Ltd). 5DP5D]7KH$UFKLWHFWXUHRIWKH+LQGXV/RQGRQ7KH5R\DO
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1834.
%RWDQLFDOO\QDPHG(PEOLFDRI¿FLQDOLV
28 Ibid.
12 Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, Buddhist and Hindu Peri-
ods, Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. Private Ltd., Fifth 29 Ibid.
ed. 1965.
30 Rhys Davids, Trans. of Mahasuddassana-sutta, I, see Buddhist-
13 VarƗhamihira, and Hendrik Kern. 1864. 7KH%‫܀‬KDW6DxKLWi  suttas.
%‫܀‬KDWVDۨKLWD. Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica: a Collection of Orien-
tal Works, pp. 48. 7KHWKLUGWUHDWLVHUHIHUUHGWRE\5DP5D]LQUHODWLRQWR0DQD-
sara and Mayamata.
%KD৬৬ƗFƗU\\H৆D7ƗrƗpada. 1963. 7KHFDQRQVRI,QGLDQDUWRU
A study on VƗVWXYLG\Ɨ. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. 5DP5D]$UFKLWHFWXUHRIWKH+LQGXV/RQGRQ7KH5R\DO$VL-
atic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1834), pp. 29.
15 Ibid.
33 Dagens, Bruno. 1984. Architecture in the AjitƗgama and the
16 Dhaky, M. A. “PrƗsƗda as Cosmos.” The Adyar Library Bul- 5DXUDYƗJDPDDVWXG\RIWZR6RXWK,QGLDQWH[WV. New Delhi: Sita-
letin 35.3-4, 1971: 211-226. UDP%KDUWLD,QVWLWXWHRI6FLHQWL¿F5HVHDUFK

17 Dubey, Lal Mani. 1987. $SDUDMLWDSUFFKDDFULWLFDOVWXG\HQ- 34 Meister, Michael W., Madhusudan A Dhaky, and Krishna
cyclopaedic manual on art and architecture. Allahabad: Lakshmi Deva, North India, Foundations of North Indian Style, c.250B.C.-
Publications. A.D.1100, Encyclopaedia of Indian temple architecture. New Del-
hi: American Institute of Indian Studies; Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
18 Dr. Kramisch explains the construction of this curvature in University Press, 1988.
much detail in here Hindu Temple book.
35 Cunningham, Alexander. 1879. “Report of a Tour in the Central
19 Depending on the treatise that is being referred to, this number Province in 1873-74-75-76 (Vol IX).” Archaeological Survey of
FDQUDQJHIURP¿YHWRVHYHQRUGHUV%DVHGRQWKHDXWKRU..UXV- India. New Delhi, pp. 41.
FKH¶VREVHUYDWLRQVWKHUHDUH¿YHPDLQRUGHUVDQGWZRGHULYDWLRQV
or varieties of the same. /RRNXQGHUWKHWUDQVODWLRQRIWKH0DQDVDUDE\5DP5D]7KH
$UFKLWHFWXUHRIWKH+LQGXV5DP5D]/RQGRQ7KH5R\DO$VLDWLF
 %RWK 5DP 5D] DQG 3.$FKDU\D GHULYHG GLIIHUHQW GUDZLQJV Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1834), pp. 49.
IURPWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVWKH\PDGHIURP0DQDVDUDWH[W5DP5D]
actually took real temple measurements from orders to draw his CHAPTER 8
conclusions, whereas P.K. Acharya based his drawings purely on
the skills of the artist, Mr. S.C. Mukherji. 7KLVQDUUDWLYHLVEDVHGRQSHUVRQDOREVHUYDWLRQDQG¿HOGZRUN
21 Dr. Adam Hardy has done a relatively good job in creating done at the Shantadurga Temple in November 2005.
these categories based on form and moldings employed. Please
look under chapter 14, ‘Pillar’, by Adam Hardy, The Temple Ar- 2 This has been documented by by Dr. Pandurang Pisurlekar. For
chitecture of India, Wiley, England, 2007. more see Manohar Malgaonkar, Inside Goa, Government of Goa,
Daman & Diu, 1982, pp. 135.
,Q5DP5D]¶VWUDQVODWLRQRIWKH0DQDVDUDWKHVHRUGHUVZHUH
described with diametric height of each column without any spe- 3 The sanskrit word gramadevata stems from two words: gram
FL¿FQDPHV7KHVHQDPHVGLIIHULQGLIIHUHQWUHJLRQV)RUFRQVLVWHQ-
F\LQWH[WZHZLOOUHODWHWRWKHQDPHVLGHQWL¿HGE\3.$FKDUD\D (village) and devata (God). The gramadevatas coexist side by side
with the Brahmanical gods of later Hinduism and may have origi-
23 Look at the An Essay on the architecture of the Hindus by Ram nated as agricultural deities to ward off epidemics, crop failures,
5D]5DP5D]ZDVWKH¿UVWDXWKRUWRWUDQVODWHDQFLHQW,QGLDQ and other natural disasters.
treatises of architecture from Sanskrit to English during the British
Raj. He had extensively traveled in India and used examples of
4 See Huyler Stephen P., Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devo-
Hindu orders he had measure drawn on site to graphically describe
the context of the treatises. tion, pg 102, Yale University Press, 1999.

24 Andrea Palladio, I Quattro Libri dell’Architettura, Venice: 5 The Sun Temple was built by Rushabh Bhimdev I of Solanki
Georg Olms Verlag, 1570. Dynasty in 1026 CE.


6 The word campus originates from the Italian word campo de- 16 pp. 161-186.
scribing a shaped public area that grew to represent the central
place of a university, and eventually came to represent the in- 17 Rana P. B. Singh, Cosmic Order and Cultural Astronomy, Cam-
WHUFRQQHFWHG DJJUHJDWH RI ¿JXUDO YRLGV EHWZHHQ WKH XQLYHUVLW\¶V bridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 2009, pp.
EXLOGLQJV7KLVSLHFHPHDOIRUPDWLRQRID¿JXUDOSXEOLFVSDFHFRQ- 49.
VWUXFWHG VHTXHQWLDOO\ WKURXJK LQFUHPHQWDO SURMHFWV DQG GH¿QLQJ
18 Ibid, pp. 64.
the elements of building, open space, and landscape is a consistent
characteristic of the Hindu temple complex. It is in this sense re-
19 Rana P. B. Singh, Cosmic Order and Cultural Astronomy, Cam-
ferred to here as a sacred ‘campus’, the word implying all of its
bridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 2009, pp.
grounds and buildings, and its total physical presence as an urban
210.
institution.
20 More information on the history of this temple can be found in
7 There is speculation that the word gopuram comes from go prob-
Ritual Polity and Economy: The Transactional Network of an Im-
ably referring to cows or go shala meaning cowshed and puram
SHULDO7HPSOHLQ0HGLHYDO6RXWK,QGLD$XWKRUV-DPHV+HLW]PDQ-
meaning city, neighborhood or residence. Ancient temples in India
Reviewed work(s):Source: Journal of the Economic and Social
KDG VHSDUDWH TXDUWHUV LQVLGH WKH WHPSOH SUHFLQFWV WR KRXVH FRZ
History of the Orient, Vol. 34, No. 1/2 (1991).
sheds. Often these cowsheds were built abutting the temple tower
JLYLQJLWWKHXQLTXHQDPHRIJRSXUDPWKHµUHVLGHQFHRIFRZV¶ 21 Ibid.

8 See Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu, edited by George Mitchell, 22 Ritual Polity and Economy: The Transactional Network of
Marg Publications, 1993, pp. 14-15. an Imperial Temple in MedievalSouth IndiaAuthor(s): James
+HLW]PDQ5HYLHZHGZRUNV6RXUFH-RXUQDORIWKH(FRQRPLFDQG
9 For more on the Meenakshi Temple see Shankaranarayana Rao
Social History of the Orient, Vol. 34, No. 1/2 (1991), pp.23-54.
A. V., Temples of Tamil Nadu, pp. 111 – 124, Vasan Publications,
Bangalore, 2005. 7KHWRZQÀRXULVKHGXQGHUWKH1D\DNDVIRUDOPRVWWZRKXQGUHG
years, before their defeat by the Marathas in 1674. It went through
10 Ibid.
a succeeding British colonial rule, and following India’s indepen-
dence in 1947 saw largely uncoordinated growth disseminating
11 There is no available record to validate these evolutions. This
from the palace complex towards the edge of the moat.
narrative is based on a larger personal analysis of temple town
forms.
24 Hudson Dennis, “Kanchipuram”, in Temple Towns of Tamil
Nadu, Mitchell George (editor), Marg Publications 1993, Mum-
12 After his victory over Ravana, Rama presented Vibhishana,
bai, pp. 20.
(Ravan’s brother who had sided with Rama during the battle) with
an idol of the reclining Vishnu. During his return to Sri Lanka
25 See Interpreting the Plan of a medieval Hindu Capial, Vijay-
Vibhishana left the idol on the island of Srirangam while visiting
DQDJDUDE\-RKQ0)ULW]DQG*HRUJH0LFKHOO:RUOG$UFKHRORJ\
his friend, the Chola king. When he attempted to proceed with his
9RO1R8UEDQL]DWLRQ-XQSS
MRXUQH\KRPHKHUHDOL]HGWKDWWKHLGROFRXOGQRORQJHUEHPRYHG
The idol informed him that it wished to stay on that island facing CHAPTER 9
south so that Vibhishan could worship it from Sri Lanka.
1 For more on Kanchipuram temple rituals see Hudson Den-
nis, “Kanchipuram”, in Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu, Mitchell
13 For more on this see Volwahsen Andreas, Living Architecture:
George (editor), Marg Publications 1993.
Indian, pg 43-58, Grosset & Dunlap Publishers, New York, 1969.
The south Indian temple own of Srirangam is said to represent a 2 For more see on Arunchaleshvara temple rituals, see L’Hernault
Mandala, a cosmic diagram of the worlds situated in concentric Francoise, “Tiruvannamalai”, in Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu,
rings around Brahman. The south Indian mandala differs from the Mitchell George (editor), Marg Publications 1993.
Vastu-pursha mandala described in north Indian manuals in that 3 For more see on Nataraja temple, see Nanda Vivek, “Chidam-
LQGRHVHQWHUWDLQWKHOHJHQGRIWKHGLVRUGHUHG%HLQJZDVFRQ¿QHG baram: Home of Nataraja”, Marg Publications 1992.
by Brahma within the orderly form of the mandala. The south In-
GLDQPDQGDODLQVWHDGYLVXDOL]HVWKHFHQWHURIDOO%HLQJDV%UDKPD 4 From Hudson Dennis, “Kanchipuram”, in Temple Towns of
Tamil Nadu, Mitchell George (editor), Marg Publications 1993.
around which are concentric rings, the innermost being the world
of Gods, beyond which are those of the human world, and the 5 For more on Chidambaram see on Nataraja temple, see Nanda
outermost those of goblins, demons and spirits. Vivek, “Chidambaram: Home of Nataraja”, Marg Publications
1992.
14 A Fitting Approach to God: On Entering the Western Temples at
.KDMXUƗKR$XWKRUV*UHJRU\'$OOHV5HYLHZHGZRUNV6RXUFH 6 This account is based on a documentation of the Navadurga
Temple annual festival by Vinayak Bharne in 2006.
History of Religions, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Nov., 1993). Publised.
7 For more see on Arunchaleshvara temple rituals, see L’Hernault
15 Ibid. Francoise, “Tiruvannamalai”, in Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu,
Mitchell George (editor), Marg Publications 1993.


8 For more on the Meenakshi Temple festivities and rituals, see 16 Bhairava’s eight manifestations are: Kala Bhairava, Asitanga
Fuller C. J., “Madurai” in Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu, Mitchell Bhairava, Samhara Bhairava, Ruru Bhairava, Krodha Bhairava,
George (editor), Marg Publications 1993. Kapala Bhairava, Rudra Bhirava and Unmatta Bhairava. Kala
%KDLUDYDLVFRQFHSWXDOL]HGDVWKH*XUXRIWKHSODQHWDU\GHLW\6DW-
9 The twelve jyotilingas are: The Temple of Lord Viswanath, the urn. Bhairava is known as Vairavar in Tamil where he is often
Temple of Lord Somnath near the town of Veraval in Western presented as a Grama Devata or folk deity who safeguards the
part of Gujarat, the Temple of Bhagwan Mahakal in the town of devotee on all eight directions (ettu tikku).
Ujjain, the Temple of Lord Omkareshwar on the banks of River
Narmada, between Indore & Khandwa. The temple is situated on 17 For more on this, see Eck Diana, Benaras: City of Light, Co-
an island, which is encircled by the Narmada River, the temple lumbia University Press, 1998, pp. 246.
of Lord Rameshwar situated in a large island surrounded by sea
in the southern side of India, the temple of Lord Mallikarjuna in 18 For more see Benaras Region: A Spritual and Cultural Guide,
the state of Andhra Pradesh, in the town of Srisailam on the banks pp. 85-105.
of River Patalganga Krishna, Lord Trayambakeshwar resides in a
beautiful locale about 20 kms from the city of Nashik. It is a wel CHAPTER 11
connected place and can also be reached from Bombay in about
4-5 hours. Temple of Lord Bhimashankar is situated in a Forest 1 For more, see Mandir, on http://www.akshardham.com/whatto-
Reserve about 3 hours drive from Pune. The place is hilly with see/mandir/index.htm (accessed in July, 2012).
beautiful greenery all around. Temple of Lord Nageshwar is situ-
ated in Gujarat, and is about 12 kms on way from Gomti-Dwarka 2 For more on the timeline and numerous ceremonies, see “Mak-
to Bhet-Dwarka. The Temple of Lord Baijnath is situated in Bihar. ing of Akshardham”, on http://www.akshardham.com/makingo-
On the rail route from Patna to Kolkata is a place called Kiul. fakdm/timeline.htm (accessed in July, 2012).
About 100 kms south-east of this place is Devghar – where this
ancient Temple is situated. The Temple of Lord Grishneshwar is 3 Rao, S.K. Ramachandra. The Ägama Encyclopedia: Pän-
situated just adjacent to the famous Ellora Caves. charäträgama. Volume IV, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, India,
2005.
10 See http://www.srirangam.org/epooja.html
4 This is an important episode from the Indian epic Ramayana,
CHAPTER 10 DQG V\PEROL]HV WKH XQVZHUYLQJ GHYRWLRQ RI +DQXPDQ WR 5DPD
and his wife Sita.
1 See Bhattacharya Brajamadhava, Varanasi Rediscovered, Mun-
shiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1999. 5 See Riegel Alois, ‘The Modern Cult of Monuments : Its Charac-
ter and its Origin’ in Oppositions 25 (Fall 1982), pp. 25-51.
2 Singh Rana P .B and Rana Pravin S., Benaras Region: A Spritual
and Cultural Guide, Indica Books, 2006. 7KH'DVDUDIHVWLYLWLHVZHUH¿UVWVWDUWHGE\WKH9LMD\DQDJDU.LQJV
in 15th Century, after the fall of Vijayanagar Kingdom. Today, the
.URVLUHIHUVWRWKHXQLWRIGLVWDQFHHTXDOWRDSSUR[LPDWHO\ Mysore Palace is lit up on all the 10 days of Dasara. The festivities
miles in contemporary terms. begin with the Wodeyar royal couple performing a special puja to
Goddess Chamundeshwari in the Chamundi Temple located on the
4 For more on Chaurashikroshi Yatra, see Benaras Region: A Spri- top of Chamundi Hill at Mysore.
tual and Cultural Guide, pp. 45-55.
7 For more, see Temple of Vedic Planetorium, on http://www.
5 The nine planets of Hindu cosmogony are: Surya (the sun), skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=1435661, (accessed in July
Chandra (the moon), Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Brihas- 2012).
pati (Jupiter), Shukra (Venus), Shani (Saturn), Rahu and Ketu.
8 Ibid.
6 For more on Avimukta Yatra, see Benaras Region: A Spritual and
Cultural Guide, pp. 45-55. 9 Ibid.

7 See See Gutschow Neils, Benaras: The Sacred Landscape of Va- 10 Ibid.
ranasi, Edition Axel Menges, Stuttgart/London, 2006, pp. 120.
11 Ibid.
8 Ibid, pp. 120.
:DJKRUQH-RDQQH3XQ]R'LVDSRUDRIWKH*RGV0RGHUQ+LQ-
9 Ibid, pp. 347-348. du Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World, Oxford University
Press, USA, 2004, pp. 9.
10 Ibid, pp. 351.
 6HH -RVKL 5DMHVK *KDQD¶V 8QLTXH $IULFDQ+LQGX 7HPSOH
11 Benaras Region: A Spritual and Cultural Guide, pp. 59. BBC News South-Asia, 29 June 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/10401741 (accessed July 2012).
12 Singh Rana P. B.; Chapter 5: Kashi, Where Shiva Dances in
Making Order: Shivascape, in Cosmic Order and Cultural Astron- 14 For more information, see http://www.ganeshatemple.org/
omy, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, TempleHistory.aspx
2009, pp. 178-179.
15 Hardy, Adam. 1995. Spirit of suburbia in Perspectives on Ar-
13 Ibid, pp. 179. chitecture – November 1995 Issue 19, Vol. 2 – pp. 42-47.

14 For more, Ibid pp. 178-183. 16 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somnath

15 See Benaras: The Sacred Landscape of Varanasi, pp. 406.




List of abbreviations

The initial chDpters have Sanskrit and Hindi WHUPVWKDWFDQ SD৬৬DGDNDO SDWWDGDNDO
make the reading extremely slow with the cyphers XVHGIRUUHIHU
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to the Encyclopaedia of India Temple Architecture, (the primary
VRXUFHIRUVFKRODUVLQWKH¿HOGWRGD\WKHSURSHUSURQXQFLDWLRQV prƗkƗUD SUDNDUD
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$SSHQGL[
Outline of styles for the Nagara and Dravida Language by Michael Meister and M. A. Dhaky (Note to the reader,
this method allows the reader to study the temples with their regional and chronological distinction beyond the
perimeters of Latina, Bhumija, Sekhari, Valabhi, and Phamasana designs.

Vol. II, part 1: Foundations of North Indian style Western India

Beginnings of North Indian Style, C. A.D. 350-650 6XUƗৢ৬UDVW\OHC. late sixth – mid-eighth century A.D.

8WWDUƗSDWKDVW\OHC. A.D. 360-575 SUH1ƗJDUDSKDVHC. late sixth – late seventh century A.D.

Guptas and their feudatories 0DLWUDNDVRI9DODEKƯDQG*ƗUXODNDVRIZHVWHUQ6XUƗৢ৬UD

Early Vidarbha style, C. A.D. 350-500 HDUO\1ƗJDUDSKDVHC. late seventh – mid-eighth century
A.D.
9ƗNƗ৬DNDVPDLQEUDQFK
0DLWUDNDVRI9DODEKƯ
(DUO\9LGDUEKD9DWVDJXOPDVW\OHC. A.D. 450-500
0DKƗ*XUMDUDVW\OHSKDVH$UEXGDVFKRROC. seventh cen-
9ƗNƗ৬DNDVRI9DWVDJXOPD
tury A.D.
$SDUƗQWDVW\OHC. A.D. 480-533
&ƗSǀWND৬DVRI%KLOODPƗOD
7UDLNnj৬DNDVRI$QLUXGGKDSXUD Eastern India
.XৄND৆DGƝĞDVW\OHC. A.D. 540-610
.ƗPDUnjSDVW\OHC. seventh century A.D.
0DXU\DVRI3XUƯ
9DUPDQVRI.ƗPDUnjSD
Late Vidarbha style, C. A.D. 550-650
'DNৢL৆D.ǀVDODVW\OHC. late sixth – early eighth century A.D.
.DODFXULVRI0ƗKLৢPDWƯDQG(DUO\5Ɨৢ৬UDNnj৬DVRIƜOƗSXUD
3Ɨ৆ঌXYDীĞƯV of ĝUƯSXUD and Nalas
Varieties of North Indian style, C. A.D. 500-1100
.DOLৄJDVW\OHSKDVHC. late sixth – early eighth century A.D.
Upper India
ĝDLOǀGEKDYDV
Magadha style, phase 1, C. A.D. 500-700 Southern Extension of North Indian style
Later Guptas and minor dynasties
.DU৆Ɨ৬DVW\OH1ƗJDUDSKDVHC$'
0DGK\DGƝĞDVW\OHC. A.D. 575-700
&DOXN\DVRI%ƗGƗPL.DU৆Ɨ৬DGƝĞD
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Central India
.DU৆Ɨ৬DVW\OH1ƗJDUDSKDVHC. A.D. 700-775
'DĞƗU৆DGƝĞDVW\OHSKDVHC. late sixth – late seventh century
5Ɨৢ৬UDNnj৬DVRIƜOƗSXUDDQG0ƗQ\DNKƝ৬D
A.D.
Northwestern India
0LQRUG\QDVWLHVPD৆ঌDSLNƗDQGHDUO\1ƗJDUDWUDGLWLRQV
Styles of Kashmir and the Panjab, C. seventh – tenth century
0ƗODYDVW\OHC. early sixth – late seventh century A.D.
A.D.
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.ƗUNǀ৬DVDQG8WSDODVRI.ƗĞPƯUD
'DVƗU৆DGƝĞDVW\OHSKDVHVDQGC. mid-eighth to early tenth
century A.D.

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ঋƗKDOD style, phase 1, C. late eighth – early ninth cenWXU\
A.D.

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 6DPƗVRI.DFFKD
Vol. II, part 2: North India, Period of Early Maturity Eastern India

1ƗJDUD6W\OHVRI&RPPRQ/LQHDJH, C. early eighth-late ninth cen- 9DৄJDVW\OHSKDVHC$'3ƗODV

tury A.D.
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Central India

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9RO,SDUW/RZHU'UƗYLঌDGƝĞD&$'
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Early Period, C. A.D. 650-800
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