International Journal of Mechanical Civil and Control Engineering

Vol. 1, Issue. 3, June 2015 ISSN (Online): 2394-8868

Evaluation of efficiency and collector time constant of

a solar flat plate collector
Abhijit Devaraj1, Abhishek Hiremath2, Akshay R Patil3, Krushik B N4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BMS College of Engineering
Bangalore, INDIA
The advantages of solar flat plate collector are that we
receive hot water throughout the year, it decreases our daily
Abstract: The present attempt of the work is to calibrate the fuel consumption and reduces our energy bills and also
efficiency and collector time constant of a flat plate collector reduces carbon emissions.
which is used to heat water flowing through the pipes by
forced circulation at varying intensity of heat flux, when II – IMPLEMENTATION
wind is blowing at a constant speed. It was observed that
these factors affect the flat plate collector in a profound way.
This work helps us in giving an insight on practical
scenarios where solar collectors are usually placed at high Hot Water
elevations to receive heat as high altitudes involve flow of Tank
wind across the collector.

Keywords: Flat plate collector, solar water heater, intensity Valve 5

of sunlight, wind flow

I - INTRODUCTION Cold Water

Tank
Solar Energy is one of the major alternative sources of
energy being used in the current world scenario. Processes
of industrialization and economic development require Valve 1
important energy inputs. Reserves of fossil fuel are limited Valve 3
and their large scale use is associated with environmental
deterioration.[2] Solar energy is considered one of the main Pump
promising alternative sources of energy to replace the
dependency on other fossil fuel resources [3] [4] There are
Valve 7
adverse environmental effects caused by greenhouse gas
emissions from fossil fuel combustion.[5] Solar energy is an
ecologically clean source of energy and freely available to Flat Plate Collector
everyone over long time periods at all parts of the earth. [6]
Incoming solar radiation is converted into thermal energy
using black bodies which trap the excess heat emitted from
FIGURE 1- Block Diagram of the experimental setup
the sun in the form of infrared radiations Availability of
solar energy depends on day and night cycles and weather
conditions hence collectors are used to trap solar energy
radiated from the sun. Solar Water Heating (SWH) is the
conversion of sunlight into renewable energy for water
heating using a solar thermal collector. The heat collector
used here is a Flat-plate solar collector which is used to
collect heat for various applications such as space heating,
domestic hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller.

There are two types of solar water heating systems namely

passive and active. Flat plate collectors can be either glazed
or unglazed and either air or liquids can be us ed as heat
transporting fluids. [1] This experiment involves an active
water heating system where a pump is used to circulate
water which allows us to have the collector tank above the
collector and also use drain back tanks.

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 International Journal of Mechanical Civil and Control Engineering
Vol. 1, Issue. 3, June 2015
FIGURE 2 – Experimental Setup of ECOSENSE water
heating system based on solar flat plate collector.
FIGURE 3- Panel used to display input and output
parameters.
The setup consists of the following components:
Radiation meter: To measure the radiation level that is
received by the collector a radiation meter is supplied with
the system. It is a sensing based device. It can measure the
radiation level in the range of 0 to 200 W/m2 .
Thermometer: Four thermometers are connected to the
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ISSN (Online): 2394-8868
system. The sensors are RTD based platinum probe and
work on the principle of variation of resistance with
temperature. The probes are class A RTD and can measure
the temperature in the range of 200°C to 650°C. Pressure
Gauge: Two pressure gauges are there in the setup. They
work on the principle of generation of electric signal by
semi-conductor device due to exertion of pressure. Pressure
gauges can measure the pressure in the range of 101.3 to
650 KPa. Water flow meter: To measure the water flow
rate a panel mount flow meter with a mini turbine flow
sensor is connected near the collector inlet. It is a
programmable meter. It can measure the flow rate in the
range of 0.5 to 25 liters/minute. A temperature limit of
meter is up to 80°C. Pump: We are using an AC pump to
fill up the collector tank as well as to circulate the water
through the collector at some regulated speed. A continuous
regulator is there to maintain the flow rate. Anemometer:
An anemometer is supplied with the system. This can be
used to measure the air velocity and ambient air
temperature. The air flow sensor is conventional angled
vane arms with low friction ball bearing while the
temperature sensor is a precision thermistor. The
Anemometer can measure the wind velocity in the range of
0.5 to 45 m/s while the temperature range is 10 to 60°C.
Fan: One AC fan is integrated with the system to generate
artificial wind speed. To set the wind speed as per
requirement a regulator is there in the control unit. Valve:
Different valves are there to direct the water flow as per
requirement. [7]
A - Specifications
The specifications of the equipment are as follows:
 Tank capacity: 50 litres
 Collector area: 0.716m²
 Tungsten halogen fixture’s area: 0.72m²
 Halogen system Power: 150 watt each
 Radiation meter range: 0 to 1999 w/m²
 Water pump power: 0.12hp
 Water flow range: 0.5 to 25 LPM.
 Water flow maximu m pressure: 17.5 bar
 Thermometer sensor: class A sensor
 Thermometer range: 200 to 650˚C
 Anemometer range: 0.4 to 45 m/s
[7]
 Fan range: 0 to 5 m/s
 International Journal of Mechanical Civil and Control Engineering
Vol. 1, Issue. 3, June 2015
B - Assumptions made in the setup
1. The collector is in steady state condition.
2. Headers cover a small area of the collector and can be
neglected.
3. Headers provide uniform flow to riser tubes.
4. Flow through the back insulation is one dimensional.
5. Temperature Gradients around the tube are neglected.
6. Properties of materials are independent of temperature.
7. No energy is absorbed by the cover.
8. Heat flow through the cover is one dimensional.
9. The covers are opaque to infra red radiation.
10. Same ambient temperature exists at both front and back
of the collector.
11. Dust effects on the cover are negligible.
12. There is no shadowing of the absorber plate.
13. Temperature drop across glass tube is uniform.
14. Solar radiation transmitted through glass cover is
[7]
reflected not absorbed.
III – RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A – Formulae
Calculations were performed using the following
formulae’s:
Heat Supplied= specific heat flux *area of collector
Water flow rate = 2.35 Lpm = 2.35/60
= 0.03916 Kg/s
Heat Radiated = Qrad = Q = σA∆T4 = σA(T1 4 -T∞4 )
[8]
Collector Time Constant = R
R = [T3 - T3 (0)] / [ T4 - T3 (0)]
[8]
Collector Plate Efficiency = ɳ = (Qrad /
[8]
ISSN (Online): 2394-8868
C – Methodolog y
The cold water tank 1 was filled with water at atmospheric
temperature. Valve 1 and valve 7 were opened which allows
flow from the cold water tank 1 to the Flat Plate Collector
inlet. The pump was switched on and the regulator was set
at the minimum power at which the pump can work. A
suitable flow rate was set whose value can be observed on
the flow meter screen. Valve 3 was opened which allows
flow from the Flat plate collector outlet to the hot water
tank. After waiting for some time to get a stable reading the
fan regulator was adjusted to get the desired wind speed
which in this case is 5 m/s. The wind speed was measured
using an anemometer. Once the flow rate and the wind
speed were set the initial readings of collector plate
temperature, water inlet temperature, water outlet
temperature and hot water temperature were noted down at
time= 0 sec. The Halogen system was then switched on and
the radiation was set to desired level which in the first case
is 100 W/m2 . The cold water was allowed to flow through
the Flat plate Collector which absorbed the heat and was
then allowed to flow into the hot water tank. The
temperature readings as mentioned above were noted down
for every one minute for a total duration of 10 minutes.
After the experiment was completed the pump was switched
off and the valve 1 was closed and valve 5 was opened
which allows the water to drain from the hot water tank to
the cold water tank. The water was allowed to cool for some
time. The experiment was repeated two more times by
following the exact same procedure but the flux rates were
set at 130 and 160 W/m2 for the next two trials respectively
and the readings were tabulated. The heat supplied was
obtained by multiplying the flux supplied by the collector
area. The collector time constant and radiative efficiency of
the collector were calculated using suitable formulae.
Graphs were plotted for efficiency vs. time and collector
time constant vs. time for various specific flux rates.
Qsup )*100
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 International Journal of Mechanical Civil and Control Engineering

Vol. 1, Issue. 3, June 2015 ISSN (Online): 2394-8868

B - Tables

Table 1: Readings for a specific Heat flux of 100 W/m2

Heat Wind Time Flow Plate Inlet Outlet Hot Heat Collector Efficiency
Supplie Velocity in sec Rate (ṁ) Temp (T1 ) Water Water Water Radiated Time of plate
d (Qin) (V) in in Kg/s in °C Temp Temp Temp (Qrad) in Constant ɳ (in % )
in watts m/s (T2 ) in (T3 ) in (T4 ) in watts (R)
°C °C °C
0 0.03916 38.8 30 31.8 32.6 32.39 0 45.23
60 0.0383 37.7 29.2 32.5 32.8 27 0.7 37.71
120 0.037 36.6 29.2 32.2 33 21.6 0.33 30.16
180 0.0386 36.3 29.1 32.1 33.1 20.23 0.2307 28.25
71.6 5 240 0.0408 36 29.1 31.9 33.2 18.79 0.0714 26.24
300 0.0408 35.9 29.1 31.9 33.3 18.31 0.0667 25.57
360 0.04 35.7 29.1 31.9 33.3 17.36 0.0667 24.24
420 0.0391 35.7 29.1 31.9 33.3 17.36 0.0667 24.24
480 0.0383 35.7 29.1 31.9 33.3 17.36 0.0667 24.24
2
Table 2: Readings for a specific heat flux of 130 W/m
Heat Wind Time Flow Plate Inlet Outlet Hot Heat Collector Efficiency
Supplied Velocity in sec Rate Temp (T1 ) Water Water Water Radiated Time of plate
(Qin) in (V) in (ṁ) in in °C Temp Temp Temp (Qrad) in Constant ɳ (in % )
watts m/s Kg/s (T2 ) in (T3 ) in (T4 ) in watts (R)
°C °C °C
0 0 44.7 29.3 32.6 33 62.27 0 66.9
60 0.0167 42.6 29.4 33.5 33.2 51.44 1.5 55.26
120 0.022 39.6 29.2 33 33.2 36.34 0.667 39.04
180 0.0195 38.4 29.2 32.9 33.3 30.42 0.428 32.68
93.08 5 240 0.0225 37.9 29.2 32.7 33.3 27.98 0.1413 30.06
300 0.0204 37.7 29.2 32.8 33.4 27 0.25 29
360 0.02 37.6 29.3 32.7 33.5 26.52 0.111 28.49
420 0.0175 37.6 29.3 32.8 33.6 26.52 0.2 28.49
480 0.017 37.6 29.3 32.8 33.6 26.52 0.2 28.49

Table 3: Readings for a specific heat flux of 160 W/m2

Heat Wind Time Flow Plate Inlet Outlet Hot Heat Collector Efficiency
Supplied Velocity in sec Rate Temp Water Water Water Radiated Time of plate
(Qin) in (V) in m/s (ṁ) in (T1 ) in °C Temp Temp Temp (Qrad) in Constant ɳ (in % )
watts Kg/s (T2 ) in (T3 ) in (T4 ) in watts (R)
°C °C °C
0 0.03 42.4 33 33.1 33.5 50.42 0 44.01
60 0.0104 42 30.5 36.9 33.6 48.39 7.6 42.24
120 0.0175 41.7 30.2 36.3 33.9 46.87 4 40.91
180 0.0175 40.8 30 35.5 34.1 42.33 2.4 36.95
114.56 5 240 0.0216 40 29.9 34.2 34.2 38.33 1 33.46
300 0.0212 40 29.7 34 34.4 38.33 0.692 33.46
360 0.0179 39.9 29.6 33.6 34.5 37.83 0.357 33.03
420 0.0191 39.9 29.6 33.7 34.6 37.83 0.4 33.03
480 0.02 39.8 29.6 33.7 34.6 37.34 0.4 32.59

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 International Journal of Mechanical Civil and Control Engineering

Vol. 1, Issue. 3, June 2015 ISSN (Online): 2394-8868

C – Efficiency of Collector Efficiency v/s time plot for 160 W/m2 flux
50
45
Efficiency v/s time plot for 100 W/m2 flux 40
50

Efficiency in %
35
30
40 25
Efficiency in %

20
30 15
10
20 5
0
10 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
Time (seconds) efficiency
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 FIGURE 6 – Plot of Efficiency vs. time for a flux of 160
W/m2
Time (seconds) Efficiency
The plots of efficiency v/s time for each specific flux rate
FIGURE 4 – Plot of Efficiency vs. time for a flux of 100 (figure 4, figure 5, and figure 6) showed that the efficiency
W/m2 decreased as time increased. This was due to wind blowing
constantly over the Flat plate Collector which reduced the
Efficiency v/s time plot for 130 W/m2 flux collector plate temperature resulting in reduced heat
80 radiation. This resulted in decreased efficiency. The graph
after a certain time interval becomes almost linear. This was
70
because after some amount of cooling of the Flat plate
60 Collector had taken place, the plate attained an almost
Efficiency in %

steady temperature which gave steady heat radiation and

50 almost constant efficiency.
40
30
D – Collector time Constant
20
10
0 R v/s time for flux of 100 W/m2
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 0.8
Time (seconds) efficiency
0.7
FIGURE 5 – Plot of Efficiency vs. time for a flux of 130 0.6
W/m2
0.5
0.4
R

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
Time (seconds)

FIGURE 7 – Plot of Collector time constant vs. time for a

flux of 130 W/m2
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 International Journal of Mechanical Civil and Control Engineering

Vol. 1, Issue. 3, June 2015 ISSN (Online): 2394-8868

between the time interval of 360 and 480 seconds and hence
R = 0.35 for figure-9.
R v/s time for a flux of 130 W/m2
1.6 IV - CONCLUSIONS
1.4 In the present study on Flat plate Collector’s the potential
barriers to using them in practical scenarios at high
1.2
elevations involving wind flow was determined. From the
1 readings obtained and the graphs plotted it was inferred that
the Collector Time Constant R decreased as time increased.
0.8
R

Also as time increased the temperature of Flat Plate

Collector decreased due to which the heat radiated
0.6 decreased. This resulted in a decrease in efficiency. The
0.4 temperature drop was due to cooling of the Flat Plate
Collector due to the constant wind blowing over it. Also the
0.2 efficiency decreased as heat flux incident normally on the
collector plate decreased. Hence in practical scenarios
0 maximum efficiency is obtained at noon when maximum
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 normal heat flux is incident on the Flat plate Collector.
Time (seconds)
This particular study helped us understand the influence
FIGURE 8 – Plot of Collector time constant vs. time for a of day night cycles and wind flow velocity on flat plate
flux of 130 W/m2 collectors. It gave us estimation that for solar collectors to
heat water to higher temperatures and generate more
efficiency, the collectors should be kept at a high altitude to
receive more sunlight and also at a location where the wind
R v/s time for a flux of 160 W/m2 is blowing at minimum or negligible speed to avoid cooling
8 and temperature drops.

7 REFERENCES

6 [1] Amirhossein Zamzamian, Mansoor Keyanpour Rad,

Maryam Kiani Neyestani, Milad Tajik Jamal-Abad., “An
5
experimental study on the effect of Cu-synthesized/Eg
4 nanofluid on the efficiency of flat plate collectors”,
R

Renewable Energy, vol. 71, pp 658-664, 2014.

3
[2] F.Cruz-Peragon, J.M.Palomar, P.J.Casanova,
2 M.P.Dorado, F.Manzano-Agugliaro, “Characterization of
1 solar flat plate collectors ”, Renewable and sustainable
energy reviews, vol. 16, pp 1709-1720, 2012.
0
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 [3] R. Manzano-Agugliaro F, Montoya FG, Gil C, Alcayde
Time (seconds) A, Gomez J. Banos, “Optimization methods applied to
renewable and sustainable energy: a review”, Renewable &
FIGURE 9 – Plot of Collector time constant vs. time for a flux of 160 W/m2 Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, pp 1753–66, 2011.

[4] Ssen Z, “Solar energy in progress and future research

Collector time constant is required to evaluate the transient
behavior of a collector. It can be calculated from the curve
between R and time as shown above. The plots of Collector
time constant R v/s time for each specific flux rate showed
that R decreased as time increased. The graph for a flux rate
of 100 W/m2 becomes almost constant or linear between the
time interval of 240 and 480 seconds and hence R = 0.75 for
figure-7. The graph for a flux rate of 130 W/m2 becomes
almost constant or linear between the time interval of 420
and 480 seconds and hence R = 2 for figure-8. The graph for
a flux rate of 160 W/m2 becomes almost constant or linear
trends”, Progress in energy and combustion science, vol. 30,
pp 367–416, 2004.
[5] Gurveer Sandhu, Kamran Siddiqui, Alberto Garcia,
“Experimental study on the combined effects of inclination
angle and insert devices on the performance of a flat plate
solar collector”, International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, vol. 71, pp 251-263, 2014.
[6] Ljiljana.T.Kostic, Zoran.T.Pavlovic, “Optimal position
of flat plate reflectors of solar thermal collector” Energy and
Buildings, vol. 45, pp 161-168, 2012.

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Vol. 1, Issue. 3, June 2015 ISSN (Online): 2394-8868

[7] – Insight Solar Manual by ECOSENSE

[8] – Ynus.A.Cengel, Afshin.J.Ghajar, “Text book on Heat

and Mass transfer”.

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