What Is Serum?

Serum consists of the liquid component of blood. Serum can be derived by taking whole blood and then modifying it. This modification involves taking out the blood
cells via centrifugation. The term "serum" is derived from Latin, and can refer to many types of fluids, including that which is found in blisters as well as other
compounds of medical relevance.

1. History
o The term "serum" comes from Latin and is derived from the word for whey. Whey is the term of the liquid that separates from curds during the process of the
creation of cheese. Though serum has no actual relation to cheese, the term has carried on, primarily because serum can be created via the alteration of whole
blood to create the liquid portion.

Identification
o Serum, in the most commonly used definition, is the liquid part of blood. Blood is composed of two parts: the liquid portion, which contains proteins, minerals and
other factors essential for clotting, and the blood cells. The blood cells are a mixture of red blood cells, which carry oxygen around the body, and white blood cells,
which are a critical part of the immune system.

Features
o Serum can be extracted from whole blood via centrifugation. Centrifugation is a physical process in which the material is spun around, circularly, at a high velocity.
Centrifugation separates out materials in a solution via density. More dense materials are moved, via the centrifugal momentum, to the bottom of the container. In
the case of blood, the cellular materials, being more dense, are propelled to the bottom, allowing for the extraction of the cell-free serum.

Features
o Serum is blood plasma without any clotting factors. Plasma is the liquid component of blood and is 90 percent water. It contains dissolved proteins, minerals and
dissolved carbon dioxide. After whole blood is centrifuged, the plasma can be drawn or poured off.

Considerations
o Blood serum can be used to treat a variety of diseases, especially massive blood loss. In this case, the most prominent risk factor is the loss of blood volume.
Serum can be used to counteract this, though the body will still be short on blood cells until it has time to replenish it. One of the advantages of serum is that it can
be stored for an extended period of time. Serum can also be used to treat disorders in which the blood has a tendency to clot. In these cases, it works by diluting
clotting factors.

Structure Mitochondria
Introduction to structure of mitochondria

Mitochondria are a cell organelles it is visible under a light microscope. However, their detailed
structure has been revealed by electron microscope.

Occurrence: These are found in all eukaryotic cells accept certain parasitic and some unusual
anaerobic protozoans. In the amoeba, polymyxa palustris, symbiotic bacteria may perform some
of the roles of mitochondria. The mitochondria are absent in the mature RBCs, although they are
present before these cells mature. Prokaryotic cells are without mitochondria.

Picture of structure of mitochondria

Structure of Mitochondria
Under the light microscope the mitochondria are seen as small spheres or short rods, hence their
name. The electron microscope shows then as vesicles bounded by an envelop two unit
membranes and filed with a fluid matrix.

 Membranes: Both the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes resemble the plasma
membrane in molecular structure. Each of them is 60 to 70 Ǻ thick, trilaminar and
composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules sandwich between two layers of
protein molecules. Both the outer and the inner membranes contain specific pumps or
channels, for the transport of molecules through them. The two membranes may be
connected at adhesion sites. The outer and inner mitochondrial membranes are separated
from each other by a narrow space called the intermembrane space or outer chamber or
peri mitochondrial space.

1. Outer membrane: the outer membrane is smooth it is freely permeable to most small
molecules, having transmembrane channels formed by the protein porin.
2. Inner membrane: The inner membrane is selectively permeable like the plasma
membrane and regulates the movement of materials into and out of the mitochondrion.

 Cristae: The cristae extend inwards to varying degrees and may fuse with that form the
opposite side, dividing the mitochondrion into compartments. The cristae are arranged in
characteristic ways in different cell. They usually run at right angle to the long axis of the
rod shaped mitochondrion.
 Matrix: The wide space between the cristae is called the inner chamber. It is filled with a
gel like material termed the mitochondrial matrix. The matrix is analogous in location to
the stroma of the chloroplasts. It contains proteins, lipids, some ribosomes, RNA, one or
two DNA molecules and certain fibrils, crystals and dense granules.
  Oxysomes: The inner mitochondrial membrane bears minute regularly spaces articles
known as the inner membrane subunits or elementary particles or oxysomes. An oxysome
consists of three parts- a rounded head piece or F1 subunit joined by a short stalk to a base
piece or F0 subunit located in the inner membrane.

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in living organisms to maintain life. These
processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their
environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories. Catabolism breaks down organic
matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism uses energy to construct
components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Anabolism (from Greek ana, "upward", and ballein, "to throw") is the set of metabolic pathways
that construct molecules from smaller units.[1] These reactions require energy. One way of
categorizing metabolic processes, whether at the cellular, organ or organism level is as 'anabolic'
or as 'catabolic', which is the opposite. Anabolism is powered by catabolism, where large
molecules are broken down into smaller parts and then used up in respiration. Many anabolic
processes are powered by adenosine triphosphate (ATP).[2]

Anabolic processes tend toward "building up" organs and tissues. These processes produce
growth and differentiation of cells and increase in body size, a process that involves synthesis of
complex molecules. Examples of anabolic processes include the growth and mineralization of
bone and increases in muscle mass.

Endocrinologists have traditionally classified hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on

which part of metabolism they stimulate. The classic anabolic hormones are the anabolic
steroids, which stimulate protein synthesis and muscle growth. The balance between anabolism
and catabolism is also regulated by circadian rhythms, with processes such as glucose
metabolism fluctuating to match an animal's normal periods of activity throughout the day.[3]

Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by
catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that
make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from small and simple precursors.
Anabolism involves three basic stages. Firstly, the production of precursors such as amino acids,
monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms
using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules
such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.

Organisms differ in how many of the molecules in their cells they can construct for themselves.
Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in cells such as
polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water.
Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as
monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be
further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs
obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from
inorganic oxidation reactions.

Catabolism (Greek kata = downward + ballein = to throw) is the set of pathways that break
down molecules into smaller units and release energy.[1] In catabolism, large molecules such as
polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins are broken down into smaller units such as
monosaccharides, fatty acids, nucleotides, and amino acids, respectively. As molecules such as
polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are made from long chains of these small monomer
units (mono = one + mer = part), the large molecules are called polymers (poly = many).

Cells use the monomers released from breaking down polymers to either construct new polymer
molecules, or degrade the monomers further to simple waste products, releasing energy. Cellular
wastes include lactic acid, acetic acid, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and urea. The creation of these
wastes is usually an oxidation process involving a release of chemical free energy, some of
which is lost as heat, but the rest of which is used to drive the synthesis of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This molecule acts as a way for the cell to transfer the energy released by
catabolism to the energy-requiring reactions that make up anabolism. Catabolism therefore
provides the chemical energy necessary for the maintenance and growth of cells. Examples of
catabolic processes include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the breakdown of muscle protein in
order to use amino acids as substrates for gluconeogenesis and breakdown of fat in adipose tissue
to fatty acids.

There are many signals that control catabolism. Most of the known signals are hormones and the
molecules involved in metabolism itself. Endocrinologists have traditionally classified many of
the hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on which part of metabolism they stimulate.
The so-called classic catabolic hormones known since the early 20th century are cortisol,
glucagon, and adrenaline (and other catecholamines). In recent decades, many more hormones
with at least some catabolic effects have been discovered, including cytokines, orexin (also
known as hypocretin), and melatonin.[citation needed]

Catabolism is the process involved when your body breaks larger molecules down into smaller
molecules, and is one of the two chemical processes and reactions that together make up your
metabolism. The other half of the equation that makes up your metabolism is called anabolism.
Catabolism releases energy during the breakdown process of organic nutrients, and this energy is
stored inside molecules of adenosine triphosphate, also called ATP, in the body. The energy is
stored as chemical bonds with high energy, and these bonds are located between the second and
third phosphate molecules. This energy is the fuel for the anabolic reactions used by cells, so that
hormones, enzymes, sugars, and other molecules needed by the cell can be synthesized and the
cell can grow, reproduce, and sustain itself. The ATP which stores the energy is used to
synthesize more complex cell components from small simple building blocks, for transporting
substances across the cell membrane, and for motion and contraction of the cells. Adenosine
triphosphate releases energy when the chemical bond is broken, and this results in the molecule
turning into adenosine diphosphate, or ADP, after the stored energy is released. Catabolism may
occur at the same time as anabolism in the cell, but these two metabolism processes operate
independently of each other and use different pathways.

Catabolism is also known as destructive metabolism, and this process never ends. This part of
metabolism produces the energy needed for physical activity from a cellular level all the way up
to any movement of your body. Catabolism also releases the energy needed for your body to
maintain the correct temperature, and helps break down complex molecules and chemicals into
simple units that are waste products, and can be excreted from the body through your organs,
including your intestines, kidneys, skin, and lungs.

Catabolism is part of the process that determines whether you gain or lose weight, or keep your
weight the same. If more energy is released from the cells than is taken in, this will lead to a
weight loss. If you consume more energy, in other words calories, than what is released through
catabolic action, a weight gain will result.

The cell regulates the catabolic pathway rates by allosteric enzymes. These enzymes’ increased
or decreased activity are responsive to the existence or absence of any specific end product
required for a specific bodily function. If the end product needed is present, these enzymes slow
their activity, but if the end product is missing these enzymes will increase their activity so the
end product can be produced with the energy released.

Metabolism is the breakdown of organic nutrients and waste products, allowing for their use and
removal, and the buildup of the cells and maintenance of tissues needed by your body.
Catabolism is half of your metabolism, and understanding this process can help anyone who
wants to lose or gain weight. Catabolism breaks down the larger molecules into smaller
components, so that anabolism can use these components and the stored energy to build muscle,
fat, and other components of the body.