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S&A Hydraulics Pneumatics 1 PDF
S&A Hydraulics Pneumatics 1 PDF
S&A Hydraulics Pneumatics 1 PDF
Actuators
• References
• Introduction
• Fluid System Fundamentals
• Electrohydraulic Valve-Controlled
Servomechanism Case Study
• Pneumatic System Closed-Loop, Computer-
Controlled Positioning Experiment and Case
Study
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 1
References
• Control of Fluid Power, D. McCloy & H.R.
Martin, 2nd Edition, John Wiley, New York, 1980.
• Hydraulic Control Systems, H. Merritt, John
Wiley, New York, 1967.
• System Dynamics, E. Doebelin, Marcel Dekker,
New York, 1998.
• Modeling and Simulation of Dynamic Systems, R.
Woods & K. Lawrence, Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, 1997.
• Basic Concepts
• Definition of a Fluid: Liquids and Gases
• Density
• Equation of State: Liquids and Gases
• Viscosity
• Propagation Speed
• Thermal Properties
• Reynolds Number Effects
• Classification of Fluid Motions
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 21
Basic Concepts
• Continuum
– Fluid is a continuum, an infinitely-divisible substance.
As a consequence, each fluid property is assumed to
have a definite value at each point in space. Fluid
properties are considered to be functions of position
and time, e.g., density scalar field ρ = ρ (x, y, z, t) and
velocity vector field v = v ( x, y, z, t ) .
• Velocity Field v = v ( x, y, z, t )
– Steady flow – all properties remain constant with time
at each point.
∂η
= 0 η is any fluid property
∂t
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 22
– One-, two-, three-dimensional flows – depends on the
number of space coordinates required to specify the
velocity field.
– Uniform flow – velocity is constant across any cross
section normal to the flow. Other properties may be
assumed uniform at a section.
– Timelines, pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines
provide visual representation of a flow. In steady flow,
pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines coincide.
– All fluids satisfying the continuum assumption must
have zero relative velocity at a solid surface (no-slip
condition) and so most flows are inherently two or
three dimensional. For many problems in engineering,
a one-dimensional analysis is adequate to provide
approximate solutions of engineering accuracy.
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 23
• Stress Field
– Surface forces: all forces acting on the boundaries of a
medium through direct contact.
– Body forces: forces developed without physical contact
and distributed over the volume of the fluid, e.g.,
electromagnetic and gravitational forces.
– Stresses in a medium result from forces acting on some
portion of the medium. The concept of stress provides
a convenient means to describe the manner in which
forces acting on the boundaries of the medium are
transmitted through a medium.
– State of stress at a point can be described completely by
specifying the stresses acting on three mutually
perpendicular planes through the point.
deformation rate
shear thickening n > 1
for one-
dimensional flow
of various non-
Newtonian fluids
Power-Law Model:
n n −1
Other Categories:
du du du du time-dependent Thixotropic
τ yx = k = k =η behavior
dy dy dy dy Rheopectic
Viscoelastic
Bingham-Plastic Model:
Under a constant applied shear stress:
du Thixotropic – decrease in η with time
τ yx = τ y + µ p
dy Rheopectic – increase in η with time
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 38
Propagation Speed
• Speed of propagation, c0, of a pressure signal in a
fluid depends on the bulk modulus and the
density:
β
c0 =
ρ
r
µdv ν
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 42
• Laminar Flow - smooth, streamlined flow where
viscous forces dominate over inertial forces; no
macroscopic mixing of adjacent fluid layers.
• Turbulent Flow - swirling flow where inertial
forces dominate over viscous forces; macroscopic
mixing of adjacent fluid layers.
• At small Nr (< 1400) flow is laminar.
• At high Nr (> 3000) flow is turbulent and has
energy loss due to fluid collisions and mixing.
• For 1400 < Nr < 3000, there is a transition from
laminar to turbulent flow. Here flow depends on
the local conditions and on the previous flow
history.
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 43
• Laminar flow: pressure loss due to friction has a
first-order relationship with the flow (analogous to
electrical resistance in which voltage is linear with
current).
• Turbulent flow: pressure loss becomes proportional
to the square of the flow. There is no universal
relationship between the stress field and the mean
velocity field; one must rely heavily on semi-
empirical theories and on experimental data.
• Systems with laminar flow are far simpler than
those with turbulent flow; however, laminar flow is
generally impractical for most systems because of
the low pressures and small dimensions it requires.
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 44
Classification of Fluid Motions
Basis of observable physical characteristics of flow fields
Continuum
Fluid Mechanics
Inviscid
Viscous
µ=0
Laminar Turbulent
dE
Q+W =
dt sys
E sys = ∫ ( e ) dm = ∫ ( eρ )dV
sys − mass sys − vol
v2
e = u + + gz
2
∂
F = FS + FB = ∫
∂t CV
vρdV + ∫ vρvidA
CS
v2
e = u + + gz
2
• Lumped-Parameter Approach
– Some areas have used this approach more than others,
e.g., electrical systems are originally conceived as a
combination of R, L, C, op-amps, and other integrated-
circuit modules, while mechanical systems are rarely
initially conceived in terms of a combination of K, B,
and M, but rather as combination of mechanisms,
actuators, sensors, and controllers.
– Fluid and Thermal systems follow a similar pattern in
that system dynamics may receive relatively light
conscious emphasis during the early conceptual phases.
2∆p q q 1 − ( A 2 / A1 ) 2
2 2 2
= − = q
ρ A 2 A1 A2 2
Basic
A2 2∆p pressure/flow
q=
ρ relation (nonlinear)
1 − ( A 2 / A1 )
2
for an orifice
2∆p
q = Cd A o
ρ
V
Q net =V+ ρ
ρ
• Fluid Compliance ∆p 1
( D) =
q Cf D
∆p 1
( iω ) = ∠ − 90°
q ωC f
∆p
• Fluid Inertance ( D ) = If D
q
∆p
( iω) = ωIf ∠ + 90°
q
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 99
Fluid Impedance of the Three Basic Elements
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 100
• If the fluid impedance is known as an operational transfer
function, one can calculate the response to any given input
by solving the corresponding differential equation.
• If the fluid impedance is measured by the frequency
response technique, we then do not have a transfer
function in equation form, we only have curves. The
response to sinusoidal inputs is of course easily calculated
from such curves.
• Suppose, however, that we want to find the response to an
input which is not a sine wave but rather has a time
variation of arbitrary shape. Two methods are available:
– Curve-fit the measured frequency-response curves with analytical
functions, trying different forms and numerical values until an
acceptable fit is achieved. Software to expedite such curve-fitting
is available. Having a formula for the transfer function is the same
as having the system differential equation.
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 101
– Use the measured frequency-response curves directly, without any
curve fitting. One must compute the Fourier transform of the
desired time-varying input signal to get its representation in the
frequency domain. This operation converts the time function into
its corresponding frequency function, which will be a complex
number which varies with frequency. This complex number is
multiplied, one frequency at a time, with the complex number,
whose magnitude and phase can be graphed versus frequency.
This new complex number is the frequency representation of the
output of the system. The final step is the inverse Fourier
transform to convert this function back into the time domain, to
give the system output as a specific, plottable, function of time.
• This discussion applies to any linear, time-invariant,
dynamic system, not just fluid systems. That is, if we can
measure the frequency response, we can get the response
to any form of input, not just sine waves.
pump flow
2(ps − p cl )
Qcl = Cd w(x u + x v ) valid when (x u + x v ) is > 0.
ρ
This is flow into the left cylinder.
2(p cl − p r )
Qcl = −Cd w(x u − x v ) valid when (x u − x v ) is > 0.
ρ
This is flow out of the left cylinder.
2(p cr − p r )
Qcr = −Cd w(x u + x v ) valid when (x u + x v ) is > 0.
ρ
This is flow out of the right cylinder.
2(ps − p cr )
Qcr = Cd w(x u − x v ) valid when (x u − x v ) is > 0.
ρ
This is flow into the right cylinder.
• Conservation of Mass ∂
0= ∫
∂t CV
ρdV + ∫ ρvidA
CS
∂ρ dP ρ0
ρ= = P
∂P dt β
• Conservation of Mass can be written as:
V
0 = V + PCV + Q net
β
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 128
• Evaluating terms: Q net = −Qcl + K pl (p cl − p cr )
dx C
V = Ap
Left cylinder dt
V (Vl0 + A p x C ) dp cl
PCV =
β β dt
dx C d2xC
(pcl − p cr )A p − B + fU = M 2
dt dt
x v = xV − xC
Xc
To Workspace1
Pcl
To Workspace4
time
Clock To Workspace
Xv - Xc
1 1
Xv Command Sum Xv - Xc Positive
Switch1
0
Zero
2 2
Xc Xv - Xc Negative
Switch
MASS SUBSYSTEM
1
Pcl Xc dot
Ap
1/M 1/s 1/s 1
Sum3
Gain2 Xc
2 Sum Gain
Integrator Integrator1
Pcr
0
B 2
Disturbance
fu Xc dot
Gain5
Xv - Xc Pos
3
Xv - Xc Neg
2/rho sqrt(u) -Cd*w
Sum4 Fcn2 Product2
Gain6 Gain2 2
Sum1 Qcr
2 Pcl___
1/s
Qcl
Product Integrator
Kpl Sum2
Gain3
Sum4
3 1/s Pcr__
Qcr
Product1 Integrator1
Sum3
4 Ap 2
Xc dot Pcr
Gain4
∂Q v
flow gain = C x =
∂x v operating point
∂Q v
pressure coefficient = Cp = −
∂p c operating point
V0 dp cl,p dx C,p
( Cx x v,p − Cppcl,p ) − β dt − K pl ( pcl,p − pcr,p ) = A p dt
V0 dp cr,p dx C,p
( −Cx x v,p − Cp pcr,p ) − β dt + K pl ( pcl,p − pcr,p ) = −A p dt
dx C,p d 2 x C,p
(p cl,p − p cr,p ) A p − B
dt
+ f U,p = M
dt 2
V0s + β ( K pl + C p ) − K pl A ps
Cxβ Cx Cx
p cl x v
K pl −V0s − β ( K pl + C p ) A ps p = x
Cx Cxβ Cx cr v
x C f U
−A p Ap Ms + Bs
2
2C x A p
K=
2A 2p + B ( Cp + 2K pl )
where
β 2A 2p + B ( Cp + 2K pl )
ωn =
MV0
2βM βM
B+ K pl + Cp
V0 V0
ζ=
βM 2
2
V0
2A p + B ( C p + 2K pl )
q3 V0 V0
0
V0
2+ x
q 3 V0 [ xv ]
0 0 0 1 0
q 4 q 4
Ap −A p − B
0
0
M M M
Cx Cp
500
Pcr_lss
Sum4 To Workspace3
0 Distrbance fu Xc_lss
To Workspace
Cx Cp
Gain2 Gain3
Sum2
Qcr_lss
To Workspace5
xV + xv xC
CONTROLLER
PLANT G(s)
Kc
-
xC K c G(s) K c Kω2n
= = 3
x V 1 + K c G(s) s + 2ζωn s 2 + ω2n s + K c Kω2n
0.018
0.016
0.014
0.012
solid: nonlinear
xC (in) dashed: linear
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
time (sec)
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 147
Nonlinear and Linear Simulation Results: Qcl vs. time
25
20
15
solid: nonlinear
Qcl (in3/sec) dashed: linear
10
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
time (sec)
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 148
Nonlinear and Linear Simulation Results: Qcr vs. time
0
-5
-10
solid: nonlinear
Qcr (in3/sec) dashed: linear
-15
-20
-25
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
time (sec)
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 149
Nonlinear and Linear Simulation Results: pcl time
800
750
700
solid: nonlinear
pcl (psig)
dashed: linear
650
600
550
500
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
time (sec)
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 150
Nonlinear and Linear Simulation Results: pcr vs. time
550
500
450
solid: nonlinear
pcr (psig) 400
dashed: linear
350
300
250
200
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
time (sec)
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 151
Open-Loop Frequency Response Plots with Kc = 1
Bode Diagrams
60
40
20
0
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)
-20
-40
-100
-150
-200
-250
-1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
20
-40
-100
-150
-200
-250
2 3
10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
-40
-50
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
2 3 4
10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
input_l_nl Cx Cp
Sum1 Pcl_l_nl
Xv Step Command Sum3
Qcl_l_nl To Workspace2
To Workspace4
Delay
500
.01
Sum x' = Ax+Bu Constant
Sign Gain4 Mux Demux
y = Cx+Du
Mux
System Demux
Pcr_l_nl
Xc_l_nl Sum4 To Workspace3
0 Distrbance fu
To Workspace
time_l_nl Cx Cp
Clock To Workspace1
Gain2 Gain3
Sum2
Qcr_l_nl
To Workspace5
0.025
0.02
A C
xc (in) 0.015
0.01
B
0.005
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
time (sec)
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 156
Simulink Block Diagram: Linear System with Proportional Control
Cx Cp
time_l_p Ga i n Ga i n 1
Cl o ck To Workspace1 Su m 1 Pcl_l_p
Su m 3 To Workspace2
input_l_p Qcl_l_p
To Workspace6 To Workspace4
500
Cx Cp
Ga i n 2 Ga i n 3
Su m 2
Qcr_l_p
To Workspace5
3000
2 1
2000
4 3
1000
1 2 3 4
Imag Axis
-1000
4 3
-2000
2 1
-3000
-4000
-4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Real Axis
Kc = 3.70
0.025
0.02
xC (in) 0.015
Kc = 1.36
0.01
Kc = 1.0
0.005
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
time (sec)
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 160
Closed-Loop Frequency Response Plots
Bode Diagrams
Kc =3.70
0
Kc =1.0 Kc =1.36
-20
-40
-60
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)
-80
-100
-50
Kc =3.70
Kc =1.0 Kc =1.36
-100
-150
-200
-250
1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Imaginary Axis
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1
Real Axis
1
Imaginary Axis
-1
-2
-3
1
Imaginary Axis
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5
Real Axis
β 2A 2p + B ( Cp + 2K pl )
ωn =
MV0
2βM βM
B+ K pl + Cp
V0 V0
ζ=
βM 2
2 2A p + B ( Cp + 2K pl )
V0
Sensors & Actuators for Mechatronics K. Craig
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 165
• Neglect leakage (Kpl = 0) and consider the load as
mainly inertia (B = 0, friction is ignored). The
closed-loop transfer function becomes:
K cCx
xC Ap
=
xV V0 M 3 MC p 2 K cCx
s + s + s +
2βA 2p 2A p2 Ap
k0 > kv