Theories of Personality Outline

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Theories Of Personality outline
Psychology (Universidad de La Laguna)
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lOMoARcPSD|3543244
a road
oad ma!
ma! *or
*or ma#i
ma#ing
ng day
day$to$
$to$da
day
y
decisions4 Levels of &ental Life
.=0 be internally consistent and have a Freud sa- mental *unctioning as o!erating on
set o* o!erational de5nitions4
de5nitions4 and three
three levels:
levels: unconscio
unconscious6
us6 !reconsc
!reconscious
ious66 and
.>0 be !arsim
!arsimoni
onious
ous66 or as sim!le
sim!le as conscious2
!ossible2
Un*ons*io(s
The unconscious includes drives and
instincts that are beyond a-areness but
that motivate
motivate most human human behavior
behaviors2 s2
Di)ensions for a Con*e+t of H()anity Bnconscious drives can become
Perso
ersona
nali
lity
ty theo
theori
rist
sts
s have
have hadhad di3e
di3errent
ent conscious only in disguised or distorted
conce!tions o* human nature6 and the authors *orm6
*orm6 such
such as drea
dreamm images
images66 sli!s
sli!s o*
list
list si,
si, dime
dimensnsio
ions
ns *or*or com!
com!ararin
ing
g thes
thesee the
the tong
tongue
ue66 or neurneurot
otic
ic sym!
sym!to toms
ms22
conc
conce!
e!ti
tion
ons2s2 Thes
Thesee dime
dimens
nsio
ions
ns incl
includ
ude
e Bnconscio
Bnconsciousus !rocess
!rocesseses originat
originatee *rom
*rom
deter
determin
minism
ism versu
versuss *ree
*ree choice
choice66 !essim
!essimismism t-o
t-o sour
source
ces:
s: ./0
./0 re!r
e!ressi
ession
on66 or thethe
versus
versus o!timism6
o!timism6 causalit
causalityy versus
versus teleology
teleology66 bloc#ing o ut o* an,iety$5lled
conscious versus unconscious determinants o* e,!e
e,!eririen
ence
ces
s and .10.10 !hyl
!hylog
ogen
enet
etic
ic
behavior6 biological versus social inuences on endo-ment
endo-ment66 or inherite
inherited
d e,!erie
e,!eriences
nces
!ersonality6 and uni?ueness versus similarities that lie beyond an individual7s !ersonal
among !eo!le2 e,!erience2
Resear*h in Personality Theory Pre*ons*io(s

In resear
researching
ching human
human behavior
behavior66 !ersonal
!ersonality
ity The !reconscious
!reconscious contains images that
theo
theorrists
ists o*te
o*ten
n use var
various
ious measu
easurring
ing are
are not
not in a-ar
a-aren
enes
ess
s but
but that
that can
can
!roce
!rocedur
dures6
es6 and these
these !roce
!rocedur
dures
es must
must be become conscious either ?uite easily or
both reliable and valid2 Reliability re*ers to a -ith some level o* diCculty2
measurin
measuring g instrumen
instrument7s
t7s consiste
consistency
ncy -hereas
-hereas
validity re*ers to its accuracy
accuracy or truth*ulness2 Cons*io(s
'onsciousness !lays a relatively minor
role in Freudian theory2 'onscious ideas
PSYCHODYNA&IC
PSYCHODYNA&IC THEORIES stem
stem *rom
*rom eith
either
er the
the !er
!erce!t
ce!tio
ion
n o*
e,ter
ternal
nal stimu
timuli
li .our
.our !erc
erce!tu
e!tua
al
FREUD, PSYCHOANALYSIS conscious system0 or *rom the
uncons
unconscio
cious
us and !reco !reconsc
nsciou
ious
s a*ter
a*ter
Over
Overvi
view
ew of Fre(#
re(#%s
%s Psy*
Psy*hohoan
anal
alyt
yti*
i* they have evaded censorshi!2
censorshi!2
Theory
igmund Freud7s !sychoanalysis has endured Provin*es of the &in#
because it ./0 !ostulated the !rimacy o* se, Freud conce!tuali8ed three regions o* the mind
and
and aggr
aggres
essi
sion
on 9 t-o
t-o univ
univer
ersa
sall
lly
y !o!u
!o!ulalarr 9 the id6 the ego6 and the su!erego2
themes6
.10 attra
attracte
ctedd a grou!
grou! o* *ollo-
*ollo-ers
ers -ho
-ho -ere
-ere The I#
dedi
dedica
cate
ted
d to s!rea
!read
ding
ing !syc
!sychohoa
analy
nalyttic The id6 -hich is com!letely
doctrine6 and unco
unconsnsci
ciou
ous6
s6 serv
serves
es the the !lea
!leasu
surre
.;0
.;0 adva
advancnced
ed the
the noti
notion
on o* uncouncons
nsci
ciou
ouss !rin
!rincci!le
i!le and contaontaiins our our basic
motives6 -hich !ermit varying e,!lanations
e,!lanations *or inst
instin
inct
cts2
s2 It o!er
o!erat
ates
es thrthrough
ough the
the
the same observations2 !rimary !rocess2
-io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# The E.o

&orn in the '8ech Re!ublic in /@=>6 igmund The ego6 or secondary !rocess6 is
Freud s!ent most o* his li*e in ienna2 In his governed by the reality !rinci!le and is
!rac
!racti
tice
ce as a !syc!sychi
hiat
atri
rist
st66 he -as
-as mor
more res!onsible *or reconciling the
intereste
interestedd in learning
learning about
about the unconscio
unconscious
us unrealistic demands o* the id and the
motives
motives o* !atients
!atients than in curing
curing neuroses
neuroses22 su!erego2
"arly in his !ro*essional career6 Freud
Freud believed
that
that hyster
hysteria
ia -as a resul
resultt o* being
being seduce
seducedd The S(+ere.o
during childhood by a se,ually mature !erson6 The su!erego6 -hich serves the
o*ten a !arent or other relative2 idealistic !rinci!le6 has t-o subsystems

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
a road
oad ma!
ma! *or
*or ma#i
ma#ing
ng day
day$to$
$to$da
day
y
decisions4 Levels of &ental Life
.=0 be internally consistent and have a Freud sa- mental *unctioning as o!erating on
set o* o!erational de5nitions4
de5nitions4 and three
three levels:
levels: unconscio
unconscious6
us6 !reconsc
!reconscious
ious66 and
.>0 be !arsim
!arsimoni
onious
ous66 or as sim!le
sim!le as conscious2
!ossible2
Un*ons*io(s
The unconscious includes drives and
instincts that are beyond a-areness but
that motivate
motivate most human human behavior
behaviors2 s2
Di)ensions for a Con*e+t of H()anity Bnconscious drives can become
Perso
ersona
nali
lity
ty theo
theori
rist
sts
s have
have hadhad di3e
di3errent
ent conscious only in disguised or distorted
conce!tions o* human nature6 and the authors *orm6
*orm6 such
such as drea
dreamm images
images66 sli!s
sli!s o*
list
list si,
si, dime
dimensnsio
ions
ns *or*or com!
com!ararin
ing
g thes
thesee the
the tong
tongue
ue66 or neurneurot
otic
ic sym!
sym!to toms
ms22
conc
conce!
e!ti
tion
ons2s2 Thes
Thesee dime
dimens
nsio
ions
ns incl
includ
ude
e Bnconscio
Bnconsciousus !rocess
!rocesseses originat
originatee *rom
*rom
deter
determin
minism
ism versu
versuss *ree
*ree choice
choice66 !essim
!essimismism t-o
t-o sour
source
ces:
s: ./0
./0 re!r
e!ressi
ession
on66 or thethe
versus
versus o!timism6
o!timism6 causalit
causalityy versus
versus teleology
teleology66 bloc#ing o ut o* an,iety$5lled
conscious versus unconscious determinants o* e,!e
e,!eririen
ence
ces
s and .10.10 !hyl
!hylog
ogen
enet
etic
ic
behavior6 biological versus social inuences on endo-ment
endo-ment66 or inherite
inherited
d e,!erie
e,!eriences
nces
!ersonality6 and uni?ueness versus similarities that lie beyond an individual7s !ersonal
among !eo!le2 e,!erience2
Resear*h in Personality Theory Pre*ons*io(s

In resear
researching
ching human
human behavior
behavior66 !ersonal
!ersonality
ity The !reconscious
!reconscious contains images that
theo
theorrists
ists o*te
o*ten
n use var
various
ious measu
easurring
ing are
are not
not in a-ar
a-aren
enes
ess
s but
but that
that can
can
!roce
!rocedur
dures6
es6 and these
these !roce
!rocedur
dures
es must
must be become conscious either ?uite easily or
both reliable and valid2 Reliability re*ers to a -ith some level o* diCculty2
measurin
measuring g instrumen
instrument7s
t7s consiste
consistency
ncy -hereas
-hereas
validity re*ers to its accuracy
accuracy or truth*ulness2 Cons*io(s
'onsciousness !lays a relatively minor
role in Freudian theory2 'onscious ideas
PSYCHODYNA&IC
PSYCHODYNA&IC THEORIES stem
stem *rom
*rom eith
either
er the
the !er
!erce!t
ce!tio
ion
n o*
e,ter
ternal
nal stimu
timuli
li .our
.our !erc
erce!tu
e!tua
al
FREUD, PSYCHOANALYSIS conscious system0 or *rom the
uncons
unconscio
cious
us and !reco !reconsc
nsciou
ious
s a*ter
a*ter
Over
Overvi
view
ew of Fre(#
re(#%s
%s Psy*
Psy*hohoan
anal
alyt
yti*
i* they have evaded censorshi!2
censorshi!2
Theory
igmund Freud7s !sychoanalysis has endured Provin*es of the &in#
because it ./0 !ostulated the !rimacy o* se, Freud conce!tuali8ed three regions o* the mind
and
and aggr
aggres
essi
sion
on 9 t-o
t-o univ
univer
ersa
sall
lly
y !o!u
!o!ulalarr 9 the id6 the ego6 and the su!erego2
themes6
.10 attra
attracte
ctedd a grou!
grou! o* *ollo-
*ollo-ers
ers -ho
-ho -ere
-ere The I#
dedi
dedica
cate
ted
d to s!rea
!read
ding
ing !syc
!sychohoa
analy
nalyttic The id6 -hich is com!letely
doctrine6 and unco
unconsnsci
ciou
ous6
s6 serv
serves
es the the !lea
!leasu
surre
.;0
.;0 adva
advancnced
ed the
the noti
notion
on o* uncouncons
nsci
ciou
ouss !rin
!rincci!le
i!le and contaontaiins our our basic
motives6 -hich !ermit varying e,!lanations
e,!lanations *or inst
instin
inct
cts2
s2 It o!er
o!erat
ates
es thrthrough
ough the
the
the same observations2 !rimary !rocess2
-io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# The E.o

&orn in the '8ech Re!ublic in /@=>6 igmund The ego6 or secondary !rocess6 is
Freud s!ent most o* his li*e in ienna2 In his governed by the reality !rinci!le and is
!rac
!racti
tice
ce as a !syc!sychi
hiat
atri
rist
st66 he -as
-as mor
more res!onsible *or reconciling the
intereste
interestedd in learning
learning about
about the unconscio
unconscious
us unrealistic demands o* the id and the
motives
motives o* !atients
!atients than in curing
curing neuroses
neuroses22 su!erego2
"arly in his !ro*essional career6 Freud
Freud believed
that
that hyster
hysteria
ia -as a resul
resultt o* being
being seduce
seducedd The S(+ere.o
during childhood by a se,ually mature !erson6 The su!erego6 -hich serves the
o*ten a !arent or other relative2 idealistic !rinci!le6 has t-o subsystems

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
9 the conscience and the ego$ideal2 The

conscience results *rom !unishment *or Un#oin. an# Isolation
im!ro
im!ro!er
!er behavi
behavior
or -here
-hereas
as the ego$ Bndo
Bndoining
g is thethe ego7
ego7ss atte
attem!
m!tt to do
ideal
ideal stems
stems *rom
*rom re-a
re-ard
rds
s *or socia
socially
lly a-ay -ith un!leasant e,!eriences and
acce!table behavior2 their conse?uences
conse?uences66 usually
usually by means
means
o* re!et
e!etit
itio
ious
us cer
ceremon
emonia iall acti
action
ons2
s2
Dyna)i*s of Personality Isol
Isolat
atio
ion6
n6 in cont
contra
rast
st66 is mar#
mar#ed
ed by
)ynamics o* !ersonality re*ers to those *orces obsess
obsessive
ive though
thoughtsts and involv
involves
es the
that motivate !eo!le2 ego7s attem!t to isolate an e,!erience
by surro
surround
unding
ing it -ith
-ith a blac#
blac#ed$o
ed$out
ut
Instin*ts region o* insensibility2
Freud
eud grou
grou!e!edd all
all huma
human n driv
driveses or
urges under t-o6 !rimary instincts 9 se, Rea*tion For)ation
."ros or the li*e instinct0 and aggression A reaction *ormation is mar#ed by the
.the death or destructive instinct02 The re!r
e!ressi
ession
on o* one
one im!u
im!uls
lse
e and
and the
the
aim o* the se,ual instinct is !leasure6 ostent
ostentat
atiou
ious
s e,!r
e,!ress
ession
ion o* its e,act
e,act
-hic
-hichh can
can be gained ined thr
through
ough the the o!!osite2
erogenous 8ones6 es!ecially the mouth6
anus6
anus6 and genitals
genitals22 The object
object o* the Dis+la*e)ent
se,ua
se,uall instin
instinct
ct is any
any !erson
!erson or thing
thing )is!lacement ta#es !lace -hen !eo!le
that brings se,ual !leasure2 All in*ants redir
edirec
ectt thei
theirr un-a
un-antnted
ed urge
urges
s onto
onto
!osses
!ossess s !rima
!rimary ry narcis
narcissis
sism6
m6 or sel* sel*$$ othe
otherr obje
object
cts
s or !eo!
!eo!lele in orde
orderr to
cen
center
teredn
edness6
ess6 but the secon
econd dary disguise the original im!ulse2
narcissism o* adolescence and
adulthood is not universal2 &oth sadism Fi/ation
.re
.receivi
eivinng se,ua
,ual !leasur
sure *rom
*rom Fi,ation develo!s -hen !sychic energy
inicting !ain on another0 and is bloc#ed at one stage o* develo!ment6
masochism
masochism .recei
.receiving
ving se,ual
se,ual !leasur
!leasure e ma#ing !sychological change diCcult2
*rom !ain*ul
!ain*ul e,!erie
e,!eriences
nces00 satis*y
satis*y both
se,u
se,ual
al and
and aggraggres
essi
sive
ve driv
drives
es22 The
The Re.ression
destru
destructi
ctive
ve instin
instinct
ct aims
aims to retur
return n a Regr
Regressi
ession
on occurs
occurs -henever
-henever a !erson
!erson
!erson to an inorganic state6 but it is reverts to earlier6 more in*antile modes
ordinarily directed against other !eo!le o* behavior2
and is called aggression2
Pro0e*tion
An/iety Proj
Projec
ecti
tion
on is seei
seeing
ng in othe
others
rs thos
those
e
Freud
eud beli
believ
eved
ed only
only the
the egoego *eel
*eels
s unacce!table *eelings or behaviors that
an,i
an,iet
ety6
y6 but
but the
the id6
id6 su!e
su!errego6
ego6 and
and actually reside in one7s o-n
outside -orld can each be a source o* unconscious2 Ehen carried to e,treme6
an,iety
an,iety22 Deurotic
Deurotic an,iety
an,iety stems
stems *rom
*rom !rojection can become !aranoia6 -hich
the ego7s
ego7s rela
relatio
tion
n -ith
-ith the id4 moral
moral is char
haracte
cteri8ed
i8ed by deluslusion
ions o*
an,iet
an,ietyy is simila
similarr to guilt
guilt and resul
results
ts !ersecution2
*ro
*rom the ego7s relation -ith the
su!erego4 and realistic an,iety6 -hich is Intro0e*tion
similar to *ear6 is !roduced by the ego7s Intro
Introjec
jectio
tions
ns ta#e
ta#e !lace
!lace -hen
-hen !eo!le
!eo!le
relation -ith the real -orld2 incor!orate !ositive ?ualities o* another
!ers
!erson
on into
into thei
theirr o-n
o-n ego
ego to reduc
educe
e
Defense &e*hanis)s *eelings o* in*eriority2
Acco
Accord
rdin
ing
g to Freud6
eud6 de*e
de*ens
nse
e mech
mechananis
isms
ms
o!erate to !rotect the ego against the !ain o* S(1li)ation
an,iety2 ublim
ublimati
ation
on involv
involves
es the elevat
elevation
ion o*
the se,ua
se,uall instin
instinct7
ct7s
s aim
aim to a higher
higher
Re+ression level6
level6 -hich
-hich !ermit
!ermits s !eo!le
!eo!le to ma#e
ma#e
Re!ression
Re!ression involves *orcing un-anted6 contributions to society and culture2
an,iet
an,iety$l
y$load
oaded
ed e,!er
e,!erien
iences
ces into
into the
unconscious2 It is the most basic o* all Sta.es of Develo+)ent
de*ense
de*ense mechanis
mechanisms
ms because
because it is an
active !rocess in each o* the others2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Freud
eud sa-
sa- !syc
!sycho
hose
se,u
,ual
al deve
develo
lo!m
!men
entt as Freud erected his theory on the dreams6 *ree
!roceeding *rom birth to maturity though *our associations6 sli!s o* the tongue6 and neurotic
overla!!ing stages2 sym!toms o* his !atients during thera!y2 &ut
he also
also gather
gathered
ed in*or
in*ormat
mation
ion *rom
*rom histor
history6
y6
Infantile Perio# literature6
literature6 and -or#s o* art2
The in*antile stage encom!asses the
5rst < to = years o* li*e and is divided Fre(#%s Early Thera+e(ti*
into three
three sub$!hase
sub$!hases: s: oral6
oral6 anal6
anal6 and Te*hni3(e
!hallic2 )uring the oral phase6
phase6 an in*ant )ur
)uring the the /@
/@
s
s6 Freud used
used an
is !rimaimarily
rily motiv
otivaated
ted to rece eceive
ive aggre
aggressi
ssive
ve thera!
thera!eut
eutic
ic techni
techni?ue
?ue in
!leasure
!leasure through the mouth2 )uring the -hich he strongly suggested to !atients
second year o* li*e6 a child goes through that they had been se,ually seduced as
the anal
anal phase
phase22 I* !are arents
nts are too too children2
!uni
!uniti
tive
ve duri
during
ng the
the anal
anal !has!hase6e6 the
the He late
laterr dro!
dro!!e
!ed
d his
his tech
techni
ni?u
?ue
e and
and
child
child may
may become
become an anal anal chara
characte
cter6
r6 abandoned his belie* that most !atients
-ith
-ith thethe analnal tria
triall o* ord orderl
erliness
ness66 had been seduced during childhood2
stingines
stinginess6s6 and obstinac
obstinacy y2 )uring
)uring the
phallic phase6
phase6 boys and girls begin to Fre(#%s Later Thera+e(ti*
have di3ering !sychose,ual Te*hni3(e
develo
develo!me!ment2
nt2 At this
this time6
time6 boysboys and &egi
&eginn
nnin
ing
g in the the late
late /@
/@s6s6 Freud
eud
girls e,!erience the Oedi!us com!le, in ado!ted a much more !assive ty!e o*
-hich they have se,ual *eelings *or one !sychothera!y6 one that relied heavily
!arent and hostile *eelings *or the other2 on *ree association6 dream
The male castration com!le,6 -hich inter!re
inter!retati
tation6
on6 and trans*er
trans*erence
ence22 The
ta#es
ta#es the *orm*orm o* castr
castrati
ation
on an,iet
an,iety6y6 goal o* Freud7s later !sychothera!y -as
brea
brea#s
#s u! the malemale Oedi!u
Oedi!us s com!le
com!le, , to uncove
uncoverr re!r
re!ress
essed
ed memori
memories6es6 and
and
and resul
esults
ts in a -ell$ ell$*o
*orrmed
med malemale the thera!ist uses dream analysis and
su!e
su!errego
ego2 For girl girls6
s6 ho-eho-eve ver6
r6 the
the *ree
*ree asso
associciat
atio
ion
n to do so2 so2 Eith
ith *ree
*ree
castration com!le,6 in the *orm o* !enis association6 !atients are re?uired to say
envy
envy66 !rec
!recededes
es the
the *ema
*emale le Oedi
Oedi!u
!us s -hat
-hatevever
er come
comes s to mind
mind66 no matt
matter
er
com!le,6 a situation that leads to only a ho- irrelevant or distaste*ul2 uccess*ul
gradual
gradual and incom!let
incom!lete e shatterin
shattering g o* thera!y rests on the !atient7s
the
the *ema
*emalele Oedi
Oedi!u
!uss com!
com!le le,, and
and a tran
trans*
s*er
eren
ence
ce o* chilchildh
dhoo
oodd se,u
se,ualal or
-ea#er6 more e,ible *emale su!erego2 aggressi
aggressiveve *eelings
*eelings onto the thera!is
thera!istt
and
and a-ay
a-ay *rom
*rom sym!
sym!tom
tom *orm
*ormat
atio
ion2
n2
Laten*y Perio# Patien
Patients7
ts7 resista
resistance
nce to change
change can be
Freud
eud beli
believ
eved
ed that
that !syc
!sychohose
se,u
,ual
al seen as !rogre
!rogressss because
because it indicate
indicatess
develo
develo!me
!ment
nt goes
goes throug
through
h a laten
latency
cy that
that ther
thera!
a!yy has
has adva
advanc
nced
ed beyo
beyondnd
stage 9 *rom about age = until !uberty 9 su!er5cial conversation2
conversation2
in -hich the se,ual instinct is !artially
su!!ressed2 Drea) Analysis
In inter!reting dreams6 Freud
2enital Perio# di3e
di3errenti
entiat
ated
ed thethe mani
mani*e*est
st cont
conten
entt
The genital !eriod begins -ith !uberty6 .conscious descri!tion0 *rom the latent
-hen adolescents e,!erience a conten
contentt .the
.the uncons
unconscio
cious
us meanin
meaning02
g02
rea-a#ening o* the genital aim o* "ros2 Dearly all dreams are -ish$*ul5llments6
The term genital !eriodG should not be although the -ish is usually
con*used -ith !hallic !eriod2G unco
unconsnsci
ciou
ous s and
and can
can be #no- #no-n n only
only
thr
through
ough drea
dreamm inte
inter!
r!rretat
etatio
ion2
n2 To
&at(rity inte
inter!
r!rret drea
dreams
ms66 Freud
eud used used both
both
Freud
Freud hinted at a stage o* !sychological drea
dreamm symb
symbol ols
s and
and thethe drea
dreame
mer7
r7s
s
maturity in -hich the ego -ould be in associations to the dream content2
control o* the id and su!erego and in
-hich consciousness -ould !lay a more Fre(#ian Sli+s
im!ortant role in behavior2 Freud believed that !ara!ra,es6 or so$
called
called Freudi
reudian
an sli!s6
sli!s6 are
are not chanc
chancee
A++li*ations of Psy*hoanalyti* Theory% accidents but reveal a !erson7s true but
unconscious intentions2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Relate# Resear*h
Freudian theory has generated a large amount
o* relat
elated
ed resea
esearrch6
ch6 incl
includ
udin
ing
g stud
studie
ies
s on ADLER, INDI4IDUAL PSYCHOLO2Y
PSYCHOLO2Y
de*ense mechanisms and oral 5,ation2
Overview of A#ler%s In#ivi#(al Psy*holo.y
Defense &e*hanis)s An original member o* Freud7s !sychoanalytic
eorge alliant has added to the list o* grou!6 Al*red Adler bro#e *rom that grou! and
Freudian de*ense mechanisms and has advoca
advocated
ted a theory
theory o* !erson
!ersonal
ality
ity that
that -as
-as
*ound evidence that some o* them are nearly diametrically o!!osed to that o* Freud2
neurotic .reaction *ormation6 Eher
Eherea
eass Freud7
eud7s
s vie-
vie- o* huma humani nity
ty -as
-as
ideali
ideali8a
8atio
tion6
n6 and undoi
undoing0ng066 some
some are are !essimistic and rooted in biology6 Adler7s vie-
immature and malada!tive .!rojection6 -as o!timistic6 idealistic6 and rooted in *amily
isolat
isolation
ion66 denial
denial66 dis
dis!la
!lacem
cementent66 and e,!eriences2
dissociation06 and some are mature and
ada!ti
ada!tive
ve .subli
.sublimat
mation
ion66 su!!r
su!!ress
ession
ion66 -io.ra+hy of Alfre# A#ler
humor6
humor6 and altru altruism
ism0202 allia
alliant
nt *ound
*ound Al*red Adler -as born in /@ in a to-n near
that neurotic de*ense mechanisms are ienna6
ienna6 a second
second son o* middle$cl
middle$class
ass Je-ish
success*ul
*ul over the short term4 !arents2 %i#e Freud6 Adler -as a !hysician6 and
immat
immatururee de*ens
de*enses
es areare unsucc
unsuccessess*ul
*ul in /1
/166 he becabecameme a charcharteterr memb
member er o*
and have the highest degree o* Freud7s
reud7s organi8
organi8ation
ation22 Ho-ever6
Ho-ever6 !ersonal
!ersonal and
distortion4 -hereas mature and !ro*essional di3erences bet-een the t-o men
ada!tive
ada!tive de*enses
de*enses areare success*
success*ul ul over led
led to Ad Adleler7
r7ss de!a
de!artrtur
ure
e *rom
*rom the the ienn
ienna a
the long term6
term6 ma,imi8
ma,imi8e e grati5ca
grati5cation6
tion6 Psych
Psychoan
oanaly
alytic
tic ociet
ocietyy in ///2
///2 Ad Adler
ler soon
soon
and have the least amount o* distortion2 *oun
*oundeded
d his o-n o-n grougrou!6
!6 the
the ocociety
iety *or *or
Individual Psychology2
Psychology2 Adler7s strengths -ere
Oral Fi/ation his
his ener
energegeti
tic
c oral
oral !res
!resen
enta
tati
tion
onss and
and his his
ome recent
recent research
research has *ound that ins
insigh
ight*u
t*ul abilit
ility
y to und
unders
erstan
tand *amily
mily
aggression is higher in !eo!le -ho bite dyna
dynamimics
cs22 He -as -as notnot a gi*t
gi*ted
ed -rit
-riter
er66 a
thei
theirr 5nge
5ngerr nail
nails
s that
that it is non$
non$na
nail
il limitation that may have !revented individual
bite
biters
rs66 es!e
es!eci
cial
ally
ly in -ome
-omen2
n2 Othe
Otherr !sycholog
!sychology y *rom attainin
attainingg -orld
-orld recognit
recognitionion
resea
esearrch *oun
*ound d that
that !eo!
!eo!le
le -ho
-ho are
are e?ual to Freud7s !sychoanalysis2
orally 5,ated tend to see their !arents
more negatively
negatively than did !eo!le
!eo!le -ho Intro#(*tion to A#lerian Theory
-ere less orally 5,ated2 Although Adler7s individual !sychology is both
com!le, and com!rehensive6 its main tenets
Criti3(e of Fre(# can be stated in sim!le *orm2
Freud
reud regar
regarded
ded himsel
himsel** as a scientscientis
ist6
t6 but
many
many critcritic
ics
s cons
considider
er his
his meth
methodods
s to be Strivin. for S(**ess or S(+eriority
outdat
outdated6
ed6 unscie
unscienti
nti5c6
5c6 and !ermea
!ermeated
ted -ith
-ith The sole dynamic
dynamic *orce behind !eo!le7s
!eo!le7s actions
gender
gender bias2
bias2 On the si, criter criteria
ia o* a use*ul
use*ul is the striving *or success or su!eriority2
theory
theory66 !sycho
!sychoana
analys
lysis
is is rated
rated high
high on its
ability
ability to generate
generate research
research66 very lo- on its The Final 2oal
o!en
o!enneness
ss to *als
*alsi5
i5ca
cati
tion
on66 and
and aver
averag
agee on The 5nal goal o* either success or
organ
organi8i
i8ing
ng data6
data6 guidin
guiding g actio
action6
n6 and being
being su!e
su!eri
rior
orit
ity
y to-a
to-ard
rd -hic
-hichh all
all !eo!
!eo!le
le
!arsim
!arsimoni
onious
ous22 &ecau
&ecausese it lac#s
lac#s o!era
o!eratio
tional
nal strive uni5es !ersonality and ma#es all
de5nitions6 it rates lo- on internal consistency2 behavior meaning*ul2
Con*e+t of H()anity The Strivin. For*e as

Freud7s conce!t o* humanity -as deterministic Co)+ensation
and !essimistic2 He em!hasi8ed causality over &ecaus
&ecause e !eo!l
!eo!lee are
are born
born -ith
-ith small
small66
teleol
teleology
ogy66 uncons
unconscio
cious
us deter
determin
minantants
s over
over in*eri
in*erior
or bodie
bodies6
s6 they
they *eel
*eel in*er
in*erior
ior and
conscious !rocesses6 and biology over culture6 attem!
attem!tt to over
overcom
comee these
these *eeli
*eelings
ngs
but he too# a middle !osition on the dimension through their natural tendency to move
o* uni?
uni?ue
uene
ness
ss vers
versus
us simi
simila
lari
riti
ties
es amon
amongg to-ard
to-ard com!leti
com!letion2
on2 The striving
striving *orce
*orce
!eo!le2 can ta#e one o* t-o courses4 !ersonal
gain .su!eriority0 or community bene5t
.success02

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Human behavior has value to the e,tent that it

Strivin. for Personal S(+eriority is motivated by social interest6 that is6 a *eeling
Psychologically unhealthy individuals o* oneness -ith all o* humanity2
strive *or !ersonal su!eriority -ith little
concern *or other !eo!le2 Although they Ori.ins of So*ial Interest
may a!!ear to be interested in other Although social interest e,ists as
!eo!le6 their basic motivation is !otentially in all !eo!le6 it must be
!ersonal bene5t2 *ostered in a social environment2 Adler
believed that the !arent$child
Strivin. for S(**ess relationshi! can be so strong that it
In contrast6 !sychologically healthy negates the e3ects o* heredity2
!eo!le strive *or the success o* all
humanity6 but they do so -ithout losing
their !ersonal identity2
S(10e*tive Per*e+tions I)+ortan*e of So*ial Interest

Peo!le7s subjective vie- o* the -orld 9 not According to Adler6 social interest is
reality 9 sha!es their behavior2 the sole criterion o* human values6G
and the -orthiness o* all one7s actions
Fi*tionalis) must be seen by this standard2 Eithout
Fictions are !eo!le7s e,!ectations o* the social interest6 societies could not e,ist4
*uture2 Adler held that 5ctions guide individuals in anti?uity could not have
behavior6 because !eo!le act as i* survived -ithout coo!erating -ith
these 5ctions are true2 Adler others to !rotect themselves *rom
em!hasi8ed teleology over causality6 or danger2 "ven today6 an in*ant7s
e,!lanations o* behavior in terms o* hel!lessness !redis!oses it to-ard a
*uture goals rather than !ast causes2 nurturing !erson2
Or.an Inferiorities Style of Life

Adler believed that all humans are The manner o* a !erson7s striving is called
blessedG -ith organ in*eriorities6 -hich style o* li*e6 a !attern that is relatively -ell set
stimulate subjective *eelings o* by < or = years o* age2 Ho-ever6 Adler
in*eriority and move !eo!le to-ard believed that healthy individuals are mar#ed
!er*ection or com!letion2 by e,ible behavior and that they have some
limited ability to change their style o* li*e2
Unity an# Self5Consisten*y of Personality
Adler believed that all behaviors are directed Creative Power
to-ard a single !ur!ose2 Ehen seen in the tyle o* li*e is !artially a !roduct o* heredity
light o* that sole !ur!ose6 seemingly and environment 9 the building bloc#s
contradictory behaviors can be seen as !ersonality 9 but ultimately style o* li*e is
o!erating in a sel*$consistent manner2 sha!ed by !eo!le7s creative !o-er6 that is6 by
their ability to *reely choose a course o* action2
Or.an Diale*t
Peo!le o*ten use a !hysical disorder to A1nor)al Develo+)ent
e,!ress style o* li*e6 a condition Adler 'reative !o-er is not limited to healthy
called organ dialect2 !eo!le4 unhealthy individuals also create their
o-n !ersonalities2 Thus6 each o* us is *ree to
Cons*io(s an# Un*ons*io(s choose either a use*ul or a useless style o* li*e2
'onscious and unconscious !rocesses
are uni5ed and o!erate to achieve a 2eneral Des*ri+tion
single goal2 The !art o* our goal that -e The most im!ortant *actor in abnormal
do not clearly understand is develo!ment is lac# o* social interest2 In
unconscious4 the !art o* our goal that addition6 !eo!le -ith a useless style o*
-e *ail to *ully com!rehend is li*e tend to ./0 set their goals too high6
conscious2 .10 have a dogmatic style o* li*e6 and .;0
live in their o-n !rivate -orld2
So*ial Interest
E/ternal Fa*tors in &ala#0(st)ent

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Adler listed three *actors that relate to children are li#ely to have strong social
abnormal develo!ment: interest6 !rovided they do not get
./0 e,aggerated !hysical de5ciencies6 tra!!ed trying to overcome their older
-hich do not by themselves cause sibling2 Loungest children are li#ely to
abnormal develo!ment6 but -hich may be !am!ered and to lac#
contribute to it by generating subjective inde!endence6 -hereas only children
and e,aggerated *eelings o* in*eriority4 have some o* the characteristics o* both
.10 a !am!ered style o* li*e6 -hich the oldest and the youngest child2
contributes to an overriding drive to
establish a !ermanent !arasitic Early Re*olle*tions
relationshi! -ith the mother or a A more reliable method o* determining
mother substitute4 and style o* li*e is to as# !eo!le *or their
.;0 a neglected style o* li*e6 -hich leads earliest recollections2 Adler believed
to distrust o* other !eo!le2 that early memories are tem!lates on
-hich !eo!le !roject their current style
Safe.(ar#in. Ten#en*ies o* li*e2 These recollections need not be
&oth normal and neurotic !eo!le create accurate accounts o* early events4 they
sym!toms as a means o* !rotecting have !sychological im!ortance because
their *ragile sel*$esteem2 These they reect a !erson7s current vie- o*
sa*eguarding tendencies maintain a the -orld2
neurotic style o* li*e and !rotect a
!erson *rom !ublic disgrace2 The three Drea)s
!rinci!al sa*eguarding tendencies are Adler believed that dreams can !rovide
./0 e,cuses -hich allo- !eo!le to clues to solving *uture !roblems2
!reserve their inated sense o* Ho-ever6 dreams are disguised to
!ersonal -orth4 deceive the dreamer and usually must
.10 aggression6 -hich may ta#e the be inter!reted by another !erson2
*orm o* de!reciating others7
accom!lishments6 accusing others o* Psy*hothera+y
being res!onsible *or one7s o-n *ailures6 The goal o* Adlerian thera!y is to create
or sel*$accusation4 and a relationshi! bet-een the thera!ist
.;0 -ithdra-al6 -hich can be e,!ressed and the !atient that *osters social
by !sychologically moving bac#-ard6 interest2 To ensure that the !atient7s
standing still6 hesitating6 or constructing social interest -ill eventually generali8e
obstacles2 to other relationshi!s6 the thera!ist
ado!ts both a maternal and a !aternal
&as*(line Protest role2
&oth men and -omen sometimes
overem!hasi8e the desirability o* being Relate# Resear*h
manly6 a condition Adler called the Although *amily constellation and birth order
masculine !rotest2 The *re?uently *ound have been -idely researched6 a to!ic more
in*erior status o* -omen is not based on !ertinent to Adlerian theory is early
!hysiology but on historical recollections2 Research sho-s that early
develo!ments and social learning2 recollections are related to a number o*
!ersonal traits6 such as de!ression6 alcoholism6
A++li*ations of In#ivi#(al Psy*holo.y criminal behavior6 and success in counseling2
Adler a!!lied the !rinci!les o* individual Other research has sho-n that a change in
!sychology to *amily constellation6 early style o* li*e may be ca!able o* !roducing a
recollections6 dreams6 and !sychothera!y2 change in early recollections2 till other
research suggests that made$u! early
Fa)ily Constellation recollections may be as meaning*ul as actual
Adler believed that !eo!le7s !erce!tion ones2
o* ho- they 5t into their *amily is
related to their style o* li*e2 He claimed Criti3(e of A#ler
that 5rstborns are li#ely to have strong Individual !sychology rates high on its ability
*eelings o* !o-er and su!eriority6 to be to generate research6 organi8e data6 and guide
over!rotective6 and to have more than the !ractitioner2 It receives a moderate rating
their share o* an,iety2 econd$born on !arsimony6 but because it lac#s o!erational

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
de5nitions6 it rates lo- on internal consistency2 nearly lost contact -ith reality6 Jung emerged
It also rates lo- on *alsi5cation because many to become one o* the leading thin#ers o* the
o* its related research 5ndings can be 1th century2 He died in />/ at age @=2
e,!lained by other theories2
Levels of the Psy*he
Con*e+t of H()anity Jung sa- the human !syche as being divided
Adler sa- !eo!le as *or-ard moving6 social into a conscious and an unconscious level6 -ith
animals -ho are motivated by goals they set the latter *urther subdivided into a !ersonal
.both consciously and unconsciously0 *or the and a collective unconscious2
*uture2 Peo!le are ultimately res!onsible *or
their o-n uni?ue style o* li*e2 Thus6 Adler7s Cons*io(s
theory rates high on *ree$choice6 social Images sensed by the ego are said to
inuences6 and uni?ueness4 very high on be conscious2 The ego thus re!resents
o!timism and teleology4 and average on the conscious side o* !ersonality6 and in
unconscious inuences2 the !sychologically mature individual6
the ego is secondary to the sel*2
Personal Un*ons*io(s
The unconscious re*ers to those !sychic
images not sensed by the ego2 ome
unconscious !rocesses o- *rom our
!ersonal e,!eriences6 but others stem
*rom our ancestors7 e,!eriences -ith
universal themes2 Jung divided the
unconscious into the !ersonal
unconscious6 -hich contains the
com!le,es .emotionally toned grou!s o*
related ideas0 and the collective
unconscious6 or ideas that are beyond
our !ersonal e,!eriences and that
originate *rom the re!eated
e,!eriences o* our ancestors2
Colle*tive Un*ons*io(s
6UN2, ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLO2Y 'ollective unconscious images are not
inherited ideas6 but rather they re*er to
Overview of 6(n.%s Analyti*al Psy*holo.y our innate tendency to react in a
'arl Jung believed that !eo!le are e,tremely !articular -ay -henever our !ersonal
com!le, beings -ho !ossess a variety o* e,!eriences stimulate an inherited
o!!osing ?ualities6 such as introversion and !redis!osition to-ard action2 'ontents
e,traversion6 masculinity and *emininity6 and o* the collective unconscious are called
rational and irrational drives2 archety!es2
Ar*hety+es
-io.ra+hy of Carl 6(n. Jung believed that archety!es originate
'arl Jung -as born in -it8erland in /@=6 the through the re!eated e,!eriences o*
oldest surviving child o* an idealistic Protestant our ancestors and that they are
minister and his -i*e2 Jung7s early e,!erience e,!ressed in certain ty!es o* dreams6
-ith !arents .-ho -ere ?uite o!!osite o* each *antasies6 delusions6 and hallucinations2
other0 !robably inuenced his o-n theory o* everal archety!es ac?uire their o-n
!ersonality2 oon a*ter receiving his medical !ersonality6 and Jung identi5ed these
degree he became ac?uainted -ith Freud7s by name2 One is the !ersona 9 the side
-ritings and eventually -ith Freud himsel*2 Dot o* our !ersonality that -e sho- to
long a*ter he traveled -ith Freud to the Bnited others2 Another is the shado- 9 the
tates6 Jung became disenchanted -ith Freud7s dar# side o* !ersonality2 To reach *ull
!anse,ual theories6 bro#e -ith Freud6 and !sychological maturity6 Jung believed6
began his o-n a!!roach to theory and -e must 5rst reali8e or acce!t our
thera!y6 -hich he called analytical !sychology2 shado-2 A second hurdle in achieving
From a critical midli*e crisis6 during -hich he maturity is *or men to acce!t their

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
anima6 or *eminine side6 and *or -omen inuenced more by the real -orld than
to embrace their animus6 or masculine by their subjective !erce!tion6 -hereas
dis!osition2 Other archety!es include introverts rely on their individuali8ed
the great mother .the archety!e o* vie- o* things2 Introverts and e,traverts
nourishment and destruction04 the -ise o*ten mistrust and misunderstand one
old man .the archety!e o* -isdom and another2
meaning04 and the hero .the image -e
have o* a con?ueror -ho van?uishes F(n*tions
evil6 but -ho has a single *atal a-02 The t-o attitudes or e,troversion and
The most com!rehensive archety!e is introversion can combine *our basic
the sel*4 that is6 the image -e have o* *unctions to *orm eight general
*ul5llment6 com!letion6 or !er*ection2 !ersonality ty!es2 The *our *unctions
The ultimate in !sychological maturity are
is sel*$reali8ation6 -hich is symboli8ed ./0 thin#ing6 or recogni8ing the meaning
by the mandala6 or !er*ect geometric o* stimuli4
5gure2 .10 *eeling6 or !lacing a value on
something4
Dyna)i*s of Personality .;0 sensation6 or ta#ing in sensory
Jung believed that the dynamic !rinci!les that stimuli4 and
a!!ly to !hysical energy also a!!ly to !sychic .<0 intuition6 or !erceiving elementary
energy2 These *orces include causality and data that are beyond our a-areness2
teleology as -ell as !rogression and Jung re*erred to thin#ing and *eeling as
regression2 rational *unctions and to sensation and
intuition as irrational *unctions2
Ca(sality an# Teleolo.y
Jung acce!ted a middle !osition Develo+)ent of Personality
bet-een the !hiloso!hical issues o* Dearly uni?ue among !ersonality theorists -as
causality and teleology2 In other -ords6 Jung7s em!hasis on the second hal* o* li*e2 Jung
humans are motivated both by their sa- middle and old age as times -hen !eo!le
!ast e,!eriences and by their may ac?uire the ability to attain sel*$
e,!ectations o* the *uture2 reali8ation2
Pro.ression an# Re.ression Sta.es of Develo+)ent

To achieve sel*$reali8ation6 !eo!le must Jung divided develo!ment into *our
ada!t to both their e,ternal and internal broad stages: ./0 childhood6 -hich lasts
-orlds2 Progression involves ada!tation *rom birth until adolescence4
to the outside -orld and the *or-ard .10 youth6 the !eriod *rom !uberty until
o- o* !sychic energy6 -hereas middle li*e6 -hich is a time *or
regression re*ers to ada!tation to the e,traverted develo!ment and *or being
inner -orld and the bac#-ard o- o* grounded to the real -orld o* schooling6
!sychic energy2 Jung believed that the occu!ation6 courtshi!6 marriage6 and
bac#-ard ste! is essential to a !erson7s *amily4
*or-ard movement to-ard sel*$ .;0 middle li*e6 -hich is a time *rom
reali8ation2 about ;= or < until old age -hen
!eo!le should be ado!ting an
Psy*holo.i*al Ty+es introverted attitude4 and
"ight basic !sychological ty!es emerge *rom .<0 old age6 -hich is a time *or
the union o* t-o attitudes and *our *unctions2 !sychological rebirth6 sel*$reali8ation6
and !re!aration *or death2
Attit(#es Self5Reali7ation
Attitudes are !redis!ositions to act or el*$reali8ation6 or individuation6
react in a characteristic manner2 The involves a !sychological rebirth and an
t-o basic attitudes are introversion6 integration o* various !arts o* the
-hich re*ers to !eo!le7s subjective !syche into a uni5ed or -hole
!erce!tions6 and e,traversion6 -hich individual2 el*$reali8ation re!resents
indicates an orientation to-ard the the highest level o* human
objective -orld2 ",traverts are develo!ment2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Criti3(e of 6(n.
Although Jung considered himsel* as a
6(n.%s &etho#s of Investi.ation scientist6 many o* his -ritings have more o* a
Jung used the -ord association test6 dreams6 !hiloso!hical than a !sychological avor2 As a
and active imagination during the !rocess o* scienti5c theory6 it rates average on its ability
!sychothera!y6 and all these methods to generate research6 but very lo- on its ability
contributed to his theory o* !ersonality2 to -ithstand *alsi5cation2 It is about average
or# Asso*iation Test on its ability to organi8e #no-ledge but lo- on
Jung used the -ord association test each o* the other criteria o* a use*ul theory2
early in his career to uncover Con*e+t of H()anity
com!le,es embedded in the !ersonal Jung sa- !eo!le as e,tremely com!le, beings
unconscious2 The techni?ue re?uires a -ho are !roducts o* both conscious and
!atient to utter the 5rst -ord that unconscious !ersonal e,!eriences2 Ho-ever6
comes to mind a*ter the e,aminer reads !eo!le are also motivated by inherited
a stimulus -ord2 Bnusual res!onses remnants that s!ring *rom the collective
indicate a com!le,2 e,!eriences o* their early ancestors2 &ecause
Jungian theory is a !sychology o* o!!osites6 it
Drea) Analysis receives a moderate rating on the issues o*
Jung believed that dreams may have *ree -ill versus determinism6 o!timism versus
both a cause and a !ur!ose and thus !essimism6 and causality versus teleology2 It
can be use*ul in e,!laining !ast events rates very high on unconscious inuences6 lo-
and in ma#ing decisions about the on uni?ueness6 and lo- on social inuences2
*uture2 &ig dreamsG and ty!ical
dreams6G both o* -hich come *rom the
collective unconscious6 have meaning
that lie beyond the e,!eriences o* a
single individual2
A*tive I)a.ination
Jung also used active imagination to
arrive at collective images2 This
techni?ue re?uires the !atient to
concentrate on a single image until that
image begins to a!!ear in a di3erent
*orm2 "ventually6 the !atient should see
5gures that re!resent archety!es and
other collective unconscious images2
Psy*hothera+y
The goal o* Jungian thera!y is to hel!
neurotic !atients become healthy and
to move healthy !eo!le in the direction
o* sel*$reali8ation2 Jung -as eclectic in
his choice o* thera!eutic techni?ues
and treated old !eo!le di3erently than
the young2
Relate# Resear*h
Although Jungian !sychology has not
generated large volumes o* research6 some
investigators have used the (yers$&riggs Ty!e
Indicator to e,amine the idea o* !sychological
ty!es2 ome research suggests that e,traverts
and introverts have di3erent !re*erences in
their choice o* !artners2 Other researchers
have re!orted that !ersonality ty!e is related
to academic !er*ormance and success2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
li*e2 Their most basic *antasies are

images o* the goodG breast and the
badG breast2
O10e*ts
Klein agreed -ith Freud that drives
have an object6 but she -as more li#ely
to em!hasi8e the child7s relationshi!
-ith these objects .!arents7 *ace6
8LEIN, O-6ECT RELATIONS THEORY hands6 breast6 !enis6 etc206 -hich she
sa- as having a li*e o* their o-n -ithin
Overview of O10e*t Relations Theory the child7s *antasy -orld2
(any !ersonality theorists have acce!ted
some o* Freud7s basic assum!tions -hile Positions
rejecting others2 One a!!roach to e,tending In their attem!ts to reduce the conict
!sychoanalytic theory has been the object !roduced by good and bad images6 in*ants
relations theories o* (elanie Klein and others2 organi8e their e,!erience into !ositions6 or
Bnli#e Jung and Adler6 -ho came to reject -ays o* dealing -ith both internal and e,ternal
Freud7s ideas6 Klein tried to validate Freud7s objects2
theories2 In essence Klein e,tended Freud7s
develo!mental stages do-n-ard to the 5rst < Paranoi#5S*hi7oi# Position
to > months a*ter birth2 The struggles that in*ants e,!erience
-ith the good breast and the bad breast
-io.ra+hy of &elanie 8lein lead to t-o se!arate and o!!osing
(elanie Klein -as born in ienna in /@16 the *eelings: a desire to harbor the breast
youngest o* *our children2 he had neither a and a desire to bite or destroy it2 To
Ph2)2 nor an (2)2 degree but became an tolerate these t-o *eelings6 the ego
analyst by being !sychoanaly8ed2 As an s!lits itsel* by retaining !arts o* its li*e
analyst6 she s!eciali8ed in -or#ing -ith young and death instincts -hile !rojecting
children2 In /16 she moved to %ondon -here other !arts onto the breast2 It then has
she !racticed until her death in />2 a relationshi! -ith the ideal breast and
the !ersecutory breast2 To control his
Intro#(*tion to O10e*t Relations Theory situations6 in*ants ado!t the !aranoid$
Object relations theory di3ers *rom Freudian schi8oid !osition6 -hich is a tendency to
theory in at least three -ays: see the -orld as having both
./0 it !laces more em!hasis on inter!ersonal destructive and omni!otent ?ualities2
relationshi!s6 .10 it stresses the in*ant7s
relationshi! -ith the mother rather than the De+ressive Position
*ather6 and &y de!ressive !osition6 Klein meant the
.;0 it suggests that !eo!le are motivated an,iety that in*ants e,!erience around
!rimarily *or human contact rather than *or > months o* age over losing their
se,ual !leasure2 mother and yet6 at the same time6
The term object in object relations theory -anting to destroy her2 The de!ressive
re*ers to any !erson or !art o* a !erson that !osition is resolved -hen in*ants
in*ants introject6 or ta#e into their !sychic *antasi8e that they have made u! *or
structure and then later !roject onto other their mother and also reali8e that their
!eo!le2 mother -ill not abandon them2
Psy*hi* Life of the Infant Psy*hi* Defense &e*hanis)s

Klein believed that in*ants begin li*e -ith an According to Klein6 children ado!t various
inherited !redis!osition to reduce the an,iety !sychic de*ense mechanisms to !rotect their
that they e,!erience as a conse?uence o* the ego against an,iety aroused by their o-n
clash bet-een the li*e instinct and the death destructive *antasies2
instinct2
Intro0e*tion
Fantasies Klein de5ned introjection as the *antasy
Klein assumed that very young in*ants o* ta#ing into one7s o-n body the
!ossess an active6 unconscious *antasy images that one has o* an e,ternal

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
object6 es!ecially the mother7s breast2 Oe#i+(s Co)+le/

In*ants usually introject good objects as Klein believed that the Oedi!us
a !rotection against an,iety6 but they com!le, begins during the 5rst *e-
also introject bad objects in order to months o* li*e then reaches its 8enith
gain control o* them2 during the genital stage6 at about ; or <
years o* age6 or the same time that
Pro0e*tion Freud had suggested it began2 Klein
The *antasy that one7s o-n *eelings and also held that much o* the Oedi!us
im!ulses reside -ithin another !erson com!le, is based on children7s *ear that
is called !rojection2 'hildren !roject their !arents -ill see# revenge against
both good and bad images6 es!ecially them *or their *antasy o* em!tying the
onto their !arents2 !arent7s body2 For healthy develo!ment
during the Oedi!al years6 children
S+littin. should retain !ositive *eelings *or each
In*ants tolerate good and bad as!ects !arent2 According to Klein6 the little boy
o* themselves and o* e,ternal objects ado!ts a *eminineG !osition very early
by s!litting6 or mentally #ee!ing a!art6 in li*e and has no *ear o* being
incom!atible images2 !litting can be castrated as !unishment *or his se,ual
bene5cial to both children and adults6 *eelings *or his mother2 %ater6 he
because it allo-s them to li#e !rojects his destructive drive onto his
themselves -hile still recogni8ing some *ather6 -hom he *ears -ill bite or
unli#able ?ualities2 castrate him2 The male Oedi!us
com!le, is resolved -hen the boy
establishes good relations -ith both
!arents2 The little girl also ado!ts a
Pro0e*tive I#enti"*ation *eminineG !osition to-ard both !arents
Projective identi5cation is the !sychic ?uite early in li*e2 he has a !ositive
de*ense mechanism -hereby in*ants *eeling *or both her mother7s breast and
s!lit o3 unacce!table !arts o* her *ather7s !enis6 -hich she believes
themselves6 !roject them onto another -ill *eed her -ith babies2 ometimes
object6 and 5nally introject them in an the girl develo!s hostility to-ard her
altered *orm2 mother6 -hom she *ears -ill retaliate
against her and rob her o* her babies6
Internali7ations but in most cases6 the *emale Oedi!us
A*ter introjecting e,ternal objects6 in*ants com!le, is resolved -ithout any
organi8e them into a !sychologically jealousy to-ard the mother2
meaning*ul *rame-or#6 a !rocess that Klein
called internali8ation2 Later 4iews on O10e*t Relations
A number o* other theorists have e,!anded
E.o and altered Klein7s theory o* object relations2
Internali8ations are aided by the early Dotable among them are (argaret (ahler6
ego7s ability to *eel an,iety6 to use Otto Kernberg6 Hein8 Kohut6 and John &o-lby2
de*ense mechanisms6 and to *orm
object relations in both *antasy and &ar.aret &ahler%s 4iew
reality2 Ho-ever6 a uni5ed ego emerges (ahler6 a native o* Hungary -ho
only a*ter 5rst s!litting itsel* into t-o !racticed !sychoanalysis in both ienna
!arts: those that deal -ith the li*e and De- Lor#6 develo!ed her theory o*
instinct and those that relate to the object relations *rom care*ul
death instinct2 observations o* in*ants as they bonded
-ith their mothers during their 5rst ;
S(+ere.o years o* li*e2 In their !rogress to-ard
Klein believed that the su!erego achieving a sense o* identity6 children
emerged much earlier than Freud has !ass through a series o* three major
held2 To her6 the su!erego !receded develo!mental stages2 First is normal
rather than *ollo-ed the Oedi!us autism6 -hich covers the 5rst ; to <
com!le,2 Klein also sa- the su!erego -ee#s o* li*e6 a time -hen in*ants
as being ?uite harsh and cruel2 satis*y their needs -ithin the all$
!o-er*ul !rotective orbit o* their

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
mother7s care2 econd is normal to lessen the harshness o* internali8ed objects2

symbiosis6 -hen in*ants behave as i* To do this6 Klein encouraged !atients to re$
they and their mother is an omni!otent6 e,!erience early *antasies and !ointed out the
symbiotic unit2 Third is se!aration$ di3erences bet-een conscious and
individuation6 *rom about < months until unconscious -ishes2
about ; years6 a time -hen children are
becoming !sychologically se!arated Relate# Resear*h
*rom their mothers and achieving ome research on attachment theory has
individuation6 or a sense o* !ersonal *ound that children -ith secure attachment
identity2 have both better attention and better memory
than do children -ith insecure attachment2
Hein7 8oh(t%s 4iew Other research suggests that securely
Kohut -as a native o* ienna -ho s!ent attached young children gro- u! to become
most o* his !ro*essional li*e in the adolescents -ho *eel com*ortable in *riendshi!
Bnited tates2 (ore than any o* the grou!s that allo- ne- members to easily
other object$relations theorists6 Kohut become !art o* those grou!s2 till other
em!hasi8ed the develo!ment o* the studies have sho-n that @$ and $year$old
sel*2 In caring *or their !hysical and children -ho -ere securely attached during
!sychological needs6 adults treat in*ancy !roduced *amily dra-ings that reect
in*ants as i* they had a sense o* sel*2 that security2
The !arents7 behaviors and attitudes
eventually hel! children *orm a sense o* Con*e+t of H()anity
sel* that gives unity and consistency to Object relations theorists see !ersonality as
their e,!eriences2 being a !roduct o* the early mother$child
relationshi!6 and this they stress determinism
Otto 8ern1er.%s 4iew over *ree choice2 The !o-er*ul inuence o*
Kernberg6 a native o* ienna -ho has early childhood also gives these theories a lo-
s!ent most o* his !ro*essional career in rating on uni?ueness6 a very high rating on
the Bnited tates6 believes that the #ey social inuences6 and high ratings on causality
to understanding !ersonality is the and unconscious *orces2 Klein and other object$
mother$child relationshi!2 'hildren -ho relations theorists rate average on o!timism
e,!erience a healthy relationshi! -ith versus !essimism2
their mother develo! an integrated ego6
a !unitive su!erego6 a stable sel*$
conce!t6 and satis*ying inter!ersonal
relations2 In contrast6 children -ho have
!oor relations -ith their mother -ill
have diCculty integrating their ego and
may su3er *rom some *orm o*
!sycho!athology during adulthood2
6ohn -owl1y%s Atta*h)ent Theory

&o-lby6 a native o* "ngland6 received
training in child !sychiatry *rom (elanie
Klein2 &y studying human and other
!rimate in*ants6 &o-lby observed three
stages o* se!aration an,iety: ./0
!rotest6 .10 a!athy and des!air6 and .;0 HORNEY, PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL
emotional detachment *rom !eo!le6 THEORY
including the !rimary caregiver2
'hildren -ho reach the third stage lac# Overview of Horney%s Psy*hoanalyti*
-armth and emotion in their later So*ial Theory
relationshi!s2 Karen Horney7s !sychoanalytic social theory
assumes that social and cultural conditions6
Psy*hothera+y es!ecially during childhood6 have a !o-er*ul
The goal o* Kleinian thera!y -as to reduce e3ect on later !ersonality2 %i#e (elanie Klein6
de!ressive an,ieties and !ersecutory *ears and Horney acce!ted many o* Freud7s

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
observations6 but she objected to most o* his dominate6 reject6 or overindulge their children
inter!retations6 including his notions on conditions that lead to the child7s *eelings o*
*eminine !sychology2 basic hostility to-ard !arents2 I* children
re!ress *eelings o* basic hostility6 they -ill
-io.ra+hy of 8aren Horney develo! *eelings o* insecurity and a !ervasive
Karen Horney6 -ho -as born in ermany in sense o* a!!rehension called basic an,iety2
/@@=6 -as one o* the 5rst -omen in that Peo!le can !rotect themselves *rom basic
country admitted to medical school2 There6 she an,iety through a number o* !rotective
became ac?uainted -ith Freudian theory and devices6 including
eventually became a !sychoanalyst and a ./0 a3ection6
!sychiatrist2 In her mid$<s6 Horney le*t .10 submissiveness6
ermany to settle in the Bnited tates6 5rst in .;0 !o-er6 !restige6 or !ossession6 and
'hicago and then in De- Lor#2 he soon .<0 -ithdra-al2 Dormal !eo!le have the
abandoned orthodo, !sychoanalysis in *avor o* e,ibility to use any or all o* these a!!roaches6
a more socially oriented theory 9 one that had but neurotics are com!elled to rely rigidly on
a more !ositive vie- o* *eminine develo!ment2 only one2
he died in /=1 at age >2
Co)+(lsive Drives
Intro#(*tion to Psy*hoanalyti* So*ial Deurotics are *re?uently tra!!ed in a vicious
Theory circle in -hich their com!ulsive need to reduce
Although Horney7s -ritings deal mostly -ith basic an,iety leads to a variety o* sel*$
neuroses and neurotic !ersonalities6 her de*eating behaviors4 these behaviors then
theories also a!!ro!riate suggest much that is !roduce more basic an,iety6 and the cycle
a!!ro!riate to normal develo!ment2 he continues2
agreed -ith Freud that early childhood
traumas are im!ortant6 but she !laced *ar Ne(roti* Nee#s
more em!hasis on social *actors2 Horney identi5ed / categories o*
neurotic needs that mar# neurotics in
Horney an# Fre(# Co)+are# their attem!t to reduce basic an,iety2
Horney critici8ed Freudian theory on at These include needs
least three accounts: ./0 *or a3ection and a!!roval
./0 its rigidity to-ard ne- ideas6 .10 *or a !o-er*ul !artner
.10 its s#e-ed vie- o* *eminine .;0 to restrict one7s li*e -ithin
!sychology6 and .;0 its overem!hasis narro- borders
on biology and the !leasure !rinci!le2 .<0 *or !o-er
.=0 to e,!loit others
The I)+a*t of C(lt(re .>0 *or social recognition or
Horney insisted that modern culture is !restige
too com!etitive and that com!etition .0 *or !ersonal admiration
leads to hostility and *eelings o* .@0 *or ambition and !ersonal
isolation2 These conditions lead to achievement
e,aggerated needs *or a3ection and .0 *or sel*$suCciency and
cause !eo!le to overvalue love2 inde!endence
./0 *or !er*ection and
The I)+ortan*e of Chil#hoo# unassailability2
E/+erien*es
Deurotic conict stems largely *rom Ne(roti* Tren#s
childhood traumas6 most o* -hich are %ater6 Horney grou!ed these /
traced to a lac# o* genuine love2 neurotic needs into three basic neurotic
'hildren -ho do not receive genuine trends6 -hich a!!ly to both normal and
a3ection *eel threatened and ado!t neurotic individuals in their attem!t to
rigid behavioral !atterns in an attem!t solve basic conict2 The three neurotic
to gain love2 trends are:
./0 moving to-ard !eo!le6 in
-asi* Hostility an# -asi* An/iety -hich com!liant !eo!le
All children need *eeling o* sa*ety and security6 !rotect themselves against
but these can be gained only by love *rom *eelings o* hel!lessness by
!arents2 Bn*ortunately6 !arents o*ten neglect6

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
attaching themselves to Horney believed that !sychological di3erences

other !eo!le4 bet-een men and -omen are not due to
.10 moving against !eo!le6 in anatomy but to culture and social e,!ectation2
-hich aggressive !eo!le Her vie- o* the Oedi!us com!le, di3ered
!rotect themselves against mar#edly *rom Freud7s in that she insisted that
!erceived hostility o* others any se,ual attraction or hostility o* child to
by e,!loiting others4 !arent -ould be the result o* learning and not
.;0 moving a-ay *rom !eo!le6 in biology2
-hich detached !eo!le
!rotect themselves against Psy*hothera+y
*eelings o* isolation by The goal o* Horney7s !sychothera!y -as to
a!!earing arrogant and hel! !atients gro- to-ard sel*$reali8ation6 give
aloo*2 u! their ideali8ed sel*$image6 relin?uish their
Intra+sy*hi* Con9i*ts neurotic search *or glory6 and change sel*$
Peo!le also e,!erience inner tensions or hatred to sel*$acce!tance2 Horney believed
intra!sychic conicts that become !art o* their that success*ul thera!y is built on sel*$analysis
belie* system and ta#e on a li*e o* their o-n6 and sel*$understanding2
se!arate *rom the inter!ersonal conicts that
created them2
The I#eali7e# Self5I)a.e Relate# Resear*h

Peo!le -ho do not receive love and Horney7s conce!ts o* morbid de!endency and
a3ection during childhood are bloc#ed hy!ercom!etitiveness have both stimulated
in their attem!t to ac?uire a stable some recent research2
sense o* identity2 Feeling alienated *rom
sel*6 they create an ideali8ed sel*$ &or1i# De+en#en*y
image6 or an e,travagantly !ositive The current conce!t o* code!endency6
!icture o* themselves2 Horney -hich is based on Horney7s notion o*
recogni8ed three as!ects o* the morbid de!endency6 has !roduced
ideali8ed sel*$image: research sho-ing that !eo!le -ith
./0 the neurotic search *or glory6 neurotic needs to move to-ard others
or a com!rehensive drive -ill go to great lengths to -in the
to-ard actuali8ing the ideal a!!roval o* other !eo!le2 A study by
sel*4 %yon and reenberg .//0 *ound that
.10 neurotic claims6 or a belie* -omen -ith an alcoholic !arent6
that they are entitled to com!ared -ith -omen -ithout an
s!ecial !rivileges4 alcoholic !arent6 -ere much more
.;0 neurotic !ride6 or a *alse nurturant to-ard a !erson they
!ride based not on reality !erceived as e,!loitative that to-ard a
but on a distorted and !erson they !erceived as nurturing2
ideali8ed vie- o* sel*2
Hy+er*o)+etitiveness
Self5Hatre# Horney7s idea o* moving against !eo!le
Deurotics disli#e themselves because relates to the conce!t o*
reality al-ays *alls short o* their hy!ercom!etitiveness6 a to!ic that has
ideali8ed vie- o* sel*2 There*ore6 they received some recent research interest2
learn sel*$hatred6 -hich can be ome o* this research indicates that6
e,!ressed as: although hy!ercom!etitiveness is a
./0 relentless demands on the negative !ersonality trait6 some ty!es
sel* o* com!etitiveness can be !ositive2
.10 merciless sel*$accusation Other research has *ound that
.;0 sel*$contem!t hy!ercom!etitive "uro!ean American
.<0 sel*$*rustration -omen *re?uently have some ty!e o*
.=0 sel*$torment or sel*$torture eating disorder2
.>0 sel*$destructive actions and
im!ulses2 Criti3(e of Horney
Although Horney !ainted a vivid !ortrayal o*
Fe)inine Psy*holo.y the neurotic !ersonality6 her theory rates very

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
lo- in generating research and lo- on its ac?uired the ability to reason6 they can thin#
ability to be *alsi5ed6 to organi8e data6 and to about their isolated condition 9 a situation
serve as a use*ul guide to action2 Her theory is Fromm called the human dilemma2
rated about average on internal consistency
and !arsimony2 H()an Nee#s
According to Fromm6 our human dilemma
Con*e+t of H()anity cannot be solved by satis*ying our animal
Horney7s conce!t o* humanity is rated very needs2 It can only be addressed by *ul5lling our
high on social *actors6 high on *ree choice6 uni?uely human needs6 an accom!lishment
o!timism6 and unconscious inuences6 and that moves us to-ard a reunion -ith the
about average on causality versus teleology natural -orld2 Fromm identi5ed 5ve o* these
and on the uni?ueness o* the individual2 distinctively human or e,istential needs2
Relate#ness
First is relatedness6 -hich can ta#e the
*orm o* ./0 submission6 .10 !o-er6 and
.;0 love2 %ove6 or the ability to unite
-ith another -hile retaining one7s o-n
individuality and integrity6 is the only
relatedness need that can solve our
basic human dilemma2
Trans*en#en*e
&eing thro-n into the -orld -ithout
their consent6 humans have to
transcend their nature by destroying or
FRO&&, HU&ANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS creating !eo!le or things2 Humans can
destroy through malignant aggression6
Overview of Fro))%s H()anisti* or #illing *or reasons other than
Psy*hoanalysis survival6 but they can also create and
"rich Fromm7s humanistic !sychoanalysis loo#s care about their creations2
at !eo!le *rom the !ers!ective o* !sychology6
history and anthro!ology2 Inuenced by Freud
and Horney6 Fromm develo!ed a more Roote#ness
culturally oriented theory than Freud7s and a Rootedness is the need to establish
much broader theory than Horney7s2 roots and to *eel at home again in the
-orld2 Productively6 rootedness enables
-io.ra+hy of Eri*h Fro)) us to gro- beyond the security o* our
"rich Fromm -as born in ermany in /6 the mother and establish ties -ith the
only child o* orthodo, Je-ish !arents2 A outside -orld2 Eith the non!roductive
thought*ul young man6 Fromm -as inuenced strategy6 -e become 5,ated and a*raid
by the bible6 Freud6 and (ar,6 as -ell as by to move beyond the security and sa*ety
socialist ideology2 A*ter receiving his Ph2)26 o* our mother or a mother substitute2
Fromm began studying !sychoanalysis and
became an analyst by being analy8ed by Sense of I#entity
Hanns achs6 a student o* Freud2 In /;<6 The *ourth human need is *or a sense o*
Fromm moved to the Bnited tates and began identity6 or an a-areness o* ourselves
a !sychoanalytic !ractice in De- Lor#6 -here as a se!arate !erson2 The drive *or a
he also resumed his *riendshi! -ith Karen sense o* identity is e,!ressed
Horney6 -hom he had #no-n in ermany2 non!roductively as con*ormity to a
(uch o* his later years -ere s!ent in (e,ico grou! and !roductively as individuality2
and -it8erland2 He died in /@2
Fra)e of Orientation
Fro))%s -asi* Ass()+tions &y *rame o* orientation6 Fromm meant a
Fromm believed that humans have been torn road man or consistent !hiloso!hy by
a-ay *rom their !rehistoric union -ith nature -hich -e 5nd our -ay through the
and le*t -ith no !o-er*ul instincts to ada!t to a -orld2 This need is e,!ressed
changing -orld2 &ut because humans have non!roductively as a striving *or

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
irrational goals and !roductively as rather than !assively receiving it2

movement to-ard rational goals2 Hoarding characters try to save -hat
they have already obtained6 including
The -(r#en of Free#o) their o!inions6 *eelings6 and material
As the only animal !ossessing sel*$a-areness6 !ossessions2 Peo!le -ith a mar#eting
humans are -hat Fromm called the *rea#s o* orientation see themselves as
the universe2G Historically6 as !eo!le gained commodities and value themselves
more !olitical *reedom6 they began to against the criterion o* their ability to
e,!erience more isolation *rom others and sell themselves2 They have *e-er
*rom the -orld and to *eel *ree *rom the !ositive ?ualities than the other
security o* a !ermanent !lace in the -orld2 As orientations because they are
a result6 *reedom becomes a burden6 and essentially em!ty2
!eo!le e,!erience basic an,iety6 or a *eeling o*
being alone in the -orld2 The Pro#(*tive Orientation
Psychologically healthy !eo!le -or#
&e*hanis)s of Es*a+e to-ard !ositive *reedom through
To reduce the *rightening sense o* !roductive -or#6 love6 and reasoning2
isolation and aloneness6 !eo!le may Productive love necessitates a
ado!t one o* three mechanisms o* !assionate love o* all li*e and is called
esca!e: bio!hilia2
./0 authoritarianism6 or the tendency to
give u! one7s inde!endence and to Personality Disor#ers
unite -ith a !o-er*ul !artner4 Bnhealthy !eo!le have non!roductive -ays o*
.10 destructiveness6 an esca!e -or#ing6 reasoning6 and es!ecially loving2
mechanism aimed at doing a-ay Fromm recogni8ed three major !ersonality
-ith other !eo!le or things4 and disorders:
.;0 con*ormity6 or surrendering o* one7s ./0 necro!hilia6 or the love o* death and the
individuality in order to meet the hatred o* all humanity4
-ishes o* others2 .10 malignant narcissism6 or a belie* that
everything belonging to one7s sel* is o*
Positive Free#o) great value and anything belonging to
The human dilemma can only be solved others is -orthless4 and
through !ositive *reedom6 -hich is he .;0 incestuous symbiosis6 or an e,treme
s!ontaneous activity o* the -hole6 de!endence on one7s mother or mother
integrated !ersonality6 and -hich is surrogate2
achieved -hen a !erson becomes
reunited -ith others2 Psy*hothera+y
The goal o* Fromm7s !sychothera!y -as to
Chara*ter Orientations -or# to-ard satis*action o* the basic human
Peo!le relate to the -orld by ac?uiring and needs o* relatedness6 transcendence6
using things .assimilation0 and by relating to rootedness6 a sense o* identity6 and a *rame o*
sel* and others .sociali8ation06 and they can do orientation2 The thera!ist tries to accom!lish
so either non!roductively or !roductively2 this through shared communication in -hich
the thera!ist is sim!ly a human being rather
Non+ro#(*tive Orientations than a scientist2
Fromm identi5ed *our non!roductive
strategies that *ail to move !eo!le
closer to !ositive *reedom and sel*$
reali8ation2 Peo!le -ith a rece!tive
orientation believe that the source o* all Fro))%s &etho#s of Investi.ation
good lies outside themselves and that Fromm7s !ersonality theory rests on data he
the only -ay they can relate to the gathered *rom a variety o* sources6 including
-orld is to receive things6 including !sychothera!y6 cultural anthro!ology6 and
love6 #no-ledge6 and material objects2 !sychohistory2
Peo!le -ith an e,!loitative orientation
also believe that the source o* good lies So*ial Chara*ter in a &e/i*an
outside themselves6 but they 4illa.e
aggressively ta#e -hat they -ant

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Fromm and his associates s!ent several Overview of S(llivan%s Inter+ersonal

years investigating social character in Theory
an isolated *arming village in (e,ico Although ullivan had a lonely and isolated
and *ound evidence o* all the character childhood6 he evolved a theory o* !ersonality
orientations e,ce!t the mar#eting one2 that em!hasi8ed the im!ortance o*
inter!ersonal relations2 He insisted that
A Psy*ho5histori*al St(#y of Hitler !ersonality is sha!ed almost entirely by the
Fromm a!!lied the techni?ues o* relationshi!s -e have -ith other !eo!le2
!sychohistory to the study o* several ullivan7s !rinci!al contribution to !ersonality
historical !eo!le6 including Adol* Hitler 9 theory -as his conce!tion o* develo!mental
the !erson Fromm regarded as the stages2
-orld7s most cons!icuous e,am!le o*
someone -ith the syndrome o* decay6 -io.ra+hy of Harry Sta*' S(llivan
that is6 necro!hilia6 malignant Harry tac# ullivan6 the 5rst American to
narcissism6 and incestuous symbiosis2 develo! a com!rehensive !ersonality theory6
-as born in a small *arming community in
Relate# Resear*h u!state De- Lor# in /@12 A socially immature
Fromm7s theory ran#s near the bottom o* and isolated child6 ullivan nevertheless
!ersonality theories -ith regard to stimulating *ormed one close inter!ersonal relationshi!
research2 Recently6 haun aunders and )on -ith a boy 5ve years older than himsel*2 In his
(unro have develo!ed the aunders 'onsumer inter!ersonal theory6 ullivan believed that
Orientation Inde, .'OI0 to measure Fromm7s such a relationshi! has the !o-er to trans*orm
mar#eting character2 To date6 much o* their an immature !readolescent into a
-or# has consisted in establishing the validity !sychologically healthy individual2 i, years
o* this instrument2 In general6 aunders has a*ter becoming a !hysician6 and -ith no
*ound that !eo!le -ith a strong consumer training in !sychiatry6 ullivan gained a
orientation tend to !lace lo- value on !osition at t2 "li8abeth7s Hos!ital in
*reedom6 inner harmony6 e?uality6 sel*$res!ect6 Eashington6 )2'26 as a !sychiatrist2 There6 his
and community2 ability to -or# -ith schi8o!hrenic !atients -on
him a re!utation as a thera!eutic -i8ard2
Criti3(e of Fro)) Ho-ever6 des!ite achieving much res!ect *rom
The strength o* Fromm7s theory is his lucid an inuential grou! o* associates6 ullivan had
-ritings on a broad range o* human issues2 As *e- close inter!ersonal relations -ith any o*
a scienti5c theory6 ho-ever6 Fromm7s theory his !eers2 He died alone in Paris in /<6 at
rates very lo- on its ability to generate age =>2
research and to lend itsel* to *alsi5cation4 it
rates lo- on use*ulness to the !ractitioner6 Tensions
internal consistency6 and !arsimony2 &ecause ullivan conce!tuali8ed !ersonality as an
it is ?uite broad in sco!e6 Fromm7s theory rates energy system6 -ith energy e,isting either as
high on organi8ing e,isting #no-ledge2 tension .!otentiality *or action0 or as energy
trans*ormations .the actions themselves02 He
Con*e+t of H()anity *urther divided tensions into needs and
Fromm believed that humans -ere *rea#s o* an,iety2
the universeG because they lac#ed strong
animal instincts -hile !ossessing the ability to Nee#s
reason2 In brie*6 his vie- is rated average on Deeds can relate either to the general
*ree choice6 o!timism6 unconscious inuences6 -ell$being o* a !erson or to s!eci5c
and uni?ueness4 lo- on causality4 and high on 8ones such as the mouth or genitals2
social inuences2 eneral needs can be either
!hysiological6 such as *ood or o,ygen6
or they can be inter!ersonal6 such as
tenderness and intimacy2
An/iety
Bnli#e needs 9 -hich are conjunctive
and call *or s!eci5c actions to reduce
SULLI4AN, INTERPERSONAL THEORY them 9 an,iety is disjunctive and calls
*or no consistent actions *or its relie*2 All

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
in*ants learn to be an,ious through the inter!ersonal tensions2 One such

em!hatic relationshi! that they have security o!eration is dissociation6 -hich
-ith their mothering one2 ullivan includes all those e,!eriences that -e
called an,iety the chie* disru!tive *orce bloc# *rom a-areness2 Another is
in inter!ersonal relations2 A com!lete selective inattention6 -hich involves
absence o* an,iety and other tensions bloc#ing only certain e,!eriences *rom
is called eu!horia2 a-areness2
Dyna)is)s Personi"*ations
ullivan used the term dynamism to re*er to a ullivan believed that !eo!le ac?uire certain
ty!ical !attern o* behavior2 )ynamisms may images o* sel* and others throughout the
relate either to s!eci5c 8ones o* the body or to develo!mental stages6 and he re*erred to
tensions2 these subjective !erce!tions as
!ersoni5cations2
&alevolen*e
The disjunctive dynamism o* evil and
hatred is called malevolence6 de5ned
by ullivan as a *eeling o* living among -a#5&other: 2oo#5&other
one7s enemies2 Those children -ho The bad$mother !ersoni5cation gro-s
become malevolent have much out o* in*ants7 e,!eriences -ith a ni!!le
diCculty giving and receiving that does not satis*y their hunger
tenderness or being intimate -ith other needs2 All in*ants e,!erience the bad$
!eo!le2 mother !ersoni5cation6 even though
their real mothers may be loving and
Inti)a*y nurturing2 %ater6 in*ants ac?uire a good$
The conjunctive dynamism mar#ed by a mother uring!ersoni5cation as they
close !ersonal relationshi! bet-een t-o become mature enough to recogni8e
!eo!le o* e?ual status is called the tender and coo!erative behavior o*
intimacy2 Intimacy *acilitates their mothering one2 till later6 these
inter!ersonal develo!ment -hile t-o !ersoni5cations combine to *orm a
decreasing both an,iety and loneliness2 com!le, and contrasting image o* the
real mother2
L(st
In contrast to both malevolence and &e Personi"*ations
intimacy6 lust is an isolating dynamism2 )uring in*ancy6 children ac?uire three
That is6 lust is a sel*$centered need that meG !ersoni5cations:
can be satis5ed in the absence o* an ./0 the bad$me6 -hich gro-s *rom
intimate inter!ersonal relationshi!2 In e,!eriences o* !unishment and
other -ords6 although intimacy disa!!roval6
!resu!!oses tenderness or love6 lust is .10 the good$me6 -hich results *rom
based solely on se,ual grati5cation and e,!eriences -ith re-ard and
re?uires no other !erson *or its a!!roval6 and
satis*action2 .;0 the not$me6 -hich allo-s a !erson
to dissociate or selectively inattend
Self5Syste) the e,!eriences related to an,iety2
The most inclusive o* all dynamisms is
the sel*$system6 or that !attern o* Ei#eti* Personi"*ations
behaviors that !rotects us against One o* ullivan7s most interesting
an,iety and maintains our inter!ersonal observations -as that !eo!le o*ten
security2 The sel*$system is a create imaginary traits that they !roject
conjunctive dynamism6 but because its onto others2 Included in these eidetic
!rimary job is to !rotect the sel* *rom !ersoni5cations are the imaginary
an,iety6 it tends to stie !ersonality !laymates that !reschool$aged children
chance2 ",!eriences that are o*ten have2 These imaginary *riends
inconsistent -ith our sel*$system enable children to have a sa*e6 secure
threaten ur security and necessitate our relationshi! -ith another !erson6 even
use o* security o!erations6 -hich though that !erson is imaginary2
consist o* behaviors designed to reduce

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Levels of Co.nition Chil#hoo#

ullivan recogni8ed three levels o* cognition6 or The stage that lasts *rom the beginning
-ays o* !erceiving things 9 !rotota,ic6 o* synta,ic language until the need *or
!arata,ic6 and synta,ic2 !laymates o* e?ual status is called
childhood2 The child7s !rimary
Protota/i* Level inter!ersonal relationshi! continues to
",!eriences that are im!ossible to !ut be -ith the mother6 -ho is no-
into -ords or to communicate to others di3erentiated *rom other !ersons -ho
are called !rotota,ic2 De-born in*ants nurture the child2
e,!erience images mostly on a
!rotota,ic level6 but adults6 too6 6(venile Era
*re?uently have !reverbal e,!eriences The juvenile stage begins -ith the need
that are momentary and inca!able o* *or !eers o* e?ual status and continues
being communicated2 until the child develo!s a need *or an
intimate relationshi! -ith a chum2 At
Parata/i* Level this time6 children should learn ho- to
",!eriences that are !relogical and com!ete6 to com!romise6 and to
nearly im!ossible to accurately coo!erate2 These three abilities6 as -ell
communicate to others are called as an orientation to-ard living6 hel! a
!arata,ic2 Included in these are child develo! intimacy6 the chie*
erroneous assum!tions about cause dynamism o* the ne,t develo!mental
and e3ect6 -hich ullivan termed stage2
!arata,ic distortions2
Prea#oles*en*e
Perha!s the most crucial stage is
!readolescence6 because mista#es
Synta/i* Level made earlier can be corrected during
",!eriences that can be accurately !readolescence6 but errors made during
communicated to others are called !readolescence are nearly im!ossible
synta,ic2 'hildren become ca!able o* to overcome in later li*e2
synta,ic language at about /1 to /@ Preadolescence s!ans the time *rom the
months o* age -hen -ords begin to need *or a single best *riend until
have the same meaning *or them that !uberty2 'hildren -ho do not learn
they do *or others2 intimacy during !readolescence have
added diCculties relating to !otential
Sta.es of Develo+)ent se,ual !artners during later stages2
ullivan sa- inter!ersonal develo!ment as Early A#oles*en*e
ta#ing !lace over seven stages6 *rom in*ancy to Eith !uberty comes6 the lust dynamism
mature adulthood2 Personality changes can and the beginning o* early adolescence2
ta#e !lace at any time but are more li#ely to )evelo!ment during this stage is
occur during transitions bet-een stages2 ordinarily mar#ed by a coe,istence o*
intimacy -ith a single *riend o* the
Infan*y same gender and se,ual interest in
The !eriod *rom birth until the many !ersons o* the o!!osite gender2
emergence o* synta,ic language is Ho-ever6 i* children have no !ree,isting
called in*ancy6 a time -hen the child ca!acity *or intimacy6 they may con*use
receives tenderness *rom the mothering lust -ith love and develo! se,ual
one -hile also learning an,iety through relationshi!s that are devoid o* true
an em!athic lin#age -ith the mother2 intimacy2
An,iety may increase to the !oint o*
terror6 but such terror is controlled by Late A#oles*en*e
the built$in !rotections o* a!athy and 'hronologically6 late adolescence may
somnolent detachment that allo- the start at any time a*ter about age />6
baby to go to slee!2 )uring in*ancy but !sychologically6 it begins -hen a
children use autistic language6 -hich !erson is able to *eel both intimacy and
ta#es !lace on a !rotota,ic or !arata,ic lust to-ard the same !erson2 %ate
level2 adolescence is characteri8ed by a
stable !attern o* se,ual activity and the

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
gro-th o* the synta,ic mode6 as young -ith their intimate *riend6 a 5nding that
!eo!le learn ho- to live in the adult suggests that -omen develo! dee!er
-orld2 same$gender *riendshi!s than do men2
A#(lthoo# I)a.inary Frien#s

%ate adolescence o-s into adulthood6 Other researchers have studied
a time -hen a !erson establishes a ullivanMs notion o* imaginary
stable relationshi! -ith a signi5cant !laymates and have *ound that children
other !erson and develo!s a consistent -ho have identi5able eidetic !laymates
!attern o* vie-ing the -orld2 tend to be more sociali8ed6 less
aggressive6 more intelligent6 and to
Psy*holo.i*al Disor#ers have a better sense o* humor than
ullivan believed that disordered behavior has children -ho do not re!ort having an
an inter!ersonal origin6 and can only be imaginary !laymate2
understood -ith re*erence to a !erson7s social
environment2 Criti3(e of S(llivan
)es!ite ullivanMs insights into the im!ortance
Psy*hothera+y o* inter!ersonal relations6 his theory o*
ullivan !ioneered the notion o* the thera!ist !ersonality and his a!!roach to !sychothera!y
as a !artici!ant observer6 -ho establishes an have lost !o!ularity in recent years2 In
inter!ersonal relationshi! -ith the !atient2 He summary6 his theory rates very lo- in
-as !rimarily concerned -ith understanding *alsi5ability6 lo- in its ability to generate
!atients and hel!ing them develo! *oresight6 research6 and average in its ca!acity to
im!rove inter!ersonal relations6 and restore organi8e #no-ledge and to guide action2 In
their ability to o!erate mostly on a synta,ic addition6 it is only average in sel*$consistency
level2 and lo- in !arsimony2
Relate# Resear*h Con*e+t of H()anity

In recent years6 a number o* researchers have &ecause ullivan sa- human !ersonality is
studied the im!act o* t-o$!erson relationshi!s6 being largely *ormed *rom inter!ersonal
involving both thera!y and non$thera!y relations6 his theory rates very high on social
encounters2 inuences and very lo- on biological ones2 In
addition6 it rates high on unconscious
Thera+ist5Patient Relationshi+s determinants6 average on *ree choice6
Hans tru!!6 Eilliam Henry6 and o!timism6 and causality6 and lo- on
associates at anderbilt develo!ed the uni?ueness2
tructural Analysis o* ocial &ehavior6
an instrument *or studying the
dynamics bet-een thera!ist and
!atient2 This grou! o* researchers *ound
that !atients tended to have relatively
stable behaviors that -ere consistent
-ith the -ay their thera!ists treated
them2 %ater6 these researchers re!orted
thera!istsM !ro*essional training -as
less im!ortant to success*ul thera!y
than the thera!istsM o-n develo!mental
history2
Inti)ate Relationshi+ with Frien#s

"li8abeth Laughn and te!hen Do-ic#i
studied intimate inter!ersonal
relationshi!s in same$gender dyads and ERI8SON, POST5FREUDIAN THEORY
*ound that -omen$but not men$had
com!lementary inter!ersonal styles Overview of Eri'son%s Post5Fre(#ian
-ith their close -omen *riends2 Also6 Theory
-omen -ere more li#ely than men to "ri#son !ostulated eight stages o* !sychosocial
engage in a -ide variety o* activities develo!ment through -hich !eo!le !rogress2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Although he di3ered *rom Freud in his

em!hasis on the ego and on social inuences6 Infan*y
his theory is an e,tension6 not a re!udiation o* "ri#sonMs vie- o* in*ancy .the 5rst year
Freudian !sychoanalysis2 o* li*e0 -as similar to FreudMs conce!t o*
the oral stage6 e,ce!t that "ri#son
-io.ra+hy of Eri' Eri'son e,!anded the notion o* incor!oration
Ehen "ri# "ri#son -as born in ermany in beyond the mouth to include sense
/1 his name -as "ri# alomonsen2 A*ter his organs such as the eyes and ears2 The
mother married Theodor Homburger6 "ri# !sychose,ual mode o* in*ancy is oral$
eventually too# his ste!$*atherMs name2 At age sensory6 -hich is characteri8ed by both
/@ he le*t home to !ursue the li*e o* a receiving and acce!ting2 The !sycho$
-andering artist and to search *or sel*$identity2 social crisis o* in*ancy is basic trust
He gave u! that li*e to teach young children in versus basic mistrust2 From the crisis
ienna6 -here he met Anna Freud2 till bet-een basic trust and basic mistrust
searching *or his !ersonal identity6 he -as emerges ho!e6 the basic strength o*
!sychoanaly8ed by (s2 Freud6 an e,!erience in*ancy2 In*ants -ho do not develo!
that allo-ed him to become a !sychoanalyst2 ho!e retreat *rom the -orld6 and this
In mid$li*e6 "ri# Homburger moved to the -ithdra-al is the core !athology o*
Bnited tates6 changed his name to "ri#son6 in*ancy2
and too# a !osition at the Harvard (edical
chool2 %ater6 he taught at Lale6 the Bniversity Early Chil#hoo#
o* 'ali*ornia at &er#eley6 and several other The second to third year o* li*e is early
universities2 He died in /<6 a month short o* childhood6 a !eriod that com!ares to
his 1nd birthday2 FreudMs anal stage6 but also includes
mastery o* other body *unctions such as
The E.o in Post5Fre(#ian Psy*holo.y -al#ing6 urinating6 and holding2 The
One o* "ri#sonMs chie* contributions to !sychose,ual mode o* early childhood
!ersonality theory -as his em!hasis on ego is anal$urethral$muscular6 and children
rather than id *unctions2 According to "ri#son6 o* this age behave both im!ulsively and
the ego is the center o* !ersonality and is com!ulsively2 The !sychosocial crisis o*
res!onsible *or a uni5ed sense o* sel*2 It early childhood is autonomy versus
consists o* three interrelated *acets: the body shame and doubt2 The !sychosocial
ego6 the ego ideal6 and ego identity2 crisis bet-een autonomy on the one
hand and shame and doubt on the
So*iety;s In9(en*e other !roduces -ill 9 the basic strength
The ego develo!s -ithin a given society o* early childhood2 The core !athology
and is inuenced by child$rearing o* early childhood is com!ulsion2
!ractices and other cultural customs2 All
cultures and nations develo! a Play A.e
!seudos!ecies6 or a 5ctional notion that From about the third to the 5*th year6
they are su!erior to other cultures2 children e,!erience the !lay age6 a
!eriod that !arallels FreudMs !hallic
E+i.eneti* Prin*i+le !hase2 Bnli#e Freud6 ho-ever6 "ri#son
The ego develo!s according to the sa- the Oedi!us com!le, as an early
e!igenetic !rinci!le4 that is6 it gro-s model o* li*elong !lay*ulness and a
according to a genetically established drama !layed out in childrenMs minds as
rate and in a 5,ed se?uence2 they attem!t to understand the basic
*acts o* li*e2 The !rimary !sychose,ual
Sta.es of Psy*hoso*ial Develo+)ent mode o* the !lay age is genital$
"ach o* the eight stages o* develo!ment is locomotor6 meaning that children have
mar#ed by a conict bet-een a syntonic both an interest in genital activity and
.harmonious0 element and a dystonic an increasing ability to move around2
.disru!tive0 element6 -hich !roduces a basic The !sychosocial crisis o* the !lay age
strength or ego ?uality2 Also6 *rom adolescence is initiative versus guilt2 The conict
on6 each stage is characteri8ed by an identity bet-een initiative and guilt hel!s
crisis or turning !oint6 -hich may !roduce children to act -ith !ur!ose and to set
either ada!tive or malada!tive adjustment2 goals2 &ut i* children have too little

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
!ur!ose6 they develo! inhibition6 the isolation is the *ear o* losing oneMs
core !athology o* the !lay age2 identity in an intimate relationshi!2 The
crisis bet-een intimacy and isolation
S*hool A.e results in the ca!acity to love2 The core
The !eriod *rom about > to /1 or /; !athology o* young adulthood is
years o* age is called the school age6 a e,clusivity6 or inability to love2
time o* !sychose,ual latency6 but it is
also a time o* !sychosocial gro-th A#(lthoo#
beyond the *amily2 &ecause se,ual The !eriod *rom about ;/ to > years o*
develo!ment is latent during the school age is adulthood6 a time -hen !eo!le
age6 children can use their energies to ma#e signi5cant contributions to
learn the customs o* their culture6 society2 The !sychose,ual mode o*
including both *ormal and in*ormal adulthood is !rocreativity6 or the caring
education2 The !sychosocial crisis o* *or oneMs children6 the children o*
this age is industry versus in*eriority2 others6 and the material !roducts o*
'hildren need to learn to -or# hard6 but oneMs society2 The !sychosocial crisis o*
they also must develo! some sense o* adulthood is generativity versus
in*eriority2 From the conict o* industry stagnation6 and the success*ul
and in*eriority emerges com!etence6 resolution o* this crisis results in care2
the basic strength o* school age "ri#son sa- care as ta#ing care o* the
children2 %ac# o* industry leads to !ersons and !roducts that one has
inertia6 the core !athology o* this stage2 learned to care *or2 The core !athology
o* adulthood is rejectivity6 or the
A#oles*en*e rejection o* certain individuals or grou!s
Adolescence begins -ith !uberty and is that one is un-illing to ta#e care o*2
mar#ed by a !erson7s struggle to 5nd
ego identity2 It is a time o* !sychose,ual Ol# A.e
gro-th6 but it is also a !eriod o* The 5nal stage o* develo!ment is old
!sychosocial latency2 The !sychose,ual age6 *rom about age > until death2 The
mode o* adolescence is !uberty or !sychose,ual mode o* old age is
genital maturation2 The !sychosocial generali8ed sensuality4 that is6 ta#ing
crisis o* adolescence is identity versus !leasure in a variety o* sensations and
identity con*usion2 Psychologically an a!!reciation o* the traditional
healthy individuals emerge *rom li*estyle o* !eo!le o* the other gender2
adolescence -ith a sense o* -ho they The !sychosocial crisis o* old age is the
are and -hat they believe4 but some struggle bet-een integrity .the
identity con*usion is normal2 The maintenance o* ego$identity0 and
conict bet-een identity and identity des!air .the surrender o* ho!e02 The
con*usion !roduces 5delity6 or *aith in struggle bet-een integrity and des!air
some ideological vie- o* the *uture2 may !roduce -isdom .the basic
%ac# o* belie* in one7s o-n sel*hood strength o* old age06 but it may also
results in role re!udiation or an inability lead to disdain .a core !athology
to bring together one7s various sel*$ mar#ed by *eelings o* being 5nished or
images2 hel!less02
Yo(n. A#(lthoo# Eri'son%s &etho#s of Investi.ation

Loung adulthood begins -ith the "ri#son relied mostly on anthro!ology6
ac?uisition o* intimacy at about age /@ !sychohistory6 and !lay construction to e,!lain
and ends -ith the develo!ment o* and describe human !ersonality2
generativity at about age ;2 The
!sychose,ual mode o* young adulthood Anthro+olo.i*al St(#ies
is genitality6 -hich is e,!ressed as "ri#sonMs t-o most im!ortant
mutual trust bet-een !artners in a anthro!ological studies -ere o* the
stable se,ual relationshi!2 Its iou, o* outh )a#ota and the Luro#
!sychosocial crisis is intimacy versus tribe o* northern 'ali*ornia2 &oth studies
isolation2 Intimacy is the ability to *use demonstrated his notion that culture
oneMs identity -ith that o* another and history hel! sha!e !ersonality2
-ithout *ear o* losing it4 -hereas

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Psy*hohistory Criti3(e of Eri'son

"ri#son combined the methods o* Although "ri#sonMs -or# is a logical e,tension
!sychoanalysis and historical research o* FreudMs !sychoanalysis6 it o3ers a ne- -ay
to study several !ersonalities6 most o* loo#ing at human develo!ment2 As a use*ul
notably andhi and %uther2 In both theory6 it rates high on its ability to generate
cases6 the central 5gure e,!erienced an research6 and about average on its ability to be
identity crisis that !roduced a basic *alsi5ed6 to organi8e #no-ledge6 and to guide
strength rather than a core !athology2 the !ractitioner2 It rates high on internal
consistency and about average on !arsimony2
Play Constr(*tion
"ri#sonMs techni?ue o* !lay construction Con*e+t of H()anity
became controversial -hen he *ound "ri#son sa- humans as basically social animals
that /$ to /1$year$old boys used toys -ho have limited *ree choice and -ho are
to construct elongated objects and to motivated by !ast e,!eriences6 -hich may be
!roduce themes o* rising and *alling2 In either conscious or unconscious2 In addition6
contrast6 girls arranged toys in lo- and "ri#son is rated high on both o!timism and
!eace*ul scenes2 "ri#son concluded that uni?ueness o* individuals2
anatomical di3erences bet-een the
se,es !lay a role in !ersonality
develo!ment2
Relate# Resear*h
"ri#sonMs theory has generated a moderately
large body o* research6 must o* it investigating
the conce!t o* identity2 In addition6 some
researchers have loo#ed at "ri#sonMs conce!t
o* generativity2
I#entity in Early A#(lthoo#

A longitudinal study by Jenni*er Pals and
Ravenna Helson *ound that identity
established in early adulthood is
associated -ith stable marriage and
high levels o* creativity2 Additional LEARNIN2 THEORIES
research by Helson and Pals *ound that
-omen -ho had solid identity and high KIDD"R: &"HAIORA% ADA%LI
creative !otential at age 1/ -ere more
li#ely than other -omen to have had a Overview of S'inner;s -ehavioral Analysis
challenging and creative -or# Bnli#e any theory discussed to this !oint6 the
e,!erience at age =12 radical behaviorism o* &2 F2 #inner avoids
s!eculations about hy!othetical constructs and
2enerativity in &i#life concentrates almost e,clusively on observable
Peo!le high in generativity should have behavior2 &esides being a radical behaviorist6
a li*estyle mar#ed by creating and #inner -as also a determinist and an
!assing on #no-ledge6 values6 and environmentalist4 that is6 he rejected the
ideals to a younger generation6 and notion o* *ree -ill6 and he em!hasi8ed the
should bene5t *rom a !attern o* hel!ing !rimacy o* environmental inuences on
younger !eo!le2 Research by )an behavior2
(cAdams and colleagues *ound that
adults at midli*e -ho contributed to the -io.ra+hy of -< F< S'inner
-ell$being o* young !eo!le had a clear &2 F2 #inner -as born in us?uehanna6
sense o* -ho they -ere and -hat li*e Pennsylvania in /<6 the older o* t-o
had to o3er them2 Other research *ound brothers2 Ehile in college6 #inner -anted to
that !eo!le high in generativity are be a -riter6 but a*ter having little success in
ty!ically concerned -ith the -ell$being this endeavor6 he turned to !sychology2 A*ter
o* others2 earning a Ph2)2 *rom Harvard6 he taught at the

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Bniversities o* (innesota and Indiana be*ore conditioned res!onse2 For e,am!le6

returning to Harvard6 -here he remained until Eatson and Rayner conditioned a
his death in /2 young boy to *ear a -hite rat .the
conditioned stimulus0 by associating it
Pre*(rsors to S'inner;s S*ienti"* -ith a loud6 sudden noise .an
-ehavioris) unconditioned stimulus02 "ventually6
(odern learning theory has roots in the -or# through the !rocess o* generali8ation6
o* "d-ard %2 Thorndi#e and his e,!eriments the boy learned to *ear stimuli that
-ith animals during the last !art o* the /th resembled the -hite rat2
century2 Thorndi#eMs la- o* e3ect stated that
res!onses *ollo-ed by a satis5er tend to be O+erant Con#itionin.
learned6 a conce!t that antici!ated #innerMs Eith o!erant conditioning6
use o* !ositive rein*orcement to sha!e rein*orcement is used to increase the
behavior2 #inner -as even more inuenced by !robability that a given behavior -ill
John Eatson6 -ho argued that !sychology recur2 Three *actors are essential in
must deal -ith the control and !rediction o* o!erant conditioning:
behavior and that behavior$not intros!ection6 ./0 the antecedent6 or environment in
consciousness6 or the mind$is the basic data o* -hich behavior ta#es !lace4
scienti5c !sychology2 .10 the behavior6 or res!onse4 and
.;0 the conse?uence that *ollo-s the
S*ienti"* -ehavioris) behavior2
#inner believed that human behavior6 li#e any Psychologists and others use sha!ing to
other natural !henomena6 is subject to the mold com!le, human behavior2
la-s o* science6 and that !sychologists should )i3erent histories o* rein*orcement
not attribute inner motivations to it2 Although result in o!erant discrimination6
he rejected internal states .thoughts6 meaning that di3erent organisms -ill
emotions6 desires6 etc20 as being outside the res!ond di3erently to the same
realm o* science6 #inner did not deny their environmental contingencies2 Peo!le
e,istence2 He sim!ly insisted that they should may also res!ond similarly to di3erent
not be used to e,!lain behavior2 environmental stimuli6 a !rocess
#inner called stimulus generali8ation2
Philoso+hy of S*ien*e Anything -ithin the environment that
#inner believed that6 because the strengthens a behavior is a rein*orcer2
!ur!ose o* science is to !redict and Positive rein*orcement is any stimulus
control6 !sychologists should be that -hen added to a situation
concerned -ith determining the increases the !robability that a given
conditions under -hich human behavior behavior -ill occur2 Degative
occurs so that they can !redict and rein*orcement is the strengthening o*
control it2 behavior through the removal o* an
aversive stimulus2 &oth !ositive and
Chara*teristi*s of S*ien*e negative rein*orcement strengthen
#inner held that science has three behavior2 Any event that decreases a
!rinci!le characteristics: behavior either by !resenting an
./0 its 5ndings are cumulative6 aversive stimulus or by removing a
.10 it rests on an attitude that values !ositive one is called !unishment2 The
em!irical observation6 and e3ects o* !unishment are much less
.;0 it searchers *or order and la-*ul !redictable than those o* re-ard2 &oth
relationshi!s2 !unishment and rein*orcement can
result *rom either natural conse?uences
Con#itionin. or *rom human im!osition2 'onditioned
#inner recogni8ed t-o #inds o* conditioning: rein*orcers are those stimuli that are
classical and o!erant2 not by nature satis*ying .e2g26 money06
Classi*al Con#itionin. but that can become so -hen they are
In classical conditioning6 a neutral associated -ith a !rimary rein*orcer6
.conditioned0 stimulus is !aired -ith an such as *ood2 enerali8ed rein*orcers
unconditioned stimulus until it is are conditioned rein*orcers that have
ca!able o* bringing about a !reviously become associated -ith several
unconditioned res!onse6 no- called the !rimary rein*orcers2 Rein*orcement can

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
*ollo- behavior on either a continuous societies -hose members behave in a

schedule or on an intermittent coo!erative manner tended to survive2
schedule2 There are *our basic
intermittent schedules: Inner States
./0 5,ed$ratio6 on -hich the organism is #inner recogni8ed the e,istence o*
rein*orced intermittently according such inner states as drives and sel*$
to the number o* res!onses it a-areness6 but he rejected the notion
ma#es4 that they can e,!lain behavior2 To
.10 variable$ratio6 on -hich the #inner6 drives re*er to the e3ects o*
organism is rein*orced a*ter an de!rivation and satiation and thus are
average o* a !redetermined number related to the !robability o* certain
o* res!onses4 behaviors6 but they are not the causes
.;0 5,ed$interval6 on -hich the o* behavior2 #inner believed that
organism is rein*orced *or the 5rst emotions can be accounted *or by the
res!onse *ollo-ing a designated contingencies o* survival and the
!eriod o* time4 and contingencies o* rein*orcement4 but li#e
.<0 variable interval6 on -hich the drives6 they do not cause behavior2
organism is rein*orced a*ter the imilarly6 !ur!ose and intention are not
la!se o* varied !eriods o* time2 causes o* behavior6 although they are
The tendency o* a !reviously ac?uired sensations that e,ist -ithin the s#in2
res!onse to become !rogressively
-ea#ened u!on non$rein*orcement is Co)+le/ -ehavior
called e,tinction2 uch elimination or Human behavior is subject to the same
-ea#ening o* a res!onse is called !rinci!les o* o!erant conditioning as
classical e,tinction in a classical sim!le animal behavior6 but it is much
conditioning model and o!erant more com!le, and diCcult to !redict or
e,tinction -hen the res!onse -as control2 #inner e,!lained creativity as
ac?uired through o!erant conditioning2 the result o* random or accidental
behaviors that ha!!en to be re-arded2
The H()an Or.anis) #inner believed that most o* our
#inner believed that human behavior is behavior is unconscious or automatic
sha!ed by three *orces: and that not thin#ing about certain
=>? natural selection6 e,!eriences is rein*orcing2 #inner
=@? cultural !ractices6 and vie-ed dreams as covert and symbolic
=? the individualMs history o* *orms o* behavior that are subject to
rein*orcement6 -hich -e discussed the same contingencies o*
above2 rein*orcement as any other behavior2
Nat(ral Sele*tion Control of H()an -ehavior

As a s!ecies6 our behavior is sha!ed by Bltimately6 all o* a !ersonMs behavior is
the contingencies o* survival4 that is6 controlled by the environment2
those behaviors .e2g26 se, and ocieties e,ercise control over their
aggression0 that -ere bene5cial to the members through la-s6 rules6 and
human s!ecies tended to survive6 customs that transcend any one
-hereas those that did not tended to !ersonMs means o* countercontrol2
dro! out2 There are *our basic methods o* social
control:
C(lt(ral Evol(tion =>? o!erant conditioning6 including
Those societies that evolved certain !ositive and negative rein*orcement
cultural !ractices .e2g2 tool ma#ing and and !unishment4
language0 tended to survive2 'urrently6 =@? describing contingencies6 or using
the lives o* nearly all !eo!le are language to in*orm !eo!le o* the
sha!ed6 in !art6 by modern tools conse?uence o* their behaviors4
.com!uters6 media6 various modes o* =? de!rivation and satiation6
trans!ortation6 etc20 and by their use o* techni?ues that increase the
language2 Ho-ever6 humans do not li#elihood that !eo!le -ill behave in
ma#e coo!erative decisions to do -hat a certain -ay4 and
is best *or their society6 but those

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
=B? !hysical restraint6 including the A !lethora o* studies have

jailing o* criminals2 demonstrated that o!erant conditioning
Although #inner denied the e,istence can change !ersonality .that is6
o* *ree -ill6 he did recogni8e that !eo!le behavior02 For e,am!le6 a recent study
mani!ulate variables -ithin their o-n by te!hen Higgens et al2
environment and thus e,ercise some demonstrated that a contingent
measure o* sel*$control6 -hich has management !rogram can be
several techni?ues: success*ul in decreasing cocaine use2
=>? !hysical restraint6
=@? !hysical aids6 such as tools4 How Personality A$e*ts
=? changing environmental stimuli4 Con#itionin.
=B? arranging the environment to allo- Research has also *ound that di3erent
esca!e *rom aversive stimuli4 !ersonalities may react di3erently to
=? drugs4 and the same environmental stimuli2 This
=? doing something else2 means that the same rein*orcement
strategies -ill not have the same e3ect
The Unhealthy Personality on all !eo!le2 For e,am!le6 Alan
ocial control and sel*$control sometimes Pic#ering and Je3rey ray have
!roduce counteracting strategies and develo!ed and tested a rein*orcement
ina!!ro!riate behaviors2 sensitivity theory that suggests that
im!ulsivity6 an,iety6 and
Co(ntera*tin. Strate.ies introversion+e,traversion relate to -ays
Peo!le can counteract e,cessive social !eo!le res!ond to environmental
control by rein*orcers2
./0 esca!ing *rom it6
.10 revolting against it6 or
.;0 !assively resisting it2 Criti3(e of S'inner
On the si, criteria o* a use*ul theory6 #innerMs
Ina++ro+riate -ehaviors a!!roach rates very high on its ability to
Ina!!ro!riate behaviors *ollo- *rom generate research and to guide action6 high on
sel*$de*eating techni?ues o* its ability to be *alsi5ed6 and about average on
counteracting social control or *rom its ability to organi8e #no-ledge2 In addition6 it
unsuccess*ul attem!ts at sel*$control2 rates very high on internal consistency and
high on sim!licity2
Psy*hothera+y
#inner -as not a !sychothera!ist6 and he Con*e+t of H()anity
even critici8ed !sychothera!y as being one o* #innerMs conce!t o* humanity -as a
the major obstacles to a scienti5c study o* com!letely deterministic and causal one that
human behavior2 Devertheless6 others have em!hasi8ed unconscious behavior and the
used o!erant conditioning !rinci!les to sha!e uni?ueness o* each !ersonMs history o*
behavior in a thera!eutic setting2 &ehavior rein*orcement -ithin a mostly social
thera!ists !lay an active role in the treatment environment2 Bnli#e many determinists6
!rocess6 using behavior modi5cation #inner is ?uite o!timistic in his vie- o*
techni?ues and !ointing out the !ositive humanity2
conse?uences o* some behaviors and the
aversive e3ects o* others2
Relate# Resear*h
#innerMs theory has generated more research
than any other !ersonality theory2 (uch o* this
research can be divided into t-o ?uestions:
./0 Ho- does conditioning a3ect
!ersonalityN
.10 Ho- does !ersonality a3ect
conditioningN
How Con#itionin. A$e*ts

Personality

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
!ersonality theorists in investigating his o-n

hy!otheses2
H()an A.en*y
&andura believes that human agency is the
essence o* humanness4 that is6 humans are
de5ned by their ability to organi8e6 regulate6
and enact behaviors that they believe -ill
!roduce desirable conse?uences2 Human
agency has *our core *eatures:
./0 intentionality6 or a !roactive
commitment to actions that may bring
about desired outcomes4
.10 *oresight6 or the ability to set goals4
.;0 sel*$reactiveness6 -hich includes !eo!le
monitoring their !rogress to-ard
*ul5lling their choices4 and
.<0 sel*$reectiveness6 -hich allo-s !eo!le
to thin# about and evaluate their
motives6 values6 and li*e goals2
Re*i+ro*al Deter)inis)
ocial cognitive theory holds that human
*unctioning is molded by the reci!rocal
interaction o*
=>? behavior4
=@? !erson variables6 including cognition4
-ANDURA, SOCIAL CO2NITI4E THEORY and
=? environmental events
Overview of -an#(ra;s So*ial Co.nitive 9 a model &andura calls reci!rocal
Theory determinism2
&anduraMs social cognitive theory ta#es an
agentic !ers!ective6 meaning that humans Di$erential Contri1(tions
have some limited ability to control their lives2 &andura does not suggest that the
In contrast to #inner6 &andura three *actors in the reci!rocal
./0 recogni8es that chance encounters and determinism model ma#e e?ual
*ortuitous events o*ten sha!e oneMs contributions to behavior2 The relative
behavior4 inuence o* behavior6 environment6 and
.10 !laces more em!hasis on observational !erson de!ends on -hich *actor is
learning4 strongest at any !articular moment2
.;0 stresses the im!ortance o* cognitive
*actors in learning4 Chan*e En*o(nters an# Fort(ito(s
.<0 suggests that human activity is a Events
*unction o* behavior and !erson The lives o* many !eo!le have been
variables6 as -ell as the environment4 *undamentally changed by a chance
and meeting -ith another !erson or by a
.=0 believes that rein*orcement is mediated *ortuitous6 une,!ected event2 'hance
by cognition2 encounters and *ortuitous events enter
the reci!rocal determinism !aradigm at
-io.ra+hy of Al1ert -an#(ra the environment !oint6 a*ter -hich they
Albert &andura -as born in 'anada in /1=6 inuence behavior in much the
but he has s!ent his entire !ro*essional li*e in same -ay as do !lanned events2
the Bnited tates2 He com!leted a Ph2)2 in
clinical !sychology at the Bniversity o* Io-a in Self5Syste)
/=/ and since then has -or#ed almost The sel*$system gives some consistency to
entirely at tan*ord Bniversity6 -here he !ersonality by allo-ing !eo!le to observe and
continues to be the most active o* all symboli8e their o-n behavior and to evaluate
it on the basis o* antici!ated *uture

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
conse?uences2 The sel*$system includes both .10 com!le, technology can decrease
sel*$eCcacy and sel*$regulation2 !eo!leMs !erce!tions o* control over
their environment4
Self5E*a*y .;0 entrenched bureaucracies
Ho- !eo!le behave in a !articular discourage !eo!le *rom attem!ting
situation de!ends in !art on their sel*$ to bring about social change4 and
eCcacy$that is6 their belie*s that they .<0 the si8e and sco!e o* -orld$-ide
can or cannot e,ercise those behaviors !roblems contribute to !eo!leMs
necessary to bring about a desired sense o* !o-erlessness2
conse?uence2 "Ccacy e,!ectations
di3er *rom outcome e,!ectations6 Self5Re.(lation
-hich re*er to !eo!leMs !rediction o* the &y using reective thought6 humans
li#ely conse?uences o* their behavior2 can mani!ulate their environments and
el*$eCcacy combines -ith !roduce conse?uences o* their actions6
environmental variables6 !revious giving them some ability to regulate
behaviors6 and other !ersonal variables their o-n behavior2 &andura believes
to !redict behavior2 It is ac?uired6 that behavior stems *rom a reci!rocal
enhanced6 or decreased by any one or inuence o* e,ternal and internal
combination o* *our sources: *actors2 T-o e,ternal *actors contribute
./0 mastery e,!eriences or to sel*$regulation: ./0 standards o*
!er*ormance6 evaluation6 and .10 e,ternal
.10 social modeling6 or observing rein*orcement2 ",ternal *actors a3ect
someone o* e?ual ability succeed or sel*$regulation by !roviding !eo!le -ith
*ail at a tas#4 standards *or evaluating their o-n
.;0 social !ersuasion6 or listening to a behavior2 Internal re?uirements *or sel*$
trusted !ersonMs encouraging -ords4 regulation include:
and ./0 sel*$observation o* !er*ormance4
.<0 !hysical and emotional states6 such .10 judging or evaluating !er*ormance4
as an,iety or *ear6 .;0 sel*$reactions6 including sel*$
-hich usually lo-ers sel*$eCcacy2 High rein*orcement or sel*$!unishment2
sel*$eCcacy and a res!onsive Internali8ed sel*$sanctions !revent
environment are the best !redictors o* !eo!le *rom violating their o-n moral
success*ul outcomes2 standards either through selective
activation or disengagement o* internal
Pro/y A.en*y control2 elective activation re*ers to
&andura has recently recogni8ed the the notion that sel*$regulatory
inuence o* !ro,y agency through inuences are not automatic but
-hich !eo!le e,ercise some !artial o!erate only i* activated2 It also means
control over everyday living2 uccess*ul that !eo!le react di3erently in di3erent
living in the 1/st century re?uires situations6 de!ending on their
!eo!le to see# !ro,ies to su!!ly their evaluation o* the situation2
*ood6 deliver in*ormation6 !rovide )isengagement o* internal control
trans!ortation6 etc2 Eithout the use o* means that !eo!le are ca!able o*
!ro,ies6 modern !eo!le -ould be *orced se!arating themselves *rom the
to s!end most o* their time securing the negative conse?uences o* their
necessities o* survival2 behavior2 Peo!le in ambiguous moral
situations$-ho are uncertain that their
behavior is consistent -ith their o-n
Colle*tive E*a*y social and moral standards o* conduct 9
'ollective eCcacy is the level o* may se!arate their conduct *rom its
con5dence that !eo!le have that their injurious conse?uences through *our
combined e3orts -ill !roduce social general techni?ues o* disengagement
change2 At least *our *actors can lo-er o* internal standards or selective
collective eCcacy2 activation2 First is rede5ning behavior6
./0 "vents in other !arts o* the -orld or justi*ying other-ise re!rehensible
can leave !eo!le -ith a sense o* actions by cognitively restructuring
hel!lessness4 them2 Peo!le can use rede5nition o*

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
behavior to disengage themselves *rom Ena*tive Learnin.

re!rehensible conduct by: All behavior is *ollo-ed by some
./0 justi*ying other-ise cul!able conse?uence6 but -hether that
behavior on moral grounds4 conse?uence rein*orces the behavior
.10 ma#ing advantageous com!arisons de!ends on the !ersonMs cognitive
bet-een their behavior and the evaluation o* the situation2
even more re!rehensible behavior
o* others4 and Dysf(n*tional -ehavior
.;0 using eu!hemistic labels to change )ys*unctional behavior is learned through the
the moral tone o* their behavior2 mutual interaction o* the !erson .including
A second method o* disengagement cognitive and neuro!hysiological !rocesses06
*rom internal standards is to distort or the environment .including inter!ersonal
obscure the relationshi! bet-een relations06 and behavioral *actors .es!ecially
behavior and its injurious !revious e,!eriences -ith rein*orcement02
conse?uences2 Peo!le can do this by
minimi8ing6 disregarding6 or distorting De+ression
the conse?uences o* their behavior2 A Peo!le -ho develo! de!ressive
third set o* disengagement !rocedures reactions o*ten
involves blaming the victims2 Finally6 ./0 underestimate their successes and
!eo!le can disengage their behavior overestimate their *ailures6
*rom its conse?uences by dis!lacing or .10 set !ersonal standards too high6 or
di3using res!onsibility2 .;0 treat themselves badly *or their
*aults2
Learnin.
Peo!le learn through observing others and by Pho1ias
attending to the conse?uences o* their o-n Phobias are learned by
actions2 Although &andura believes that ./0 direct contact6
rein*orcement aids learning6 he contends that .10 ina!!ro!riate generali8ation6 and
!eo!le can learn in the absence o* .;0 observational e,!eriences2
rein*orcement and even o* a res!onse2 Once learned they are maintained by
negative rein*orcement6 as the !erson
O1servational Learnin. is rein*orced *or avoiding *ear$!roducing
The heart o* observational learning is situations2
modeling6 -hich is more than sim!le
imitation6 because it involves adding A..ressive -ehaviors
and subtracting *rom observed Ehen carried to e,tremes6 aggressive
behavior2 At least three !rinci!les behaviors can become dys*unctional2 In
inuence modeling: a study o* children observing live and
./0 !eo!le are most li#ely to model 5lmed models being aggressive6
high$status !eo!le6 &andura and his associates *ound that
.10 !eo!le -ho lac# s#ill6 !o-er6 or aggression tends to *oster more
status are most li#ely to model6 and aggression2
.;0 !eo!le tend to model behavior that
they see as being re-arding to the Thera+y
model2 The goal o* social cognitive thera!y is sel*$
&andura recogni8ed *our !rocesses that regulation2 &andura noted three levels o*
govern observational learning: treatment:
./0 attention6 or noticing -hat a model ./0 induction o* change6
does4 .10 generali8ation o* change to other
.10 re!resentation6 or symbolically a!!ro!riate situations6 and
re!resenting ne- res!onse !atterns .;0 maintenance o* ne-ly ac?uired
in memory4 *unctional behaviors2
.;0 behavior !roduction6 or !roducing ocial cognitive thera!ists sometimes use
the behavior that one observes4 and systematic desensiti8ation6 a techni?ue aimed
.<0 motivation2 at diminishing !hobias through rela,ation2
That is6 the observer must be motivated
to !er*orm the observed behavior2 Relate# Resear*h

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
&anduraMs conce!t o* sel*$eCcacy has on *ree choice6 o!timism6 conscious inuences6

generated a great deal o* research and uni?ueness2 As a social cognitive theory6 it
demonstrating that !eo!leMs belie*s are related rates very high on social determinants o*
to their ability to enact a -ide variety o* !ersonality2
!er*ormances6 including sto!!ing smo#ing and
academic !er*ormance2
Self5E*a*y an# S)o'in.

Cessation
aul hi3man and his colleagues
studied the e3ects o* daily uctuations
in sel*$eCcacy on smo#ing la!ses and
rela!ses among e,$smo#ers -ho had
?uit on their o-n *or at least 1< hours2
They *ound that -hen these
!artici!ants smo#ed even a single
cigarette6 their daily sel*$eCcacy
became more variable6 leading to *uture
la!ses and6 -ith some e,$smo#ers6 a
com!lete rela!se2 ",$smo#ers -ho
believed in their ability to ?uit smo#ing
-ere able to maintain high sel*$eCcacy
and to avoid la!ses and rela!se2
Self5E*a*y an# A*a#e)i* ROTTER AND &ISCHEL, CO2NITI4E

Perfor)an*e SOCIAL LEARNIN2 THEORY
&andura and a grou! o* Italian
researchers studied levels o* sel*$ Overview of Co.nitive So*ial Learnin.
eCcacy and their relation to academic Theory
!er*ormance in middle$school children &oth Julian Rotter and Ealter (ischel believe
living near Rome2 They *ound that that cognitive *actors6 more than immediate
children -ho believed that their !arents rein*orcements6 determine ho- !eo!le -ill
had con5dence in their academic ability react to environmental *orces2 "ach suggests
-ere li#ely to have high academic that our e,!ectations o* *uture events are
as!irations6 high academic sel*$eCcacy6 major determinants o* !er*ormance2
and high sel*$regulatory eCcacy6 and
that each o* these *actors related either -io.ra+hy of 6(lian Rotter
directly or indirectly to high academic Julian Rotter -as born in &roo#lyn in //>2 As a
!er*ormance2 high$school student6 he became *amiliar -ith
some o* the -ritings o* Freud and Adler6 but he
Criti3(e of -an#(ra majored in chemistry rather than !sychology
&anduraMs theory receives the highest mar#s o* -hile at &roo#lyn 'ollege2 In /</6 he received
any in the te,t largely because it -as a Ph2)2 in clinical !sychology *rom Indiana
constructed through a care*ul balance o* Bniversity2 A*ter Eorld Ear II6 he too# a
innovative s!eculation and data *rom rigorous !osition at Ohio tate6 -here one o* his
research2 In summary6 the theory rates very students -as Ealter (ischel2 In />;6 he
high on its ability to generate research and on moved to the Bniversity o* 'onnecticut and
its internal consistency2 In addition6 it rates has remained there since retirement2
high on !arsimony and on its ability to be
*alsi5ed6 organi8e #no-ledge6 and guide the Intro#(*tion to Rotter;s So*ial Learnin.
!ractitioner2 Theory
RotterMs interactionist !osition holds that
Con*e+t of H()anity human behavior is based largely on the
&andura sees humans as being relatively uid interaction o* !eo!le -ith their meaning*ul
and e,ible2 Peo!le can store !ast e,!eriences environments2 Rotter believes that6 although
and then use this in*ormation to chart *uture !ersonality can change at any time6 it has a
actions2 &anduraMs theory rates near the basic unity that !reserves it *rom changing as
middle on teleology versus causality and high a result o* minor e,!eriences2 His em!irical la-

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
o* e3ect assumes that !eo!le choose a course -ill be *ollo-ed by that rein*orcement
o* action that advances them to-ard an in that situation2
antici!ated goal2
Pre#i*tin. 2eneral -ehaviors
Pre#i*tin. S+e*i"* -ehaviors The basic !rediction is too s!eci5c to give
Human behavior is most accurately !redicted clues about ho- a !erson -ill generally
by an understanding o* *our variables: behave2
behavior !otential6 e,!ectancy6 rein*orcement
value6 and the !sychological situation2 2enerali7e# E/+e*tan*ies
To ma#e more general !redictions o*
-ehavior Potential behavior6 one must #no- !eo!leMs
&ehavior !otential is the !ossibility that generali8ed e,!ectancies6 or their
a !articular res!onse -ill occur at a e,!ectations based on similar !ast
given time and !lace in relation to its e,!eriences that a given behavior -ill
li#ely rein*orcement2 be rein*orced2 enerali8ed e,!ectancies
include !eo!leMs needs$that is6
E/+e*tan*y behaviors that move them to-ard a
Peo!leMs e,!ectancy in any given goal2
situation is their con5dence that a
!articular rein*orcement -ill *ollo- a Nee#s
s!eci5c behavior in a s!eci5c situation Deeds re*er to *unctionally related
or situations2 ",!ectancies can be categories o* behaviors2 Rotter listed si,
either general or s!eci5c6 and the broad categories o* needs6 -ith each
overall li#elihood o* success is a need being related to behaviors that
*unction o* both generali8ed and lead to the same or similar
s!eci5c e,!ectancies2 rein*orcements:
./0 recognition$status re*ers to the need
Reinfor*e)ent 4al(e to e,cel6 to achieve6 and to have
Rein*orcement value is a !ersonMs others recogni8e oneMs -orth4
!re*erence *or any !articular .10 dominance is the need to control
rein*orcement over other the behavior o* others6 to be in
rein*orcements i* all are e?ually li#ely to charge6 or to gain !o-er over
occur2 Internal rein*orcement is the others4
individualMs !erce!tion o* an event6 .;0 inde!endence is the need to be *ree
-hereas e,ternal rein*orcement re*ers *rom the domination o* others4
to societyMs evaluation o* an event2 .<0 !rotection$de!endency is the need
Rein*orcement$rein*orcement to have others ta#e care o* us and
se?uences suggest that the value o* an to !rotect us *rom harm4
event is a *unction o* oneMs e,!ectation .=0 love and a3ection are needs to be
that a !articular rein*orcement -ill lead -armly acce!ted by others and to
to *uture rein*orcements2 be held in *riendly regard4 and
.>0 !hysical com*ort includes those
Psy*holo.i*al Sit(ation behaviors aimed at securing *ood6
The !sychological situation is that !art good health6 and !hysical security2
o* the e,ternal and internal -orld to Three need com!onents are:
-hich a !erson is res!onding2 &ehavior ./0 need !otential6 or the !ossible
is a *unction o* the interaction o* !eo!le occurrences o* a set o* *unctionally
-ith their meaning*ul environment2 related behaviors directed to-ard
the satis*action o* similar goals4
-asi* Pre#i*tion For)(la .10 *reedom o* movement6 or a !ersonMs
Hy!othetically6 in any s!eci5c situation6 overall e,!ectation o* being
behavior can be !redicted by the basic rein*orced *or !er*orming those
!rediction *ormula6 -hich states that behaviors that are directed to-ard
the !otential *or a behavior to occur in satis*ying some general need4 and
a !articular situation in relation to a .;0 need value6 or the e,tent to -hich
given rein*orcement is a *unction o* !eo!le !re*er one set o*
!eo!leMs e,!ectancy that the behavior rein*orcements to another2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Deed com!onents are analogous to the modeling a!!ro!riate behaviors6 and

more s!eci5c conce!ts o* behavior !ointing out the long range
!otential6 e,!ectancy6 and conse?uences o* both !ositive and
rein*orcement value2 negative behaviors2
2eneral Pre#i*tion For)(la Intro#(*tion to &is*hel;s Co.nitive5

The general !rediction *ormula states A$e*tive Personality Syste)
that need !otential is a *unction o* %i#e &andura and Rotter6 (ischel believes that
*reedom o* movement and need value2 cognitive *actors6 such as e,!ectancies6
RotterMs t-o most *amous scales *or subjective !erce!tions6 values6 goals6 and
measuring generali8ed e,!ectancies !ersonal standards6 are im!ortant in sha!ing
are the Internal$",ternal 'ontrol cale !ersonality2 In his early theory6 (ischel
and the Inter!ersonal Trust cale2 seriously ?uestioned the consistency o*
!ersonality6 but more recently6 he and Luichi
Internal an# E/ternal Control of hoda have advanced the notion that behavior
Reinfor*e)ent is also a *unction o* relatively stable !ersonal
The Internal$",ternal 'ontrol cale dis!ositions and cognitive$a3ective !rocesses
.!o!ularly called locus o* control interacting -ith a !articular situation2
scale0 attem!ts to measure the degree
to -hich !eo!le !erceive a causal -io.ra+hy of alter &is*hel
relationshi! bet-een their o-n e3orts Ealter (ischel -as born in /;6 in ienna6 the
and environmental conse?uences2 second son o* u!!er$middle$class !arents2
Ehen the Da8is invaded Austria in /;@6 his
Inter+ersonal Tr(st S*ale *amily moved to the Bnited tates and
The Inter!ersonal Trust cale measures eventually settled in &roo#lyn2 (ischel
the e,tent to -hich a !erson e,!ects received an (2A2 *rom 'ity 'ollege o* De- Lor#
the -ord or !romise o* another !erson and a Ph2)2 *rom Ohio tate6 -here he -as
to be true2 inuenced by Julian Rotter2 He is currently a
!ro*essor at 'olumbia Bniversity2
&ala#a+tive -ehavior
Rotter de5ned malada!tive behavior as any -a*'.ro(n# of the Co.nitive5A$e*tive
!ersistent behavior that *ails to move a !erson Personality Syste)
closer to a desired goal2 It is usually the result (ischel originally believed that human
o* unrealistically high goals in combination behavior -as mostly a *unction o* the
-ith lo- ability to achieve them2 situation6 but !resently he has recogni8ed the
im!ortance o* relatively !ermanent cognitive$
Psy*hothera+y a3ective units2 Devertheless6 (ischelMs theory
In general6 the goal o* RotterMs thera!y is to continues to recogni8e the a!!arent
achieve harmony bet-een the clientMs *reedom inconsistency o* some behaviors2
o* movement and need value2 The thera!ist is
actively involved in trying to ./0 change the Consisten*y Para#o/
im!ortance o* the clientMs goals and .10 The consistency !arado, re*ers to the
eliminate their unrealistically lo- e,!ectancies observation that6 although both lay$
*or success2 !eo!le and !ro*essionals tend to
believe that behavior is ?uite
Chan.in. 2oals consistent6 research suggests that it is
(alada!tive behaviors *ollo- *rom three not2 (ischel recogni8es that6 indeed6
categories o* ina!!ro!riate goals: ./0 some traits are consistent over time6
conict bet-een goals6 .10 destructive but he contends that there is little
goals6 and .;0 unrealistically lo*ty evidence to suggest that they are
goals2 consistent *rom one situation to
another2
Eli)inatin. Low E/+e*tan*ies
In hel!ing clients change lo- Person5Sit(ation Intera*tion
e,!ectancies o* success6 Rotter uses a (ischel believes that behavior is best
variety o* a!!roaches6 including !redicted *rom an understanding o* the
rein*orcing !ositive behaviors6 ignoring !erson6 the situation6 and the
ina!!ro!riate behaviors6 giving advice6 interaction bet-een !erson and

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
situation2 Thus6 behavior is not the guesses about the conse?uences o*
result o* some global !ersonality trait6 each o* the di3erent behavioral
but by !eo!leMs !erce!tions o* !ossibilities2 The *ourth cognitive$
themselves in a !articular situation2 a3ective unit includes !eo!leMs goals
and values6 -hich tend to render
Co.nitive5A$e*tive Personality Syste) behavior *airly consistent2 (ischelMs 5*th
Ho-ever6 (ischel does not believe that cognitive$a3ective unit includes
inconsistencies in behavior are due solely to a3ective res!onses6 including emotions6
the situation4 he recogni8es that inconsistent *eelings6 and the a3ects that
behaviors reect stable !atterns o* variation accom!any !hysiological reactions2
-ithin a !erson2 He and hoda see these
stable variations in behavior in the *ollo-ing Relate# Resear*h
*rame-or#: I* A6 then 4 but i* &6 then L2 The theories o* both Rotter and (ischel have
Peo!leMs !attern o* variability is their s!ar#ed an abundance o* related research6
behavioral signature o* !ersonality6 or their -ith RotterMs locus o* control being one o* the
uni?ue and stable !attern o* behaving most *re?uently researched areas in
di3erently in di3erent situations2 !sychology and (ischelMs notion o* delay o*
grati5cation and his cognitive$a3ective
-ehavior Pre#i*tion !ersonality system also receiving -ide
(ischelMs basic theoretical !osition *or attention2
!redicting and e,!laining behavior is as
*ollo-s: I* !ersonality is a stable system Lo*(s of Control an# Health5
that !rocesses in*ormation about the Relate# -ehaviors
situation6 then individuals encountering One adjunct o* the locus o* control
di3erent situations should behave conce!t is the health locus o* control6
di3erently as situations vary2 There*ore6 and research in this area suggests that
(ischel believes that6 even though sel*$mastery o* health and !eo!leMs
!eo!leMs behavior may reect some belie* about their !ersonal control over
stability over time6 it tends to vary as health$related behaviors !redict
situations vary2 subse?uent health status2 This body o*
research has included such health$
Sit(ation 4aria1les related behaviors as smo#ing6 abusing
ituation variables include all those alcohol6 and un-ise eating2 In general6
stimuli that !eo!le attend to in a given this research indicates that !eo!le high
situation2 on internal locus o* control6 com!ared
-ith those high on e,ternal locus o*
Co.nitive5A$e*tive Units control6 are more li#ely to enact health$
'ognitive$a3ective units include all related behaviors2
those !sychological6 social6 and
!hysiological as!ects o* !eo!le that An Analysis of Rea*tions to the O<
!ermit them to interact -ith their 6< Si)+son 4er#i*t
environment -ith some stability in their (ischel6 hoda6 and t-o o* their
behavior2 (ischel identi5ed 5ve such colleagues used the cognitive$a3ective
units2 First are encoding strategies6 or !ersonality system to analy8e the
!eo!leMs individuali8ed manner o* verdict in the O2 J2 im!son murder trial2
categori8ing in*ormation they receive They *ound that "uro!ean Americans
*rom e,ternal stimuli2 econd are and A*rican Americans had di3erent
com!etencies and sel*$regulatory -ays o* loo#ing at the im!son verdict2
strategies2 One o* the most im!ortant Although their reactions tended to
o* these com!etencies is intelligence6 *ollo- along racial lines6 !artici!antsM
-hich (ischel argues is res!onsible *or race itsel* -as not as im!ortant as their
the a!!arent consistency o* other traits2 thoughts and *eelings in determining
In addition6 !eo!le use sel*$regulatory their reactions to the verdict2 (ore
strategies to control their o-n behavior s!eci5cally6 "uro!ean Americans -ho
through sel*$*ormulated goals and sel*$ agreed -ith the verdict had thoughts
!roduced conse?uences2 The third and emotions very similar to those o*
cognitive a3ective units are A*rican Americans -ho -ere elated by
e,!ectancies and belie*s6 or !eo!leMs the verdict2 (oreover6 A*rican

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Americans -ho disagreed -ith the

verdict thought and *elt much the same
as "uro!ean Americans -ho -ere
dismayed by the not$guilty verdict2
Criti3(e of Co.nitive So*ial Learnin.

Theory
'ognitive social learning theory combines the
rigors o* learning theory -ith the s!eculative
assum!tion that !eo!le are *or-ard$loo#ing
beings2 It rates high on generating research
and on internal consistency6 and it rates about
average on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 to
organi8e data6 and to guide action2
Con*e+t of H()anity
Rotter and (ischel see !eo!le as goal$directed6
cognitive animals -hose !erce!tions o* events
are more crucial than the events themselves2 DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES
'ognitive social learning theory rates very high
on social inuences6 and high on uni?ueness o* CATTEL AND EYSENC8, TRAIT AND
the individual6 *ree choice6 teleology6 and FACTOR THEORIES
conscious !rocesses2 On the dimension o*
o!timism versus !essimism6 RotterMs vie- is Overview of Fa*tor Analyti* Theory
slightly more o!timistic6 -hereas (ischelMs is Raymond 'attell and Hans "ysenc# have each
about in the middle2 used *actor analysis to identi*y traits .that is6
relatively !ermanent dis!ositions o* !eo!le02
'attell has identi5ed a large number o*
!ersonality traits6 -hereas "ysenc# has
e,tracted only three general *actors2
-io.ra+hy of Ray)on# -< Cattell

Raymond &2 'attell -as born in "ngland in
/=6 educated at the Bniversity o* %ondon6
but s!ent most o* his !ro*essional career in the
Bnited tates2 He held !ositions at 'olumbia
Bniversity6 'lar# Bniversity6 Harvard
Bniversity6 and the Bniversity o* Illinois6 -here
he s!ent most o* his active career2 )uring the
last 1 years o* his li*e6 he -as associated -ith
the Ha-aii chool o* Pro*essional Psychology2
He died in /@6 a *e- -ee#s short o* his ;rd
birthday2
-asi*s of Fa*tor Analysis

Factor analysis is a mathematical !rocedure *or
reducing a large number o* scores to a *e-
more general variables or *actors2 'orrelations
o* the original6 s!eci5c scores -ith the *actors
are called *actor loadings2 Traits generated
through *actor analysis may be either uni!olar
.scaled *rom 8ero to some large amount0 or
bi!olar .having t-o o!!osing !oles6 such as
introversion and e,traversion02 For *actors to
have !sychological meaning6 the analyst must
rotate the a,es on -hich the scores are
!lotted2 "ysenc# used an orthogonal rotation
-hereas 'attell *avored an obli?ue rotation2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
The obli?ue rotation !rocedure ordinarily normal traits6 /> -ere obtained through
results in more traits than the orthogonal Q media and com!ose 'attellMs *amous
method2 /> PF scale2 The additional seven
*actors that ma#e u! the 1; normal
Intro#(*tion to Cattell;s Trait Theory traits -ere originally identi5ed only
'attell used an inductive a!!roach to identi*y through % data2 'attell believed that
traits4 that is6 he began -ith a large body o* !athological !eo!le have the same 1;
data that he collected -ith no !reconceived normal traits as other !eo!le6 but6 in
hy!othesis or theory2 addition6 they e,hibit one or more o* /1
abnormal traits2 Also6 a !ersonMs
P Te*hni3(e !athology may sim!ly be due to a
'attellMs P techni?ue is a correlational normal trait that is carried to an
!rocedure that uses measures collected e,treme2
*rom one !erson on many di3erent
occasions and is his attem!t to Se*on#5Or#er Traits
measure individual or uni?ue6 rather The ;= !rimary source traits tend to
than common6 traits2 'attell also used cluster together6 *orming eight clearly
the dR .di3erential R0 techni?ue6 -hich identi5able second$order traits2 The t-o
correlates the scores o* a large number strongest o* the second$order traits
o* !eo!le on many variables obtained might be called
at t-o di3erent occasions2 &y e,traversion+introversion and an,iety2
combining these t-o techni?ues6 'attell
has measured both states .tem!orary Dyna)i* Traits
conditions -ithin an individual0 and In addition to tem!erament traits6 'attell
traits .relatively !ermanent dis!ositions recogni8ed motivational or dynamic traits6
o* an individual02 -hich include attitudes6 ergs6 and sems2
&e#ia of O1servation Attit(#es

'attell used three di3erent sources o* An attitude re*ers to a s!eci5c course o*
data that enter the correlation matri,: action6 or desire to act6 in res!onse to a
./0 % data6 or a !ersonMs li*e record that given situation2 (otivation is usually
comes *rom observations made ?uite com!le,6 so that a net-or# o*
by others4 motives6 or dynamic lattice6 is ordinarily
.10 Q data6 -hich are based on involved -ith an attitude2 In addition6 a
?uestionnaires4 and subsidiation chain6 or a com!le, set o*
.;0 T data6 or in*ormation obtained *rom subgoals6 underlies motivation2
objective tests2
Er.s
So(r*e Traits "rgs are innate drives or motives6 such
ource traits re*er to the underlying *actor or as se,6 hunger6 loneliness6 !ity6 *ear6
*actors res!onsible *or the intercorrelation curiosity6 !ride6 sensuousness6 anger6
among sur*ace traits2 They can be and greed that humans share -ith
distinguished *rom trait indicators6 or sur*ace other !rimates2
traits2
Se)s
Personality Traits ems are learned or ac?uired dynamic
Personality traits include both common traits traits that can satis*y several ergs at
.shared by many !eo!le0 and uni?ue traits the same time2 The sel*$sentiment is
.!eculiar to one individual02 Personality traits the most im!ortant sem in that it
can also be classi5ed into tem!erament6 integrates the other sems2
motivation .dynamic06 and ability2
The Dyna)i* Latti*e
Te)+era)ent Traits The dynamic lattice is a com!le,
Tem!erament traits are concerned -ith net-or# o* attitudes6 ergs6 and sems
ho- a !erson behaves2 O* the ;= underlying a !ersonMs motivational
!rimary or 5rst$order traits 'attell has structure2
identi5ed6 all but one .intelligence0 is
basically a tem!erament trait2 O* the 1; 2eneti* -asis of Traits

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
'attell and his colleagues !rovided estimates

o* heritability o* the various source traits2 Di)ensions of Personality
Heritability is an estimate o* the e,tent to "ysenc#Ms methods o* measuring !ersonality
-hich the variance o* a given trait is due to limited the number o* !ersonality ty!es to a
heredity2 'attell has *ound relatively high relatively small number2 Although many traits
heritability values *or both uid intelligence e,ist6 "ysenc# identi5ed only three major
.the ability to ada!t to ne- material0 and ty!es2
crystalli8ed intelligence .-hich de!ends on
!rior learning06 suggesting that intelligence is hat Are the &a0or Personality
due more to heredity than to environment2 Fa*tors!
"ysenc#Ms theory revolves around only
Intro#(*tion to Eysen*';s Fa*tor Theory three general bi!olar ty!es:
'om!ared to 'attell6 "ysenc# ./0 -as more e,traversion+introversion6
li#ely to theori8e be*ore collecting and *actor neuroticism+stability6 and
analy8ing data4 .10 e,tracted *e-er *actors4 !sychoticism+su!erego *unction2 All
and .;0 used a -ider variety o* a!!roaches to three have a strong genetic com!onent2
gather data2 ",traverts are characteri8ed by
sociability6 im!ulsiveness6 jocularity6
-io.ra+hy of Hans 6< Eysen*' liveliness6 o!timism6 and ?uic#$
Hans J2 "ysenc# -as born in &erlin in //>6 but -ittedness6 -hereas introverts are
as a teenager6 he moved to "ngland to esca!e ?uiet6 !assive6 unsociable6 care*ul6
Da8i tyranny and made %ondon his home *or reserved6 thought*ul6 !essimistic6
more than > years2 "ysenc# -as trained in !eace*ul6 sober6 and controlled2
the !sychometrically oriented !sychology "ysenc#6 ho-ever6 believes that the
de!artment o* the Bniversity o* %ondon6 *rom !rinci!al di3erence bet-een e,traverts
-hich he received a bachelorMs degree in /;@ and introverts is one o* cortical arousal
and a Ph2)2 in /<2 "ysenc# -as !erha!s the level2 Deurotic traits include an,iety6
most !roli5c -riter o* any !sychologist in the hysteria6 and obsessive com!ulsive
-orld6 and his boo#s and articles o*ten caused disorders2 &oth normal and abnormal
-orld$-ide controversy2 He died in e!tember individuals may score high on the
o* /2 neuroticism scale o* the "ysenc#Ms
various !ersonality inventories2 Peo!le
&eas(rin. Personality -ho score high on the !sychoticism
"ysenc# believed that genetic *actors -ere *ar scale are egocentric6 cold6
more im!ortant than environmental ones in noncon*orming6 aggressive6 im!ulsive6
sha!ing !ersonality and that !ersonal traits hostile6 sus!icious6 and antisocial2 (en
could be measured by standardi8ed !ersonality tend to score higher than -omen on
inventories2 !sychoticism2
&eas(rin. S(+erfa*tors
"ysenc# and his colleagues develo!ed
Criteria for I#entifyin. Fa*tors *our !ersonality inventories to measure
"ysenc# insisted that !ersonality su!er*actors or ty!es2 The t-o most
*actors must: *re?uently used by current researchers
./0 be based on strong !sychometric are the "ysenc# Personality Inventory
evidence6 .-hich measures only " and D0 and the
.10 must !ossess heritability and 5t an "ysenc# Personality Questionnaire
acce!table genetic model6 .-hich also measures P02
.;0 ma#e sense theoretically6 and
.<0 !ossess social relevance2
Hierar*hy of &eas(res -iolo.i*al -ases of Personality

"ysenc# recogni8ed a *our$level "ysenc# believed that P6 "6 and D all
hierarchy o* behavior organi8ation: have a !o-er*ul biological com!onent6
./0 s!eci5c acts or cognitions4 and he cited as evidence the e,istence
.10 habitual acts or cognitions4 o* these three ty!es in a -ide variety o*
.;0 traits6 or !ersonal dis!ositions4 and nations and languages2
.<0 ty!es or su!er*actors2

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Personality an# -ehavior an,ious6 sensitive6 obsessive6

"ysenc# argued that di3erent im!ulsive6 hostile6 and -illing to ta#e
combinations o* P6 " and D relate to a ris#s than other !eo!le2
large number o* behaviors and
!rocesses6 such as academic -iolo.y an# Personality
!er*ormance6 creativity6 and antisocial I* !ersonality has a strong biological
behavior2 He cautioned that *oundation6 then researchers should
!sychologists can be misled i* they do 5nd very similar !ersonality ty!es in
not consider the various combinations various cultures around the -orld2
o* !ersonality dimensions2 tudies in 1< countries *ound a high
degree o* similarity among these
Personality an# Disease di3erent cultures2 "ysenc#Ms later -or#
For many years6 "ysenc# researched investigated !ersonality *actors across
the relationshi! bet-een !ersonality ;= "uro!ean6 Asian6 A*rican6 and
*actors and disease2 He teamed -ith American cultures and *ound that
Ronald rossarth (atice# to study the !ersonality *actors are ?uite universal6
connection bet-een characteristics and thus su!!orting the biological nature o*
both cancer and cardiovascular disease !ersonality2
and *ound that !eo!le -ith a
hel!less+ho!eless attitude -ere more Criti3(e of Trait an# Fa*tor Theories
li#ely to die *rom cancer6 -hereas 'attell and "ysenc#Ms theories rate high on
!eo!le -ho reacted to *rustration -ith !arsimony6 on their ability to generate
anger and emotional arousal -ere research6 and on their use*ulness in organi8ing
much more li#ely to die *rom data4 they are about average on *alsi5ability6
cardiovascular disease2 use*ulness to the !ractitioner6 and internal
consistency2
Relate# Resear*h
The theories o* both 'attell and "ysenc# have Con*e+t of H()anity
been highly !roductive in terms o* research6 'attell and "ysenc# believe that human
due in !art to 'attellMs /> PF Questionnaire and !ersonality is largely the !roduct o* genetics
"ysenc#Ms various !ersonality inventories2 and not the environment2 Thus6 both are rated
ome o* this research has loo#ed at !ersonality very high on biological inuences and very lo-
*actors and the creativity o* scientists and on social *actors2 In addition6 both rate about
artists2 In addition6 some o* "ysenc#Ms research average on conscious versus unconscious
attem!ted to sho- a biological basis o* inuences and high on the uni?ueness o*
!ersonality2 individuals2 The conce!ts o* *ree choice6
o!timism versus !essimism6 and causality
Personalities of Creative S*ientists versus teleology do not a!!ly to 'attell and
an# Artists "ysenc#2
"arly research using the /> PF *ound
that creative scientists com!ared -ith
either the general !o!ulation or less
creative scientists6 -ere more
intelligent6 outgoing6 adventurous6
sensitive6 sel*$suCcient6 dominant6 and
driven2 Other research *ound that
*emale scientists6 com!ared to other
-omen6 -ere more dominant6
con5dent6 intelligent6 radical6 and
adventurous2 Research on the
!ersonality o* artists *ound that -riters
and artists -ere more intelligent6
dominant6 adventurous6 emotionally
sensitive6 radical6 and sel*$suCcient
than other !eo!le2 %ater research *ound
that creative artists scored high on
"ysenc#Ms neuroticism and !sychoticism
scales6 indicating that they -ere more

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Str(*t(re of Personality
According to All!ort6 the basic units o*
!ersonality are !ersonal dis!ositions and the
!ro!rium2
Personal Dis+ositions
All!ort distinguished bet-een common
traits6 -hich !ermit inter$individual
com!arisons6 and !ersonal dis!ositions6
ALLPORT, PSYCHOLO2Y OF THE -hich are !eculiar to the individual2 He
INDI4IDUAL recogni8ed three overla!!ing levels o*
!ersonal dis!ositions6 the most general
Overview of All+ort;s Psy*holo.y of the o* -hich are cardinal dis!ositions that
In#ivi#(al are so obvious and dominating that
ordon All!ort6 -hose major em!hasis -as on they cannot be hidden *rom other
the uni?ueness o* each individual6 built a !eo!le2 Dot everyone has a cardinal
theory o* !ersonality as a reaction against dis!osition6 but all !eo!le have = to /
-hat he regarded as the non$humanistic central dis!ositions6 or characteristics
!ositions o* both !sychoanalysis and animal$ around -hich their lives revolve2 In
based learning theory2 Ho-ever6 All!ort -as addition6 everyone has a great number
eclectic in his a!!roach and acce!ted many o* o* secondary dis!ositions6 -hich are
the ideas o* other theorists2 less reliable and less cons!icuous than
central traits2 All!ort *urther divided
-io.ra+hy of 2or#on All+ort !ersonal dis!ositions into ./0
ordon E2 All!ort -as born in Indiana in /@2 motivational dis!ositions6 -hich are
He received an undergraduate degree in strong enough to initiate action and .10
!hiloso!hy and economics *rom Harvard6 and stylistic dis!ositions6 -hich re*er to the
taught in "uro!e *or a year2 Ehile in "uro!e6 he manner in -hich an individual behaves
had a *ortuitous meeting -ith igmund Freud and -hich guide rather than initiate
in ienna6 -hich hel!ed him decide to action2
com!lete a Ph2)2 in !sychology2 A*ter receiving
his Ph2)2 *rom Harvard6 All!ort s!ent t-o years Pro+ri()
studying under some o* the great erman The !ro!rium re*ers to all those
!sychologists6 but he returned to teach at behaviors and characteristics that
Harvard2 T-o years later he too# a !osition at !eo!le regard as -arm and central in
)artmouth6 but a*ter *our years at )artmouth6 their lives2 All!ort !re*erred the term
he again returned to Harvard6 -here he !ro!rium over sel* or ego because the
remained until his death in />2 latter terms could im!ly an object or
thing -ithin a !erson that controls
All+ort;s A++roa*h to Personality behavior6 -hereas !ro!rium suggests
All!ort believed that !sychologically healthy the core o* oneMs !ersonhood2
humans are motivated by !resent mostly
conscious drives and they not only see# to &otivation
reduce tensions but to establish ne- ones2 He All!ort insisted that an ade?uate theory o*
also believed that !eo!le are ca!able o* motivation must consider the notion that
!roactive behavior6 -hich suggests that they motives change as !eo!le mature and also
can consciously behave in ne- and creative that !eo!le are motivated by !resent drives
-ays that *oster their o-n change and gro-th2 and -ants2
He called his study o* the individual
mor!hogenic science and contrasted it -ith Rea*tive an# Proa*tive Theories of
traditional nomothetic methods2 &otivation
To All!ort6 !eo!le not only react to their
Personality De"ne# environment6 but they also sha!e their
All!ort de5ned !ersonality as the dynamic environment and cause it to react to
organi8ation -ithin the individual o* those them2 His !roactive a!!roach
!sycho!hysical systems that determine his em!hasi8ed the idea that !eo!le o*ten
characteristic behavior and thought2 see# additional tension and that they

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
!ur!ose*ully act on their environment in general la-s *rom a study o* grou!s o*
a -ay that *osters gro-th to-ard !eo!le6 but All!ort used idiogra!hic or
!sychological health2 mor!hogenic !rocedures that study the
single case2 Bnli#e many !sychologists6
F(n*tional A(tono)y All!ort -as -illing to acce!t sel*$re!orts
All!ortMs most distinctive and at *ace value2
controversial conce!t is his theory o*
*unctional autonomy6 -hich holds that The Diaries of &arion Taylor
some .but not all0 human motives are In the late /;Ms6 All!ort and his -i*e
*unctionally inde!endent *rom the became ac?uainted -ith diaries
original motive res!onsible *or a -ritten by -oman they called (arion
!articular behavior2 All!ort recogni8ed Taylor2 These diaries$along -ith
t-o levels o* *unctional autonomy: ./0 descri!tions o* (arion Taylor by her
!erseverative *unctional autonomy6 mother6 younger sister6 *avorite
-hich is the tendency o* certain basic teacher6 *riends6 and a neighbor$
behaviors .such as addictive behaviors0 !rovided the All!orts -ith a large
to continue in the absence o* ?uantity o* material that could be
rein*orcement6 and .10 !ro!riate studied using mor!hogenic methods2
*unctional autonomy6 -hich re*ers to Ho-ever6 the All!orts never
sel*$sustaining motives .such as !ublished this material2
interests0 that are related to the
!ro!rium2 Letters fro) 6enny
"ven though All!ort never !ublished
Cons*io(s an# Un*ons*io(s data *rom (arion TaylorMs dairies6 he did
&otivation !ublish a second case study$that o*
Although All!ort em!hasi8ed conscious Jenny ove (asterson2 Jenny had
motivation more than any other -ritten a series o* ;/ letters to ordon
!ersonality theorist6 he did not and Ada All!ort6 -hose son had been a
com!letely overloo# the !ossible roommate o* JennyMs son2 T-o o* ordon
inuence o* unconscious motives on All!ortMs students6 Al*red &ald-in and
!athological behaviors2 (ost !eo!le6 Je3rey Paige used a !ersonal structure
ho-ever6 are a-are o* -hat they are analysis and *actor analysis
doing and -hy they are doing it2 res!ectively6 -hile All!ort used a
commonsense a!!roach to discern
The Psy*holo.i*ally Healthy Personality JennyMs !ersonality structure as
All!ort believed that !eo!le are motivated by revealed by her letters2 All three
both the need to adjust to their environment a!!roaches yielded similar results
and to gro- to-ard !sychological health4 that -hich suggest that mor!hogenic
is6 !eo!le are both reactive and !roactive2 studies can be reliable2
Devertheless6 !sychologically healthy !ersons
are more li#ely to engage in !roactive Relate# Resear*h
behaviors2 All!ort listed si, criteria *or All!ort believed that a dee! religious
!sychological health: commitment -as a mar# o* a mature !erson6
./0 an e,tension o* the sense o* sel*6 but he also sa- that many regular churchgoers
.10 -arm relationshi!s -ith others6 did not have a mature religious orientation and
.;0 emotional security or sel*$acce!tance6 -ere ca!able o* dee! racial and social
.<0 a realistic vie- o* the -orld6 !rejudice2 In other -ords6 he sa- a curvilinear
.=0 insight and humor6 and relationshi! bet-een church attendance and
.>0 a uni*ying !hiloso!hy o* li*e2 !rejudice2
The St(#y of the In#ivi#(al The Reli.io(s Orientation S*ale

All!ort strongly *elt that !sychology should This insight led All!ort to develo! and
develo! and use research methods that study use the Religious Orientation cale to
the individual rather than grou!s2 assess both an intrinsic orientation and
an e,trinsic orientation to-ard religion2
&or+ho.eni* S*ien*e All!ort and Ross *ound that !eo!le -ith
Traditional !sychology relies on an e,trinsic orientation to-ard religion
nomothetic science6 -hich see#s tend to be ?uite !rejudiced6 -hereas

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
those -ith an intrinsic orientation tend theories2 It holds that !eo!le antici!ate events
to be lo- on racial and social !rejudice2 by the meanings or inter!retations that they
!lace on those events2 Kelly called these
Reli.io(s Orientation an# inter!retations !ersonal constructs2 His
Psy*holo.i*al Health Research has !hiloso!hical !osition6 called constructive
*ound that !eo!le -ho score high on alternativism6 assumes that alternative
the intrinsic scale o* the RO tend to inter!retations are al-ays available to !eo!le2
have overall better !ersonal *unctioning
than those -ho score high on the -io.ra+hy of 2eor.e 8elly
",trinsic scale2 In general6 these studies eorge Kelly -as born on a *arm in Kansas in
have *ound that some highly religious /=2 )uring his school years and his early
!eo!le have strong !sychological health !ro*essional career6 he dabbled in a -ide
-hereas others su3er *rom a variety o* variety o* jobs6 but he eventually received a
!sychological disorders2 The !rinci!al Ph2)2 in !sychology *rom the tate Bniversity
di3erence bet-een the t-o grou!s is o* Io-a2 He began his academic career at Fort
one o* intrinsic or e,trinsic religious Hays tate 'ollege in Kansas6 then a*ter Eorld
orientation4 that is6 !eo!le -ith an Ear II6 he too# a !osition at Ohio tate2 He
intrinsic orientation tend to be remained there until />= -hen he joined the
!sychologically healthy6 but those -ith *aculty at &randeis2 He died t-o years later at
an e,trinsic orientation su3er *rom !oor age >/2
!sychological health2
8elly;s Philoso+hi*al Position
Criti3(e of All+ort Kelly believed that !eo!le construe events
All!ort has -ritten elo?uently about according to their !ersonal constructs rather
!ersonality6 but his vie-s are based more on than reality2
!hiloso!hical s!eculation and common sense
than on scienti5c studies2 As a conse?uence6 Person as S*ientist
his theory is very narro-6 being limited mostly Peo!le generally attem!t to solve
to a model o* human motivation2 Thus6 it rates everyday !roblems in much the same
lo- on its ability to organi8e !sychological data *ashion as scientists4 that is6 they
and to be *alsi5ed2 It rates high on !arsimony observe6 as# ?uestions6 *ormulate
and internal consistency and about average on hy!otheses6 in*er conclusions6 and
its ability to generate research and to hel! the !redict *uture events2
!ractitioner2
S*ientist as Person
Con*e+t of H()anity &ecause scientists are !eo!le6 their
All!ort sa- !eo!le as thin#ing6 !roactive6 !ronouncements should be regarded
!ur!ose*ul beings -ho are generally a-are o* -ith the same s#e!ticism as any other
-hat they are doing and -hy2 On the si, data2 "very scienti5c theory can be
dimensions *or a conce!t o* humanity6 All!ort vie-ed *rom an alternate angle6 and
rates higher than any other theorist on every com!etent scientist should be
conscious inuences and on the uni?ueness o* o!en to changing his or her theory2
the individual2 He rates high on *ree choice6
o!timism6 and teleology6 and about average on Constr(*tive Alternativis)
social inuences2 Kelly believed that all our
inter!retations o* the -orld are subject
to revision or re!lacement6 an
assum!tion he called constructive
alternativism2 He *urther stressed that6
because !eo!le can construe their
HU&ANISTICEGISTENTIAL THEORIES -orld *rom di3erent angles6
observations that are valid at one time
8ELLY, PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY may be *alse at a later time2
Overview of 8elly;s Personal Constr(*t

Theory
KellyMs theory o* !ersonal constructs can be Personal Constr(*ts
seen as a metatheory6 or a theory about

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Kelly believed that !eo!le loo# at their -orld ./0 The commonality corollary
through tem!lates that they create and then suggests that our !ersonal
attem!t to 5t over the realities o* the -orld2 He constructs tend to be similar to the
called these tem!lates or trans!arent !atterns construction systems o* other
!ersonal constructs6 -hich he believed sha!e !eo!le to the e,tent that -e share
behavior2 e,!eriences -ith them2
.//0 The sociality corollary states
-asi* Post(late that !eo!le are able to
Kelly e,!ressed his theory in one basic communicate -ith other !eo!le
!ostulate and // su!!orting corollaries2 because they can construe those
The basic !ostulate assumes that !eo!leMs constructions2
human behavior is sha!ed by the -ay Eith the sociality corollary6 Kelly
!eo!le antici!ate the *uture2 introduced the conce!t o* role6 -hich
re*ers to a !attern o* behavior that
S(++ortin. Corollaries stems *rom !eo!leMs understanding o*
The // su!!orting corollaries can all be the constructs o* others2 "ach o* us has
in*erred *rom this basic !ostulate: a core role and numerous !eri!heral
./0 Although no t-o events are e,actly roles2 A core role gives us a sense o*
ali#e6 -e construe similar events as identity -hereas !eri!heral roles are
i* they -ere the same6 and this is less central to our sel*$conce!t2
KellyMs construction corollary2
.10 The individuality corollary states A++li*ations of Personal Constr(*t Theory
that because !eo!le have di3erent KellyMs many years o* clinical e,!erience
e,!eriences6 they can construe the enabled him to evolve conce!ts o* abnormal
same event in di3erent -ays2 develo!ment and !sychothera!y6 and to
.;0 The organi8ation corollary assumes develo! a Role 'onstruct Re!ertory .Re!0 Test2
that !eo!le organi8e their !ersonal
constructs in a hierarchical system6 A1nor)al Develo+)ent
-ith some constructs in a Kelly sa- normal !eo!le as analogous
su!erordinate !osition and others to com!etent scientists -ho test
subordinate to them2 reasonable hy!otheses6 objectively
.<0 The dichotomy corollary assumes vie- the results6 and -illingly change
that !eo!le construe events in an their theories -hen the data -arrant it2
either+or manner6 e2g26 good or bad2 imilarly6 unhealthy !eo!le are li#e
.=0 KellyMs choice corollary assumes that incom!etent scientists -ho test
!eo!le tend to choose the unreasonable hy!otheses6 reject or
alternative in a dichotomi8ed distort legitimate results6 and re*use to
construct that they see as e,tending amend outdated theories2 Kelly
the range o* their *uture choices2 identi5ed *our common elements in
.>0 The range corollary states that most human disturbances:
constructs are limited to a !articular ./0 threat6 or the !erce!tion that oneMs
range o* convenience4 that is6 they basic constructs may be drastically
are not relevant to all situations2 changed4
.0 KellyMs e,!erience corollary .10 *ear6 -hich re?uires an incidental
suggests that !eo!le continually rather than a com!rehensive
revise their !ersonal constructs as restructuring o* oneMs construct
the result o* their e,!eriences2 system4
.@0 The modulation corollary assumes .;0 an,iety6 or the recognition that one
that only !ermeable constructs lead cannot ade?uately deal -ith a ne-
to change4 concrete constructs situation4 and
resist modi5cation through .<0 guilt6 de5ned as the sense o*
e,!erience2 having lost oneMs core role
.0 The *ragmentation corollary states structure2
that !eo!leMs behavior can be
inconsistent because their construct Psy*hothera+y
systems can readily admit Kelly insisted that clients should set
incom!atible elements2 their o-n goals *or thera!y and that
they should be active !artici!ants in the

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
thera!eutic !rocess2 He sometimes Criti3(e of 8elly

used a !rocedure called 5,ed$role KellyMs theory !robably is most a!!licable to
thera!y in -hich clients act out a relatively normal6 intelligent !eo!le2
!redetermined role *or several -ee#s2 Bn*ortunately6 it !ays scant attention to
&y !laying the !art o* a !sychologically !roblems o* motivation6 develo!ment6 and
healthy !erson6 clients may discover cultural inuences2 On the si, criteria o* a
!reviously hidden as!ects o* use*ul theory6 it rates very high on !arsimony
themselves2 and internal consistency and about average on
its ability to generate research2 Ho-ever6 it
The Re+ Test rates lo- on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 to guide
The !ur!ose o* the Re! test is to the !ractitioner6 and to organi8e #no-ledge2
discover -ays in -hich clients construe
signi5cant !eo!le in their lives2 'lients Con*e+t of H()anity
!lace names o* !eo!le they #no- on a Kelly sa- !eo!le as antici!ating the *uture and
re!ertory grid in order to identi*y both living their lives in accordance -ith those
similarities and di3erences antici!ations2 His conce!t o* elaborative choice
among these !eo!le2 suggests that !eo!le increase their range o*
*uture choices by the !resent choices they
*reely ma#e2 Thus6 KellyMs theory rates very
Relate# Resear*h high in teleology and high in choice and
KellyMs !ersonal construct theory and his Re! o!timism2 In addition6 it receives high ratings
test have generated a substantial amount o* *or conscious inuences and *or its em!hasis
em!irical research in both the Bnited tates on the uni?ueness o* the individual2 Finally6
and the Bnited Kingdom2 !ersonal construct theory is about average on
social inuences2
The Re+ Test an# Chil#ren
Bse o* the Re! test -ith children
reveals that the sel*$constructs o*
de!ressed adolescents are mar#ed by RO2ERS, PERSON5CENTERED THEORY
lo- sel*$esteem6 !essimism6 and an
e,ternal locus o* control2 Other research Overview of Ro.ers;s Person5Centere#
-ith children and the Re! test sho-s Theory
that !readolescents construe Although 'arl Rogers is best #no-n as the
themselves and others in -ays *ounder o* client$centered thera!y6 he also
consistent -ith the &ig Five !ersonality develo!ed an im!ortant theory o* !ersonality
*actors .e,traversion6 agreeableness6 that underscores his a!!roach to thera!y2
conscientiousness6 emotional stability6
and intelligence06 thus demonstrating -io.ra+hy of Carl Ro.ers
that the &ig Five *actors can come *rom 'arl Rogers -as born into a devoutly religious
instruments other than standard *amily in a 'hicago suburb in /12 A*ter the
!ersonality tests2 *amily moved to a *arm near 'hicago6 'arl
became interested in scienti5c *arming and
The Re+ Test an# the Real Self learned to a!!reciate the scienti5c method2
4ers(s the I#eal Self Ehen he graduated *rom the Bniversity o*
Other research has *ound that the Re! Eisconsin6 Rogers intended to become a
test -as use*ul in ./0 !redicting minister6 but he gave u! that notion and
adherence to a !hysical activity com!leted a Ph2)2 in !sychology *rom
!rogram6 .10 detecting di3erences 'olumbia Bniversity in /;/2 In /<6 a*ter
bet-een the real sel* and the ideal sel*6 nearly a do8en years a-ay *rom an academic
and .;0 measuring neuroticism2 li*e -or#ing as a clinician6 he too# a !osition at
Ohio tate Bniversity2 %ater6 he held !ositions
The Re! Test and the Pain Patient at the Bniversity o* 'hicago and the Bniversity
A number o* studies6 including the o* Eisconsin2 In /><6 he moved to 'ali*ornia
%arge and trong ./0 study6 have -here he hel!ed *ound the 'enter *or tudies
*ound that the Re! test can be a o* the Person2 He died in /@ at age @=2
reliable and valid instrument *or
measuring !ain2 Person5Centere# Theory

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
Rogers care*ully cra*ted his !erson$centered that are distorted or resha!ed to 5t it

theory o* !ersonality to meet his o-n demands into an e,isting sel*$conce!t4 and .;0
*or a structural model that could e,!lain and those that are consistent -ith the sel*$
!redict outcomes o* client$centered thera!y2 conce!t and thus are accurately
Ho-ever6 the theory has im!lications *ar symboli8ed and *reely admitted to the
beyond the thera!eutic setting2 sel*$structure2 Any e,!erience not
consistent -ith the sel*$conce!t 9 even
-asi* Ass()+tions !ositive e,!eriences 9 -ill be distorted
Person$centered theory rests on t-o or denied2
basic assum!tions: ./0 the *ormative
tendency6 -hich states that all matter6 Nee#s
both organic and inorganic6 tends to The t-o basic human needs are
evolve *rom sim!ler to more com!le, maintenance and enhancement6 but
*orms6 and .10 an actuali8ing tendency6 !eo!le also need !ositive regard and
-hich suggests that all living things6 sel*$regard2 (aintenance needs include
including humans6 tend to move to-ard those *or *ood6 air6 and sa*ety6 but they
com!letion6 or *ul5llment o* !otentials2 also include our tendency to resist
Ho-ever6 in order *or !eo!le .or !lants change and to maintain our sel*$
and animals0 to become actuali8ed6 conce!t as it is2 "nhancement needs
certain identi5able conditions must be include needs to gro- and to reali8e
!resent2 For a !erson6 these conditions oneMs *ull human !otential2 As
include a relationshi! -ith another a-areness o* sel* emerges6 an in*ant
!erson -ho is genuine6 or congruent6 begins to receive !ositive regard *rom
and -ho demonstrates com!lete another !erson$that is6 to be loved or
acce!tance and em!athy *or that acce!ted2 Peo!le naturally value those
!erson2 e,!eriences that satis*y their needs *or
!ositive regard6 but6 un*ortunately6 this
The Self an# Self5A*t(ali7ation value sometimes becomes more
A sense o* sel* or !ersonal identity !o-er*ul than the re-ard they receive
begins to emerge during in*ancy6 and6 *or meeting their organismic needs2
once established6 it allo-s a !erson to This sets u! the condition o*
strive to-ard sel*$actuali8ation6 -hich is incongruence6 -hich is e,!erienced
a subsystem o* the actuali8ation -hen basic organismic needs are
tendency and re*ers to the tendency to denied or distorted in *avor o* needs to
actuali8e the sel* as !erceived in be loved or acce!ted2 As a result o*
a-areness2 The sel* has t-o e,!eriences -ith !ositive regard6
subsystems: ./0 the sel*$conce!t6 -hich !eo!le develo! the need *or sel*$regard6
includes all those as!ects o* oneMs -hich they ac?uire only a*ter they
identity that are !erceived in !erceive that someone else cares *or
a-areness6 and .10 the ideal sel*6 or our them and values them2 Once
vie- o* our sel* as -e -ould li#e to be established6 ho-ever6 sel*$regard
or as!ire to be2 Once *ormed6 the sel*$ becomes autonomous and no longer
conce!t tends to resist change6 and de!endent on anotherMs continuous
ga!s bet-een it and the ideal sel*6 !ositive evaluation2
result in incongruence and various
levels o* !sycho!athology2 Con#itions of orth
(ost !eo!le are not unconditionally
Awareness acce!ted2 Instead6 they receive
Peo!le are a-are o* both their sel*$ conditions o* -orth4 that is6 they *eel
conce!t and their ideal sel*6 although that they are loved and acce!ted only
a-areness need not be accurate or at a -hen and i* they meet the conditions
high level2 Rogers sa- !eo!le as having set by others2
e,!eriences on three levels o*
a-areness: ./0 those that are Psy*holo.i*al Sta.nation
symboli8ed belo- the threshold o* Ehen the organismic sel* and the sel*$
a-areness and are either ignored or conce!t are at variance -ith one
denied6 that is6 subceived6 or not another6 a !erson may e,!erience
allo-ed into the sel*$conce!t4 .10 those incongruence6 -hich includes

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
vulnerability6 threat6 de*ensiveness6 and regard e,ists -hen the thera!ist

even disorgani8ation2 The greater the acce!ts the client -ithout conditions or
incongruence bet-een sel*$conce!t and ?uali5cations2 "m!athic listening is the
the organismic e,!erience6 the more thera!istMs ability to sense the *eelings
vulnerable that !erson becomes2 o* a client and also to communicate
An,iety e,ists -henever the !erson these !erce!tions so that the client
becomes dimly a-are o* the #no-s that another !erson has entered
discre!ancy bet-een organismic into his or her -orld o* *eelings -ithout
e,!erience and sel*$conce!t6 -hereas !rejudice6 !rojection6 or evaluation2
threat is e,!erienced -henever the
!erson becomes more clearly a-are o* Pro*ess
this incongruence2 To !revent Rogers sa- the !rocess o* thera!eutic
incongruence6 !eo!le react -ith change as ta#ing !lace in seven stages:
de*ensiveness6 ty!ically in the *orms o* ./0 clients are un-illing to communicate
distortion and denial2 Eith distortion6 anything about themselves4
!eo!le misinter!ret an e,!erience so .10 they discuss only e,ternal events
that it 5ts into their sel*$conce!t4 -ith and other !eo!le4
denial6 !eo!le re*use to allo- the .;0 they begin to tal# about themselves6
e,!erience into a-areness2 Ehen but still as an object4
!eo!leMs de*enses *ail to o!erate .<0 they discuss strong emotions that
!ro!erly6 their behavior becomes they have *elt in the !ast4
disorgani8ed or !sychotic2 Eith .=0 they begin to e,!ress !resent
disorgani8ation6 !eo!le sometimes *eelings4
behave consistently -ith their .>0 they *reely allo- into a-areness
organismic e,!erience and sometimes those e,!eriences that -ere
in accordance -ith their shattered sel*$ !reviously denied or distorted4 and
conce!t2 .0 they e,!erience irreversible change
and gro-th2
Psy*hothera+y
For client$centered !sychothera!y to be O(t*o)es
e3ective6 certain conditions are necessary: A Ehen client$centered thera!y is
vulnerable client must have contact o* some success*ul6 clients become more
duration -ith a counselor -ho is congruent6 congruent6 less de*ensive6 more o!en to
and -ho demonstrates unconditional !ositive e,!erience6 and more realistic2 The ga!
regard and listens -ith em!athy to a client2 bet-een their ideal sel* and their true
The client must in turn !erceive the sel* narro-s and6 as a conse?uence6
congruence6 unconditional !ositive regard6 and clients e,!erience less !hysiological
em!athy o* the thera!ist2 I* these conditions and !sychological tension2 Finally6
are !resent6 then the !rocess o* thera!y -ill clientsM inter!ersonal relationshi!s
ta#e !lace and certain !redictable outcomes im!rove because they are more
-ill result2 acce!ting o* sel* and others2
Con#itions The Person of To)orrow

Three conditions are crucial to client$ Rogers -as vitally interested in the
centered thera!y6 and Rogers called !sychologically healthy !erson6 called the
them the necessary and suCcient *ully *unctioning !erson or the !erson o*
conditions *or thera!eutic gro-th2 The tomorro-2 Rogers listed seven characteristics
5rst is counselor congruence6 or a o* the !erson o* tomorro-2 The !erson o*
thera!ist -hose organismic e,!eriences tomorro-
are matched by a-areness and by the ./0 is able to adjust to change6
ability and -illingness to o!enly .10 is o!en to e,!erience6
e,!ress these *eelings2 'ongruence is .;0 is able to live *ully in the moment6
more basic than the other t-o .<0 is able to have harmonious relations
conditions because it is a relatively -ith others6
stable characteristic o* the thera!ist6 .=0 is more integrated -ith no arti5cial
-hereas the other t-o conditions are boundaries bet-een conscious and
limited to a s!eci5c thera!eutic unconscious !rocesses6
relationshi!2 Bnconditional !ositive .>0 has a basic trust o* human nature6 and

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
.0 enjoys a greater richness in li*e2 The level o* the *ully *unctioning !ersons or
*actors have im!lications both *or the even to the level o* normal
individual and *or society2 !sychological health2
Philoso+hy of S*ien*e Relate# Resear*h

Rogers agreed -ith (aslo- that scientists (ore recently6 other researchers have
must care about and be involved in the investigated RogersMs *acilitative conditions
!henomena they study and that !sychologists both outside thera!y and -ithin thera!y2
should limit their objectivity and !recision to
their methodology6 not to the creation o* Fa*ilitative Con#itions O(tsi#e
hy!otheses or to the communication o* Thera+y
research 5ndings2 In the Bnited Kingdom6 )uncan 'ramer
The Chi*a.o St(#y has conducted a series o* studies
Ehen he taught at the Bniversity o* 'hicago6 investigating the thera!eutic ?ualities
Rogers6 along -ith colleagues and graduate o* RogersMs *acilitative conditions in
students6 conducted a so!histicated and inter!ersonal relationshi!s outside o*
com!le, study on the e3ectiveness o* thera!y2 'ramer *ound !ositive
!sychothera!y2 relationshi!s bet-een sel*$esteem6 as
measured by the Rosenberg el*$
Hy+otheses "steem cale6 and the *our *acilitative
This study tested *our broad conditions that ma#e u! the &arrett
hy!otheses2 As a conse?uence o* %ennard Relationshi! Inventory$level o*
thera!y ./0 clients -ill become more regard6 unconditionality o* regard6
a-are o* their *eelings and e,!eriences6 congruence6 and em!athy2 (oreover6
.10 the ga! bet-een the real sel* and the direction o* the relationshi! strongly
the ideal sel* -ill lessen4 .;0 clientsM suggested that RogersMs *acilitative
behavior -ill become more sociali8ed conditions !recede the ac?uisition o*
and mature4 and .<0 clients -ill become higher levels o* sel*$esteem2
both more sel*$acce!ting and more
acce!ting o* others2 Fa*ilitative Con#itions an# Co(+les
Thera+y
&etho# In &elgium6 Al*ons ansteen-egen
Partici!ants -ere adults -ho sought ./>0 used a revised *orm o* the
thera!y at the Bniversity o* 'hicago &arrett$%ennard to determine i* RogersMs
counseling center2 ",!erimenters as#ed *acilitative conditions related to success
hal* o* them to -ait > days be*ore during cou!les thera!y2 He *ound that
receiving thera!y -hile beginning client$centered cou!les7 thera!y can
thera!y -ith the other hal*2 In addition6 bring about !ositive changes in
they tested a control grou! o* normals cou!les6 and that some o* these
-ho -ere matched -ith the thera!y changes lasted *or at least seven years
grou!2 This control grou! -as also a*ter thera!y2
divided into a -ait grou! and a non$
-ait grou!2 Criti3(e of Ro.ers
RogersMs !erson$centered theory is one o* the
Fin#in.s most care*ully constructed o* all !ersonality
Rogers and his associates *ound that theories6 and it meets ?uite -ell each o* the
the thera!y grou!$but not the -ait si, criteria o* a use*ul theory2 It rates very high
grou!$sho-ed a lessening o* the ga! on internal consistency and !arsimony6 high on
bet-een real sel* and ideal sel*2 They its ability to be *alsi5ed and to generate
also *ound that clients -ho im!roved research6 and high$average on its ability to
during thera!y$but not those rated as organi8e #no-ledge and to serve as a guide to
least im!roved$sho-ed changes in the !ractitioner2
social behavior6 as noted by *riends2
Con*e+t of H()anity
S())ary of Res(lts Rogers believed that humans have the
Although client$centered thera!y -as ca!acity to change and gro-$!rovided that
success*ul in changing clients6 it -as certain necessary and suCcient conditions are
not success*ul in bringing them to the !resent2 There*ore6 his theory rates very high

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
on o!timism2 In addition6 it rates high on *ree motivated by the same basic needs4 and .=0
choice6 teleology6 conscious motivation6 social needs can be arranged on a hierarchy2
inuences6 and the uni?ueness o* the
individual2 Hierar*hy of Nee#s
(aslo- held that lo-er level needs
have !re!otency over higher level
needs4 that is6 they must be satis5ed
be*ore higher needs become
motivators2 (aslo-Ms hierarchy includes
./0 !hysiological needs6 such as
o,ygen6 *ood6 -ater6 and so on4 .10
sa*ety needs6 -hich include !hysical
security6 stability6 de!endency6
!rotection6 and *reedom *rom danger6
and -hich result in basic an,iety i* not
satis5ed4 .;0 love and belongingness
needs6 including the desire *or
*riendshi!6 the -ish *or a mate and
children6 and the need to belong4 .<0
esteem needs6 -hich *ollo- *rom the
satis*action o* love needs and -hich
include sel*$con5dence and the
recognition that one has a !ositive
re!utation4 and .=0 sel*$actuali8ation
needs6 -hich are satis5ed only by the
!sychologically healthiest !eo!le2
&ASLO%S HOLISTIC5DYNA&IC THEORY Bnli#e other needs that automatically
are activated -hen lo-er needs are
Overview of &aslow;s Holisti*5Dyna)i* met6 sel*$actuali8ation needs do not
Theory inevitably *ollo- the satis*action o*
Abraham (aslo-Ms holistic$dynamic theory esteem needs2 Only by embracing such
holds that !eo!le are continually motivated by &$values as truth6 beauty6 oneness6 and
one or more needs6 and that6 under the !ro!er justice6 can !eo!le achieve sel*$
circumstances6 they can reach a level o* actuali8ation2 The 5ve needs on
!sychological health called sel*$actuali8ation2 (aslo-Ms hierarchy are conative needs2
Other needs include aesthetic needs6
-io.ra+hy of A1raha) H< &aslow cognitive needs6 and neurotic needs2
Abraham H2 (aslo- -as born in De- Lor# in Aestheti* Nee#s
/@6 the oldest o* seven children o* Russian Aesthetic needs include a desire *or
Je-ish immigrants2 A*ter t-o or three mediocre beauty and order6 and some !eo!le
years as a college student6 his -or# im!roved have much stronger aesthetic needs
at about the time he -as married2 He received than do others2 Ehen !eo!le *ail to
both a bachelorMs degree and a Ph2)2 *rom the meet their aesthetic needs6 they
Bniversity o* Eisconsin -here he -or#ed -ith become sic#2
Harry Harlo- conducting animal studies2 (ost
o* his !ro*essional career -as s!ent at Co.nitive Nee#s
&roo#lyn 'ollege and at &randeis Bniversity2 'ognitive needs include the desire to
Poor health *orced him to move to 'ali*ornia #no-6 to understand6 and to be curious2
-here he died in / at age >12 Kno-ledge is a !rere?uisite *or each o*
the 5ve conative needs2 Also6 !eo!le
&aslow;s 4iew of &otivation -ho are denied #no-ledge and #e!t in
(aslo-Ms theory rests on 5ve basic ignorance become sic#6 !aranoid6 and
assum!tions about motivation: ./0 the -hole de!ressed2
organism is motivated at any one time4 .10
motivation is com!le,6 and unconscious Ne(roti* Nee#s
motives o*ten underlie behavior4 .;0 !eo!le are Eith each o* the above three
continually motivated by one need or another4 dimensions o* needs6 !hysical or
.<0 !eo!le in di3erent cultures are all !sychological illness results -hen the

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
needs are not satis5ed2 Deurotic needs6 !sychological health called sel*$actuali8ation2
ho-ever6 lead to !athology regardless
o* -hether they are satis5ed or not2 4al(es of Self5A*t(ali7ers
Deurotic needs include such motives as (aslo- held that sel*$actuali8ers are
a desire to dominate6 to inict !ain6 or metamotivated by such &$values as
to subject onesel* to the -ill o* another truth6 goodness6 beauty6 justice6 and
!erson2 Deurotic needs are sim!licity2
non!roductive and do not *oster health2
Criteria for Self5A*t(ali7ation
2eneral Dis*(ssion of Nee#s Four criteria must be met be*ore a
(aslo- believed that most !eo!le !erson achieves sel*$actuali8ation: ./0
satis*y lo-er level needs to a greater absence o* !sycho!athology6 .10
e,tent than they do higher levels satis*action o* each o* the *our lo-er
needs6 and that the greater the level needs6 .;0 acce!tance o* the &$
satis*action o* one need6 the more *ully values6 and .<0 *ull reali8ation o* oneMs
the ne,t highest need is li#ely to !otentials *or gro-th2
emerge2 In certain rare cases6 the order
o* needs might be reversed2 For Chara*teristi*s of Self5A*t(ali7in.
e,am!le6 a starving mother may be Peo+le
motivated by love needs to give u! (aslo- listed /= ?ualities that
*ood in order to *eed her starving characteri8e sel*$actuali8ing !eo!le6
children2 Ho-ever6 i* -e understood the although not all sel*$actuali8ers !ossess
unconscious motivation behind many each o* the characteristics to the same
a!!arent reversals6 -e -ould see that e,tent2 These characteristics are
they are not genuine reversals at all2 ./0 more eCcient !erce!tion o* reality6
Thus6 (aslo- insisted that much o* our meaning that sel*$actuali8ers o*ten
sur*ace behavior is actually motivated have an almost uncanny ability to
by more basic and o*ten unconscious detect !honiness in others6 and they
needs2 (aslo- also believed that some are not *ooled by sham4
e,!ressive behaviors are unmotivated6 .10 acce!tance o* sel*6 others6 and
even though all behaviors have a nature4
cause2 ",!ressive behavior has no aim .;0 s!ontaneity6 sim!licity6 and
or goal but is merely a !ersonMs mode naturalness6 meaning that sel*$
o* e,!ression2 In com!arison6 co!ing actuali8ers have no need to a!!ear
behaviors .-hich are motivated0 deal com!le, or so!histicated4
-ith a !ersonMs attem!t to co!e -ith .<0 !roblem$centered -hich is the
the environment2 The conative needs ability to vie- age$old !roblems
ordinarily call *orth co!ing behaviors2 *rom a solid !hiloso!hical !osition4
)e!rivation o* any o* the needs leads to .=0 the need *or !rivacy6 or a
!athology o* some sort2 For e,am!le6 detachment that allo-s sel*$
!eo!leMs inability to reach sel*$ actuali8ing !eo!le to be alone
actuali8ation results in meta!athology6 -ithout being lonely4
de5ned as an absence o* values6 a lac# .>0 autonomy6 meaning that they no
o* *ul5llment6 and a loss o* meaning in longer are de!endent on other
li*e2 (aslo- suggested that instinctoid !eo!le *or their sel*$esteem4
needs are innately determined even .0 continued *reshness o* a!!reciation
though they can be modi5ed by and the ability to vie- everyday
learning2 (aslo- also believed that things -ith a *resh vision and
higher level needs .love6 esteem6 and a!!reciation4
sel*$actuali8ation0 are later on the .@0 *re?uent re!orts o* !ea#
evolutionary scale than lo-er level e,!eriences6 or those mystical
needs and that they !roduce more e,!eriences that give a !erson a
genuine ha!!iness and more !ea# sense o* transcendence and *eelings
e,!eriences2 o* a-e6 -onder6 ecstasy6 reverence6
and humility4
Self5A*t(ali7ation .0 emeinscha*tsge*hl6 that is6 social
(aslo- believed that a very small !ercentage interest or a dee! *eeling o* oneness
o* !eo!le reach an ultimate level o* -ith all humanity4

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
./0 !ro*ound inter!ersonal relations6 develo!ed !ersonality inventories *or

but -ith no des!erate need to have measuring sel*$actuali8ation2 The most -idely
a multitude o* *riends4 used o* these is "verett hostromMs Personal
.//0 the democratic character Orientation Inventory .POI06 a /=$item *orced$
structure6 or the ability to disregard choice inventory that assesses a variety o* sel*$
su!er5cial di3erences bet-een actuali8ation *acets2
!eo!le4
./10 discrimination bet-een means The 6onah Co)+le/
and ends6 meaning that sel*$ &ecause humans are born -ith a natural
actuali8ing !eo!le have a clear tendency to move to-ard !sychological health6
sense o* right and -rong6 and they any *ailure to reach sel*$actuali8ation can
e,!erience little conict about basic technically be called abnormal develo!ment2
values4 One such abnormal syndrome is the Jonah
./;0 a !hiloso!hical sense o* humor com!le,6 or *ear o* being or doing oneMs best6 a
that is s!ontaneous6 un!lanned6 and condition that all o* us have to some e,tent2
intrinsic to the situation4 (aslo- believed that many !eo!le allo- *alse
./<0 creativeness6 -ith a #een humility to stie their creativity6 -hich causes
!erce!tion o* truth6 beauty6 and them to *all short o* sel*$actuali8ation2
reality4
./=0 resistance to enculturation6 or Psy*hothera+y
the ability to set !ersonal standards The hierarchy o* needs conce!t has obvious
and to resist the mold set by rami5cations *or !sychothera!y2 (ost !eo!le
culture2 -ho see# !sychothera!y !robably do so
because they have not ade?uately satis5ed
Love: Se/: an# Self5A*t(ali7ation their love and belongingness needs2 This
(aslo- com!ared )$love .de5ciency suggests that much o* thera!y should involve
love0 to &$love .love *or being or a !roductive human relationshi! and that the
essence o* another !erson02 el*$ job o* a thera!ist is to hel! clients satis*y love
actuali8ing !eo!le are ca!able o* &$love and belongingness needs2
because they can love -ithout
e,!ecting something in return2 &$love is Relate# Resear*h
mutually *elt and shared and not based Researchers have investigated (aslo-Ms
on de5ciencies -ithin the lovers2 conce!t o* sel*$actuali8ation in many
divergence settings and *or a variety o*
Philoso+hy of S*ien*e !ur!oses2
(aslo- critici8ed traditional science as being
value *ree6 -ith a methodology that is sterile Self5A*t(ali7ation an# Inti)ate
and nonemotional2 He argued *or a Taoistic Inter+ersonal Relations
attitude *or !sychology in -hich !sychologists (ichael heCeld and his colleagues
are -illing to resacrali8e their science6 or to used the POI as a measure o* sel*$
instill it -ith human values and to vie- actuali8ation and *ound that high scores
!artici!ants -ith a-e6 joy6 -onder6 ra!ture6 on the POI -ere inversely related to
and ritual2 inter!ersonal relations2 (ore
s!eci5cally6 !eo!le -ho a!!roached
&eas(rin. Self5A*t(ali7ation sel*$actuali8ation tended to be sel*$
(aslo-Ms methods *or measuring sel*$ motivated6 acce!ted *eelings o*
actuali8ation -ere consistent -ith his aggression6 and -ere able to sustain
!hiloso!hy o* science2 He began his study o* intimacy2
sel*$actuali8ing !eo!le -ith little evidence that
such a classi5cation o* !eo!le even e,isted2 He Self5A*t(ali7ation an# Creativity
loo#ed at healthy !eo!le6 learned -hat they (ar# Runco and his colleagues used the
had in common6 and then established a hort Inde, o* el*$Actuali8ation to
syndrome *or !sychological health2 De,t6 he assess sel*$actuali8ation and *ound a
re5ned the de5nition o* sel*$actuali8ation6 !ositive relationshi! bet-een sel*$
studied other !eo!le6 and changed the actuali8ation scores and t-o measures
syndrome2 He continued this !rocess until he o* creativity2 Although the relationshi!s
-as satis5ed that he had a clear de5nition o* -ere not strong6 they suggest that6 as
sel*$actuali8ation2 Other researchers have

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
(aslo-Ms hy!othesi8ed6 creativity is at

least !artly related to sel*$actuali8ation2
Self5A*t(ali7ation an# Self5

A**e+tan*e
ome researchers have tested (aslo-Ms
assum!tion that sel*$actuali8ing !eo!le
acce!t themselves2 One study
.umerlin S &undric#6 10 -ith
A*rican$American businessmen *ound
that those -ho scored high on sel*$
actuali8ation tended to have increased
ha!!iness and sel*$*ul5llment2 Another
study by Eilliam 'om!ton and his
colleagues *ound that sel*$actuali8ation
related to o!enness to e,!erience and
to see#ing out ne- and e,citing
e,!eriences2
Criti3(e of &aslow
(aslo-Ms theory has been !o!ular in
!sychology and other disci!lines6 such as
management6 nursing6 and education2 The &AY, EGISTENTIAL PSYCHOLO2Y
hierarchy o* needs conce!t seems both
elementary and logical6 -hich gives (aslo-Ms Overview of &ay;s E/istential Theory
theory the illusion o* sim!licity2 Ho-ever6 the ",istential !sychology began in "uro!e shortly
theory is some-hat com!le,6 -ith *our a*ter Eorld Ear II and s!read to the Bnited
dimensions o* needs and the !ossibility o* tates6 -here Rollo (ay !layed a large !art in
unconsciously motivated behavior2 As a !o!ulari8ing it2 A clinical !sychologist by
scienti5c theory6 (aslo-Ms model rates high in training6 (ay too# the vie- that modern
generating research but lo- in *alsi5ability2 On !eo!le *re?uently run a-ay both *rom ma#ing
its ability to organi8e #no-ledge and guide choices and *rom assuming res!onsibility2
action6 the theory rates ?uite high4 on its
sim!licity and internal consistency6 it rates -io.ra+hy of Rollo &ay
only average2 Rollo (ay -as born in Ohio in /6 but gre-
u! in (ichigan2 A*ter graduating *rom Oberlin
Con*e+t of H()anity 'ollege in /;6 he s!ent three years roaming
(aslo- believed that !eo!le are structured in throughout eastern and southern "uro!e as an
such a -ay that their activated needs are itinerant artist2 Ehen he returned to the Bnited
e,actly -hat they -ant most2 Hungry !eo!le tates6 he entered the Bnion Theological
desire *ood6 *rightened !eo!le loo# *or sa*ety6 eminary6 *rom -hich he received a (aster o*
and so *orth2 Although he -as generally )ivinity degree2 He then served *or t-o years
o!timistic and ho!e*ul6 (aslo- sa- that !eo!le as a !astor6 but ?uit in order to !ursue a
are ca!able o* great evil and destruction2 He career in !sychology2 He received a Ph2)2 in
believed that as a s!ecies6 humans are clinical !sychology *rom 'olumbia in /< at
becoming more and more *ully human and the age o* <2 )uring his !ro*essional career6
motivated by higher level needs2 In summary6 he served as lecturer or visiting !ro*essor at a
(aslo-Ms vie- o* humanity rates high on *ree number o* universities6 conducted a !rivate
choice6 o!timism6 teleology6 and uni?ueness !ractice as a !sychothera!ist6 and -rote a
and about average on social inuences2 number o* !o!ular boo#s on the human
condition2 (ay died in /< at age @=2
-a*'.ro(n# of E/istentialis)
ren Kier#egaard6 the )anish !hiloso!her and
theologian6 is usually considered to be the
*ounder o* modern e,istentialism2 %i#e later
e,istentialists6 he em!hasi8ed a balance
bet-een *reedom and res!onsibility2 Peo!le

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ac?uire *reedom o* action by e,!anding their An/iety

sel*$a-areness and by assuming res!onsibility Peo!le e,!erience an,iety -hen they become
*or their actions2 Ho-ever6 this ac?uisition o* a-are that their e,istence or something
*reedom and res!onsibility is achieved at the identi5ed -ith it might be destroyed2 The
e,!ense o* an,iety and dread2 ac?uisition o* *reedom inevitably leads to
an,iety6 -hich can be either !leasurable and
hat Is E/istentialis)! constructive or !ain*ul and destructive2
The 5rst tenet o* e,istentialism is that
e,istence ta#e !recedence over Nor)al An/iety
essence6 meaning that !rocess and ro-th !roduces normal an,iety6
gro-th are more im!ortant than de5ned as that -hich is !ro!ortionate
!roduct and stagnation2 econd6 to the threat6 does not involve
e,istentialists o!!ose the arti5cial s!lit re!ression6 and can be handled on a
bet-een subject and object2 Third6 they conscious level2
stress !eo!leMs search *or meaning in
their lives2 Fourth6 they insist that each Ne(roti* An/iety
o* us is res!onsible *or -ho -e are and Deurotic an,iety is a reaction that is
-hat -e -ill become2 Fi*th6 most ta#e dis!ro!ortionate to the threat and that
an antitheoretical !osition6 believing leads to re!ression and de*ensive
that theories tend to objecti*y !eo!le2 behaviors2 It is *elt -henever oneMs
values are trans*ormed into dogma2
-asi* Con*e+ts Deurotic an,iety bloc#s gro-th and
According to e,istentialists6 a basic !roductive action
unity e,ists bet-een !eo!le and their
environments6 a unity e,!ressed by the 2(ilt
term )asein6 or being$in$the$-orld2 uilt arises -henever !eo!le deny their
Three simultaneous modes o* the -orld !otentialities6 *ail to accurately !erceive the
characteri8e us in our )asein: Bm-elt6 needs o* others6 or remain blind to their
or the environment around us4 (it-elt6 de!endence on the natural -orld2 &oth an,iety
or our -orld -ith other !eo!le4 and and guilt are ontological4 that is6 they re*er to
"igen-elt6 or our relationshi! -ith our the nature o* being and not to *eelings arising
sel*2 Peo!le are both a-are o* *rom s!eci5c situations2
themselves as living beings and also
a-are o* the !ossibility o* nonbeing or
nothingness2 )eath is the most obvious
*orm o* nonbeing6 -hich can also be Intentionality
e,!erienced as retreat *rom li*eMs The structure that gives meaning to
e,!eriences2 e,!erience and allo-s !eo!le to ma#e
decisions about the *uture is called
The Case of Phili+ intentionality2 (ay believed that intentionality
Rollo (ay hel!ed illustrate his notion o* !ermits !eo!le to overcome the dichotomy
e,istentialism -ith the case o* Phili!6 a bet-een subject and object6 because
success*ul architect in his mid$=s2 )es!ite his it enables them to see that their intentions are
a!!arent success6 Phili! e,!erienced severe a *unction o* both themselves and their
an,iety -hen his relationshi! -ith Dicole .a environment2
-riter in her mid$<s0 too# a !u88ling turn2
Bncertain o* his *uture and su3ering *rom lo- Care: Love: an# ill
sel*$esteem6 Phili! -ent into thera!y -ith Rollo 'are is an active !rocess that suggests that
(ay2 "ventually6 Phili! -as able to understand things matter2 %ove means to care6 to delight in
that his diCculties -ith -omen -ere related to the !resence o* another !erson6 and to aCrm
his early e,!eriences -ith a mother -ho -as that !ersonMs value as much as oneMs o-n2
un!redictable and an older sister -ho su3ered 'are is also an im!ortant ingredient in -ill6
*rom severe mental disorders2 Ho-ever6 he de5ned as a conscious commitment to action2
began to recover only a*ter he acce!ted that
his need to ta#e care o* un!redictable Dicole Union of Love an# ill
-as merely !art o* his !ersonal history -ith (ay believed that our modern society
unstable -omen2 has lost sight o* the true nature o* love
and -ill6 e?uating love -ith se, and -ill

lOMoARcPSD|3543244
-ith -ill !o-er2 He *urther held that gains vitality *rom destiny6 and destiny
!sychologically healthy !eo!le are able gains signi5cance *rom *reedom2
to combine love and -ill because both
im!ly care6 choice6 action6 and Phili+;s Destiny
res!onsibility2 A*ter some time in thera!y6 Phili! -as
able to sto! blaming his mother *or not
For)s of Love doing -hat he thought she should have
(ay identi5ed *our #inds o* love in done2 The objective *acts o* his
Eestern tradition: se,6 eros6 !hilia6 and childhood had not changed6 but Phili!Ms
aga!e2 (ay believed that Americans no subjective !erce!tions had2 As he came
longer vie- se, as a natural biological to terms -ith his destiny6 Phili! began
*unction6 but have become !reoccu!ied to be able to e,!ress his anger6 to *eel
-ith it to the !oint o* triviali8ation2 "ros less tra!!ed in his relationshi! -ith
is a !sychological desire that see#s an Dicole6 and to become more a-are o*
enduring union -ith a loved one2 It may his !ossibilities2 In other -ords6 he
include se,6 but it is built on care and gained his *reedom o* being2
tenderness2 Philia6 an intimate
nonse,ual *riendshi! bet-een t-o The Power of &yth
!eo!le6 ta#es time to develo! and does According to (ay6 the !eo!le o* contem!orary
not de!end on the actions o* the other Eestern civili8ation have an urgent need *or
!erson2 Aga!e is an altruistic or myths2 &ecause they have lost many o* their
s!iritual love that carries -ith it the ris# traditional myths6 they turn to religious cults6
o* !laying od2 Aga!e is undeserved drugs6 and !o!ular culture to 5ll the vacuum2
and unconditional2 The Oedi!us myth has had a !o-er*ul e3ect on
our culture because it deals -ith such common
Free#o) an# Destiny e,istential crises as birth6 se!aration *rom
Psychologically healthy individuals are !arents6 se,ual union -ith one !arent and
com*ortable -ith *reedom6 able to assume hostility to-ard the other6 inde!endence in
res!onsibility *or their choices6 and -illing to oneMs search *or identity6 and6 5nally6 death2
*ace their destiny2
Psy*ho+atholo.y
Free#o) De"ne# (ay sa- a!athy and em!tiness$not an,iety
Freedom comes *rom an understanding and guilt$as the chie* e,istential disorders o*
o* our destiny2 Ee are *ree -hen -e our time2 Peo!le have become alienated *rom
recogni8e that death is a !ossibility at the natural -orld .Bm-elt06 *rom other !eo!le
any moment and -hen -e are -illing to .(it-elt06 and *rom themselves ."igen-elt02
e,!erience changes6 even in the *ace o* Psycho!athology is a lac# o* connectedness
not #no-ing -hat those changes -ill and an inability to *ul5ll oneMs destiny2
bring2
Psy*hothera+y
For)s of Free#o) The goal o* (ayMs !sychothera!y -as not to
(ay recogni8ed t-o *orms o* *reedom: cure !atients o* any s!eci5c disorder6 but to
./0 *reedom o* doing6 or *reedom o* ma#e them more *ully human2 (ay said that
action6 -hich he called e,istential the !ur!ose o* !sychothera!y is to set !eo!le
*reedom6 and .10 *reedom o* being6 or *ree6 to allo- them to ma#e choices and to
an inner *reedom6 -hich he called assume res!onsibility *or those choices2
essential *reedom2
Relate# Resear*h
Destiny De"ne# (ayMs theory o* !ersonality does not lend itsel*
(ay de5ned destiny as the design o* to easily testable hy!otheses6 and6 there*ore6 it
the universe s!ea#ing through the has not generated much research2
design o* each one o* us2 In other Devertheless6 Je3 reenberg and his
-ords6 our destiny includes the colleagues have investigated the conce!t o*
limitations o* our environment and our terror management6 -hich is based on the
!ersonal ?ualities6 including our notion o* e,istential an,iety2 In general6
mortality6 gender6 and genetic reenbergMs 5ndings are consistent -ith (ayMs
!redis!ositions2 Freedom and destiny de5nition o* e,istential an,iety as an
constitute a !arado,6 because *reedom a!!rehension o* threats to oneMs e,istence2

Theories of Personality Outline

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lOMoARcPSD|3543244

Theories Of Personality outline

Psychology (Universidad de La Laguna)

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Resear*h in Personality Theory Pre*ons*io(s

-io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# The E.o

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Resear*h in Personality Theory Pre*ons*io(s

-io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# The E.o

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9 the conscience and the ego$ideal2 The

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Con*e+t of H()anity The Strivin. For*e as

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Human behavior has value to the e,tent that it

S(10e*tive Per*e+tions I)+ortan*e of So*ial Interest

Or.an Inferiorities Style of Life

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Pro.ression an# Re.ression Sta.es of Develo+)ent

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li*e2 Their most basic *antasies are

Psy*hi* Life of the Infant Psy*hi* Defense &e*hanis)s

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object6 es!ecially the mother7s breast2 Oe#i+(s Co)+le/

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mother7s care2 econd is normal to lessen the harshness o* internali8ed objects2

6ohn -owl1y%s Atta*h)ent Theory

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attaching themselves to Horney believed that !sychological di3erences

The I#eali7e# Self5I)a.e Relate# Resear*h

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irrational goals and !roductively as rather than !assively receiving it2

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Fromm and his associates s!ent several Overview of S(llivan%s Inter+ersonal

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in*ants learn to be an,ious through the inter!ersonal tensions2 One such

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Levels of Co.nition Chil#hoo#

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A#(lthoo# I)a.inary Frien#s

Relate# Resear*h Con*e+t of H()anity

Inti)ate Relationshi+ with Frien#s

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Although he di3ered *rom Freud in his

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Yo(n. A#(lthoo# Eri'son%s &etho#s of Investi.ation

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Psy*hohistory Criti3(e of Eri'son

I#entity in Early A#(lthoo#

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Bniversities o* (innesota and Indiana be*ore conditioned res!onse2 For e,am!le6

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*ollo- behavior on either a continuous societies -hose members behave in a

Nat(ral Sele*tion Control of H()an -ehavior

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=B? !hysical restraint6 including the A !lethora o* studies have

How Con#itionin. A$e*ts

Researh in Personality Theory Preons*io(s

Researh in Personality Theory Preons*io(s

Cone+t of H()anity The Strivin. Fore as

S(10etive Pere+tions I)+ortane of Soial Interest

lie2 Their most basic antasies are

Psyhi Life of the Infant Psyhi Defense &e*hanis)s

Relate# Researh Cone+t of H()anity

behavior to disengage themselves rom Enative Learnin.

&anduraMs conce!t o* sel$eCcacy has on ree choice6 o!timism6 conscious inuences6

Self5Eay an# S)o'in.

Self5Eay an# Aa#e)i ROTTER AND &ISCHEL, CO2NITI4E

2eneral Pre#ition For)(la Intro#(tion to &is*hel;s Co.nitive5

-asis of Fator Analysis

Hierarhy of &eas(res -iolo.ial -ases of Personality

Rogers careully crated his !erson$centered that are distorted or resha!ed to 5t it

Philoso+hy of Siene Relate# Resear*h

./0 !roound inter!ersonal relations6 develo!ed !ersonality inventories or

ac?uire reedom o action by e,!anding their An/iety