BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION

 SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE CHECK.

 PLUMB BOB - IT’S USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK.

 PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER – A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL) BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT.

 3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE – A MANUAL METHOD OF SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING
LINES IN BUILDING LAYOUT.

 SHEET PILLING – A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL TO STABILIZE FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS

LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED “ STAKING OUT” WHICH MEANS THE PROCESS OF RELOCATING THE POINT OF
BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF THE SITE WHERE THE BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED.

IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING, BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE EXACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING
FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND.

 STAKE – ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE AS
BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE BATTER BOARDS.

 BATTER BOARD – WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE STAKE WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL
PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE POINT OF THE BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED.

 STRING – IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE BATTER BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE
OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL AND FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING PERMIT IS FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL
AUTHORITIES CONCERNED.

2. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY
LINE SHALL BE DONE BY GEODETIC ENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT EXISTING REFERENCE POINTS
OR ADJOINING STRUCTURES.

3. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND OTHER ELEMENTS THAT WILL OBSTRUCT THE
CONSTRUCTION WORK.

4. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS’ QUARTERS, CONSTRUCTION OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE
MATERIALS AND WORKING TOOLS AND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.
5. APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER SUPPLY. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR
THE POWER NEEDS OF THE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN
THE TIME OF CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN CONSTRUCTION.

6. CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.

7. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED ARE FORM:

 CENTER TO CENTER

 OUTER TO CENTER

 OUTER TO OUTER

 INSIDE TO INSIDE

8. FIX THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF LEVEL INSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC
HOSE WITH WATER.

9. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING, TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF
THE STRING ON THE GROUND BY THE AID OF PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE EXCAVATED.

EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO TWO TYPES: THE MINOR AND MAJOR
EXCAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE AND NATURE OF THE FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. EXCAVATION FOR A
SMALL CONSTRUCTION WITH INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED UNDER THE MINOR EXCAVATION,
WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES SIZEABLES OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY OF MAJOR
CONSTRUCTION.

MINOR EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVING INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW
BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE DIGGING OF THE SOIL FOR THE FOOTING EXTEND TO A DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50 METER
AND ABOUT HALF A METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.

MAJOR EXCAVATION

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED
INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING UPON THE CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE
CONSTRUCTION SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE WORKING ACTIVITIES, STORING OF MATERIALS
AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE EXCAVATED SOIL.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH ADJACENT EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED
TO THE MOST COMPLICATED AMONG THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL STUDY AND
ANALYSIS OF THE RIGHT APPROACH.
PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:

1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL NOT AFFECT OR DAMAGED THE ADJOINING
STRUCTURE.

2. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND EXTRACTING THE GROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE
PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.

3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE EFFECTIVE MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD
AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN HAULING WITHOUT OBSTRUCTING THE PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.

4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE WATER PUMP DURING THE PROCESS OF
CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT CAUSE MUDDY ROAD AND CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.

5. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE USED IN SHORING OR UNDERSPINNING TO PROTECT THE ADJOINING
STRUCTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED.

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADS FROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE
GROUND.

ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND BENEATH THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.

UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A BUILDING, BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT

CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.

3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:

 SUPERSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE BUILDING.

 SUBSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION.

 FOUNDATION – WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT TRANSFER ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL.

3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES:

 SLAB ON FILL

 CRAWLSPACE

 BASEMENT

2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE EARTH AT THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL
OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.

 DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE SUBSTRUCTURE.
 FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT CARRY OR SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF
THE BUILDING.

FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH DIRECTLY TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD
TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK, FOOTING IS THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE FOOTING.

PILE FOUNDATION – WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A RAFT FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED
TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TO TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE
ANSWER.

PILE – IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA WITH REASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE
GROUND BY MEANS OF HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.

PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER THAN DRILED & POURED.

PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAINING FROM TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH
CLUSTER IS LATER JOINED AT THE TOP BY A REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.

PILE CAP – DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG THE PILES.

CAISSONS – IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD FROM A COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH
AREA OF SOIL.

 FOUNDATION WALL – THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH FORMS THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF
THE STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.

 GRADE BEAM – THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C SUPPORTS THE EXTERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE
AND BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMN FOOTING.

 RETAINING WALL – A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS AGAINST AN EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND
RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES.

 CANTILEVER WALL – A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER
FOOTING.

 GRAVITY WALL – A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST OVERTURNING BY VIRTUE OF IT’S OWN WEIGHT.

 BEARING WALL – A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.

FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING – IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WIDER THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES
THE LOAD TO THE SOIL.

A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE
ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON UNUSUAL CASES.

COLUMN FOOTING – IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

1. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING – IS A KIND OF FOOTING REPRESENTS THE SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL
TYPE, IN THE FORM OF:

 SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING

 SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING

 SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING

2. COMBINED FOOTING – IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE SPACED CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR
FOOTING WILL ALMOST OR COMPLETELY MERGE. IT’S EITHER :

 RECTANGULAR

 TRAPEZOIDAL

3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING WHICH SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW.
IT’S EITHER:

 INVERTED SLAB FOOTING

 INVERTED TEE FOOTING

4. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING – IT’S OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH THE STRUCTURE AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE
COLUMN LOADS.

 UNIFORM SLAB

 THICKENED SLAB

 BEAM & GIRDER

CONCRETE

CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE OF CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS
IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS OR PLAIN CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER
THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED REINFORCED CONCRETE.

 SLUMP TEST – A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE.

 DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO.

 0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE CAPABLE OF DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS.

 LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE.

 MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH.

 ADMIXTURE – ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING.

 SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR :

 40 kg. CEMENT – 300mm X 300mm X 300mm

  50 kg. CEMENT - 320mm X 320mm X 330mm

 CONCRETE MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND GRAVEL

“AA” 1:11/2: 3 12 9.5 0.5 cu.m. 1.0 cu.m.

“A” 1:2:4 9 7 0.5 1.0

“B” 1:21/2:5 7.5 6 0.5 1.0

“C” 1:3:6 6 5 0.5 1.0

 MORTAR MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND

“A” 1:2 18 14.5 1.0 cu.m.

“B” 1:3 12 9.5 1.0

“C” 1:4 9 7 1.0

“D” 1:5 7.5 6 1.0

POST AND COLUMN

POST – REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE OR OTHER GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED
VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.

COLUMN – REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE OF STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL OR
COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS.

STOREY – IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A FLOOR AND A ROOF ABOVE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

 SHORT COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER THAN TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL
DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

 LONG COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF
THE CROSS SECTION.

TYPES OF COLUMNS ARE:

 TIED COLUMN – HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS HELD IN POSITION BY
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT CALLED LATERAL TIES.
 SPIRAL COLUMN – IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE CORE IN ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL
OR LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL
HELD FIRMLY IN POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.

 COMPOSITE COLUMN – WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS EMBEDDED INTO THE CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL
COLUMN.

 COMBINED COLUMN – WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN CONCRETE OF AT LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH
WIRE MESS SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT A DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE
COVERING.

 LALLY COLUMN – IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT STEEL BARS OR PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER,
GIRTS OR BEAM. THE STEEL PIPE IS SOMETIMES FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR CORROSION.

METAL REINFORCEMENT

THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE ARE:

1. COMPRESSION STRESS

2. TENSION STRESS

3. SHEAR STRESS

4. TORSION STRESS

 REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE
FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THE STRUCTURE.

 REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.

 CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK IN RESISTING TENSION FORCES.

 STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND TENSION.

 BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE JUST ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND
TENSION FORCES SIMULTANEOUSLY.

 INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO
NEGATIVE.

 NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF
THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH.

 BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION POINT AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE
BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS THE ADJACENT SPAN.

 4cm. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE OUTSIDE OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.

 ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.

 BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE, THAT THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL
REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE EQUAL TO .005 TIMES THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH OF
THE BEAM.

 USED LATERAL TIES –

10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER

12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER

 THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:

 SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS.

 SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL TIES.

 NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION

 SCAB – A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR SCREWED TO TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO
SPLICE THEM TOGETHER.

 FISH PLATE – A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE ENDS OF TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.

 SPLICE PLATE – A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR MORE MEMBER TOGETHER.

 COGGED JOINT – A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF WHICH IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE
THEY MEET.

 NOTCHING – JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT RIGHT ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR
BOTH PIECES.

 CROSSLAP JOINT – A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH CROSS EACH OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF
EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE THICKNESS WILL THE SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.

 SQUARE SPLICE–A TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION.

 BRIDLE JOINT – A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM THE SIDES OF THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES
FIT INTO CORRESPONDING SLOTS IN THE MORTISED MEMBER.

 TENON – THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER MATERIALS WHICH IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO
THAT IT MAY BE INSERTED IN A CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO FORM A SECURE JOINT.

 YACAL – LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.

 BOARD FOOT – THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE FOOT WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.

 BOLIDEN SALT – TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.

 DAP – A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.

 DADO – A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A PIECE OF WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER
PIECE.

 SOLIGNUM – TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON WOOD.

 FLOOR STRUCTURE

WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM

FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND
BEAMS.

THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:

1. LIVE LOAD – REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON THE FLOOR.

2. DEAD LOAD – REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT OF THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
WHICH GENERALLY CARRY THE LIVE LOAD.

3. TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED – THE CHOICE FROM THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH
AS LUMBER, CONCRETE, AND STEEL.

4. THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS – DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND
CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE LOAD AT A CERTAIN SPACING.

5. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING
WALLS.

THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE

B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM

C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE:

 GIRDER – IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A BUILDING SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF
FLOOR BEAMS.

 SILL – THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY UPON THE FOUNDATION.

 FLOOR JOISTS – ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE GIRDERS WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE
FASTENED.

 HEADER AND TRIMMER – HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS THAT SUPPORT THE END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST AT A
STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER IS A SUPPORTING JOIST WHICH CARRIES AN END PORTION OF A HEADER.

 FLOORING – THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T & G IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD
FLOORING.

 TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE – A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER WHICH IS SUPPORTED BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END
AND A WALL AT THE OTHER.

 LEDGER STRIP – A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE OF THE BEAM, FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS.

 DRAFTSTOP PLATE – IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE OF THE JOISTS.

 SOLE PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE STUDS IN A STUD PARTITION.

 SILL PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME OF AWOOD STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE
FOUNDATION.
 TOP PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS IN ASTUD PARTITION.

 CRIPPLE STUD – IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT THAT IS SHORTER THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND
BELOW OPENING.

 BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING – SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED VERTICALLY BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE
JOISTS.

 CROSS BRIDGING – DIAGONAL BRACING IN PAIRS, BETWEEN ADJACENT FLOOR JOISTS TO PREVENT THE JOISTS FROM
TWISTING.

 HANGER OR STIRRUP – A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO RECEIVE AND SUPPORT A JOIST.

 BALLOON FRAMING – CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR JOISTS.

 WESTERN FRAMING – THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE OF THE FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK
SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR.

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE LOAD WHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS
AT ITS END.

GIRDER – IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR MORE SMALLER BEAM.

BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :

A) SIMPLE BEAM

B) CONTINUOUS BEAM

C) SEMI – CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE BEAM – REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED AT ITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT
THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.

RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.

CONTINUOUS BEAM – IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE THAN TWO SUPPORTS.

SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM – REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO
EXTREME ENDS.

WEB REINFORCEMENT

WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE BEAM TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS
DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND PROVIDE
LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION ON THE
STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER
NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE
MAIN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

1. ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.

2. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM.

3. RIBBED FLOORS.

4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.

EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN APPLICATION DEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING
FACTORS:

1. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.

2. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED

3. LENGTH OF THE SPAN

4. THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION

ONE WAY SLAB – ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE
REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS
COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT SPANS RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS
LONG. ALTHOUGH THE REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH THE BEAMS PERPENDICULAR WITH
THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED “TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENTS”. USUALLY NO. 3 STEEL BAR IS USED TO
COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION
OF LOADS OVER A LARGER AREA.

TWO WAY SLAB – SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THE FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS
GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWO DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH
OTHER.

THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 4 INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN
THE PERIMETER OF THE SLAB DIVIDED BY 180. THE SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE MORE THAN 3 TIMES THE
SLAB THICKNESS.

RIBBED FLOOR SLAB – IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM
SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.

A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE
FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM.
O.C. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.

THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES FROM 5 TO 6.5 CM. THICK. THE
REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWO BARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS
BENT AND THE OTHER REMAINED STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE
RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER NO. 2 BARS OR 6 MM. OR WIRE MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.
 FLAT SLAB – IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY COLUMNS WITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS.
THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN THICKNESS OR PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN
REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP
PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE OTHER HAND, A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB FLOOR
MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.

WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A STRAIGHT FLAT UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE
SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM, WHICH IS CALLED FLAT PLATE CONSTRUCTION.

THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS AND LABOR.

 CONSTRUCTION JOINT – A JOINT WHERE TWO SUCCESSIVE PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE MEET.

 CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT – A JOINT BETWEEN ADJACENT PARTS OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS
MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM.

 CONTROL JOINTS – EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL.

 BLOCK OUT – IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A SPACE WHERE CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.

 COLD JOINT – A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE HARDEN BEFORE THE NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS
PLACED AGAINST.

 CREEP – PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD.

 CAMBER – CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS.

LAYING OUT OF STAIRS

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:

1. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN METER. ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18
CM AND THE MINIMUM TREAD WIDTH IS 25 CM.

2. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17 OR .18 TO DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF STEPS.

3. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.

4. IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND IN STEP TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE
EXTENDED.

5. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD THERE BE FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST
A FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUAL PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE SHALL THE RISE
PER STEP BE GREATER THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM OTHERWISE, THE STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.

IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR BEFORE MAKING THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT
INDICATING THE NUMBER OF STEPS TO AVOID ADJUSTMENTS OF THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION.
 TYPE OF STRINGERS

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS
AND THE TREADS.

1. CUT

2. CLEATED

3. BUILT-UP

4. RABBETED (HOUSE)

 BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN CIRCULAR IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR
HANDRAIL.

 BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL, VERTICAL MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.

 BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR BOTH ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND
PROJECTION BEYOND THE FACE OF THE STAIR STRING/S.

 BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.

 RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.

 KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.

TYPES OF ROOF

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF SHAPES THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:

SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF ROOF CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.

GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL FORM OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR
SECTIONS CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING AT THE CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING A GABLE.

SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A SERIES TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE
BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED ON FACTORIES WHERE EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A
VERTICAL SIDE.

DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP AND VALLEY ROOF.

HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVING STRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD
THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE.

HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR
L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF ROOF FORM HOWEVER, HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED.
 PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE FOUR STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS
THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A POINT.

GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE HAVING TWO SLOPES.

BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING.

MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM EACH SIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS
THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP.

FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE
CONCAVE.

DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON OBNSERVATORIES.

CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION THAT TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE
CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT.

TYPES OF ROOF FRAME

THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE:

1. RAFTERS TYPE

2. TRUSS TYPE

3. LAMINATED TYPE

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE:

 COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS T THE RIDGE.

 HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF A PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

 VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS AT THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE
EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF.

 OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED PLATE AT THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE
POLE.

 JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.
JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

1. HIT JACKS

2. VALLEY JACKS

3. CRIPLE JACKS

JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP JACKS. THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND
VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED VALLEY JACKS, WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE
CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.

TRUSS – IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF UNSUPPORTED BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR
PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF A SERIES OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND
FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE:

LIGHT TRUSSES:

PITCHED HOWE

SCISSORS RAISED CHORD

SAWTOOTH 1 ½ STORY FRAME

FLAT UTILITY

BOWSTRING

HEAVY TRUSSES:

HOWE TRUSS BELGIAN

FINK PRATT

SCISSORS CAMBERED FINK

WARREN FLAT HOWE

SAW TOOTH FLAT PRATT

PURLINS – THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP CHORD OF A TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF
SHEATING.

PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:

SPAN: 2.00 SIZE: 50mm X 75mm

3.00 50mm X 100mm

3.50 50mm X 150mm

4.50 50mm X 200mm

ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING THAT SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING
FROM THE WEATHER.

ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:

 FIBER

 WOOD

 METAL

 SLATE

 TILES

 REINFORCED CONCRETE

 PLASTICS

 FIBERGLASS
METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:

 GALVANIZED IRON

 ALUMINUM

 TIN

 TITANIUM COPPER ZINC

 COPPER

 STAINLESS STEEL

 LEAD

AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS THE MOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED
CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFER.

GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF
“GAUGE” FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30. Gauge 26 IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING.

THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT RANGES FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.

PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m. IT’S ALSO USED FOR ROOFING,
GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND VALLEY ROLLS, DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.

CORR. G.I.ROOFING FASTENERS:

 NAILING

 RIVETING

 PANTILE – A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF “S” LAID ON IT’S SIDE.

 MISSION TILE – A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN SHAPE LAID IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING
THEIR CONVEX SIDE ALTERNATELY UP AND DOWN.

 ROMAN TILE – A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE.

 GALVANIZED – ZINC COATED MATERIALS.

 A FRAME – A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF THE UPRIGHT CAPITAL “A”.

 CHORD – A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.

 BATTEN – WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.

 SPLIT RING – CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.

FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

 FORM IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO PRODUCE THE DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF
CONCRETE. FORMS ARE USED IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING ARE BUILT-UP INTO ITS
SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE USE OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS MOULD FOR THE MIXED CONCRETE.

FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND STRONG ENOUGH TO SUSTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD
BE SIMPLE AND ECONOMICALLY DESIGNED TO BE REMOVE EASILY AND REASSEMBLED WITHOUT DAMAGE TO THEMSELVES
OR TO THE CONCRETE.

FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE:

 COST OF MATERIALS

 THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST

 THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE USED

 STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR & WEAR

WOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS

WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND WIDELY USED FORMS IN MINOR OR MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.

 PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND MATERIALS.

 PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.

 IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE WHICH IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS
FORMS.

 THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD STRONGER AND FREE FROM WARPING.

 PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.

 PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE OR NO PLASTERING AT ALL.

METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF
THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE
GENERALLY MADE OUT OF G.I. SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE BARS DESIGNED TO BE
ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP, BOLTS AND NUTS.

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS

CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING
FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND
RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE
STRUCTURE.

 SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING
WHEREIN 6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

 MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2
TO 3 STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR 12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X
75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
 MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF VARIOUS THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm
TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:

 LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE

 PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE

TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:

 SQUARE

 RECTANGULAR

 CIRCULAR

BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.

TYPES OF WALL FORMS:

 CONTINUOUS

 FULL UNIT

 LAYER UNIT

GREASING OF FORMS

THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER PROOF, THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF
WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLING AND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE
PORES OF THE WOOD.

YOKE – IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A COLUMN.

SCAFFOLDING – WORKER’S PLATFORM

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TERMS

ENGLISH VERNACULAR ENGLISH VERNACULAR

Adobe Anchor --------------------- Liyabe Earth Fill------------------- Escombro

Aligned ----------------------------- Kaliniya Eave ------------------------ Alero,Barakilan,

Sopo
Alignment -------------------------- Asintada Electrician ----------------- Elektrista

Alternate or staggered ------------ Uno Sinotra Engineer ------------------- Inhenyero

Anchor ------------------------------ Liyabe Exterior Siding ----------- Tabike

Architect ---------------------------- Arkitekto Faucet ---------------------- Gripo

Astragal ----------------------------- Batidura Fascia Board -------------- Senepa

Balusters ---------------------------- Balustre,Barandilla Feet ------------------------ Piye

Beam -------------------------------- Biga Fill ------------------------- Tambak

Banisters ---------------------------- Barandil Filler ----------------------- Tapal, Dagdag

Barrel Bolt -------------------------- Trankilya Floor Joist ----------------- Soleras

Baseboard -------------------------- Rodapis Fillet ----------------------- Batidura

Bath tub ---------------------------- Baniera Flooring ------------------- Sahig, Suelo

Bolt --------------------------------- Pierno Floor sill ------------------ Guililan

Bottom Chord --------------------- Tirante, Estunyo Flush ---------------------- Alahado

Brace ------------------------------- Pie de Gallo Foundation or Footings- Pundasyon

Brick ------------------------------- Landrillo Foreman ------------------ Kapatas,

MaestroDe Obra

Canopy ---------------------------- Media Agua Framework --------------- Balangkas

Cabinet Hinge -------------------- Espolon Gable Roof -------------- Dos Aguas

Carpenter ------------------------- Karpintero Girder --------------------- Guililan

Carpentry ------------------------- Karpinteria Girts or Girder ----------- Sepo

Cast Iron -------------------------- Pundido Gravel --------------------- Graba

Ceiling ---------------------------- Kisame Good Grain --------------- Haspe

Ceiling Board -------------------- Groobe -------------------- Canal

Ceiling Joist ---------------------- Kostil Yahe Gutter --------------------- Alulod, canal

Cement --------------------------- Semento Hand rail ----------------- Gabay

Cement Brick -------------------- Ladrilyo Head ---------------------- Sombrero

Cement Tiles --------------------- Baldosa Hinge --------------------- Bisagra

Chain bolt ------------------------ Baral de Kadena Hip roof ------------------ Kuatro Aguas

Collar ----------------------------- Sinturon Horizontal Stud -------- Trabe-Anzo

Column --------------------------- Kolumna,Haligue Inch ----------------------- Pulgada

Concrete -------------------------- Konkreto Jamb ---------------------- Hamba

Concrete Slab -------------------- Larga Masa Joist ----------------------- Suleras

Concrete Beam ------------------ Biga Kingpost ----------------- Pendolum

Conductor ------------------------ Alulod Laborer ------------------- Piyon

Contractor ------------------------ Kontratista Landing ------------------ Mesa Pahingahan

Corr. G.I. sheets ----------------- Yiero Canalado Lavatory ----------------- Lababo

Galbanisado

Closed Stringer ------------------ Escalera Laying of CHB orAdobe Stone ------------

Asinta

Crushed Stone ------------------- Eskombro Lean to roof ------------- Sibe

Diagonal Brace ------------------ Sinturon Level --------------------- Lebel

Door ------------------------------- Pinto Machine Bolt ----------- Peirno Pasante

Door Fillet ------------------------ Batidora Mason ------------------- Kantero

Door Head ------------------------ Sombrero (Pintuan) Masonry ----------------- Kanteria

Door Jamb ------------------------ Hamba Pintuan Masonry Fill ------------ Lastilyas

Drawbore Pin or Drawpin ------ Punsol Meter --------------------- Metro

Mitre or Miter -------------------- Canto Mesa Septic Tank ------------- Poso Negro

Mixture of Sand & Gravel ------ Lastilyas Shape -------------------- Korte

Mortar ----------------------------- Paupo Sheet --------------------- Plantsa

Mortar Joists ---------------------- Kostura Shower ------------------- Dutsha

Moulding -------------------------- Moldura Sidings ------------------- Tabika

Nailers ----------------------------- Pamakuan Sink ----------------------- Prigadero

Nail -------------------------------- Pako Sketch Plan -------------- Krokis

Nail Setter ------------------------ Punsol Slab (rough) -------------- Larga Masa

Newel Post ----------------------- Tukod Slope ---------------------- Bahada

Nut --------------------------------- Tuerka Solder --------------------- Hinang

Nicolite Bar ----------------------- Estanyo Solder Bar ---------------- Estaniyo

Oakum ----------------------------- Estopa Spacing ------------------- Biento

Open Stringer --------------------- Hardinera Split Knob ---------------- Poleya

Over Hand or Projector ---------- Bolada Stairs ---------------------- Hagdanan

Painter ------------------------------ Pintor Stake ----------------------- Staka

Panel -------------------------------- Bandeha Stringer (open) ----------- Hardinera

Panellee Door ---------------------- De Bandeha Stringer -------------------- Madre, Madrina

Pattern ------------------------------ Plantilya Stucco --------------------- Palitada

Pea Gravel ------------------------- Grabita Stud (vertical)------------- Pilarete

Pendulum (King Post) ------------ Pendulon Stud (horizontal) --------- Pabalagbag

Pickwork --------------------------- Piketa Temper (metal work)----- Suban, Subuhan

Piglead ------------------------------ Tingga, Estopa Thread --------------------- Roskas

Plain G.I. sheet -------------------- Yiero Liso Galbanisado Tinsmith ------------------- Latero

Plain G.I. Strap -------------------- Lingueta Tinsmithing --------------- Lateria

Plank Board ------------------------ Senepa Top Chord ---------------- Kilo, Tahilan

Plaster ------------------------------- Palitada Transom ------------------ Espeho

Plastered Course ------------------- Kusturada Tread ---------------------- Baytang, Perdano

Plug ---------------------------------- Tapon Trellise -------------------- Pergola

Plumb Bob -------------------------- Hulog Truss ----------------------- Truss, Kilo

Plumber ----------------------------- Tubero Varnished ----------------- Varnisado

Plumb Line ------------------------- Hulog Vertical Stud -------------- Pilarete

Post ---------------------------------- Poste, Haligue Wainscoating Tiles ------- Asolehos

Projection --------------------------- Bolada Washer --------------------- Pitsa, Tsapa

Purlins ------------------------------- Reostra Water Closet -------------- Inidoro

Putty --------------------------------- Masilya Window ------------------- Bintana

Quarter Round ---------------------- Mediacana Window Grille ----------- Rehas

Rabbet ------------------------------- Vaciada Window Head ------------ Sombrero

Bintana

Rafters ------------------------------- Kilo Window Jamb ------------ Hamba Bintana

Reinforcing Bar -------------------- Cabilla, Bakal Window Sill -------------- Pasamano

Ridgeroll ---------------------------- Caballete W.I. Strap ----------------- Planchuela

Riser --------------------------------- Senepa, Takip Wiring Knob ------------- Poleya

Silipan

Rivets ------------------------------- Rimatse Wood Grain -------------- Haspe

Roof -------------------------------- Atip, Bubong Wood Plank -------------- Tabla

Sand -------------------------------- Buhangin Wrought Iron Strap ------ Plantsuela

Scaffolding ------------------------ Andamiyo, Plancha

Scratch Coat ----------------------- Rebokada

Screw ------------------------------- Turnilyo

PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS BROUGHT ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS
CONSIDERABLY INCREASED FASTER THAT MOST INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE AMOUNT OF ON-
SITE LABOR INVOLVED IN THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION.

THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE
SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO THERE PROBLEMS WERE BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCITON AND
SUBSTITUTION OF SITE LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HAS RAPIDLY DEVELOPED
AND GAINED IMPORTANCE.

THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL, CONCRETE, GLASS-FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC.

THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO ACHIEVE MAXIMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST
SURFACE QUALITY.

CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE 270,000 PSI FOR STRENGTH OF STEEL.

PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE USE OF HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO
ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN FORM IN 24 HOURS.

FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE 125 METERS TO EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH.

TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE

WALL PANELS – THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS DESIGNS DEPENDING UPON THE
ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON SHAPES PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE
SECTIONS HAVING A WIDTH UP TO 2.40 m. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS ATTACHED TO COLUMNS AND BEAMS OR
SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE:

1. FLAT TYPE

2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE

3. RIBBED TYPE
 4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE

TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM GLASS, GLASS FIBER OR EXPANDED PLASTIC IS
INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO LAYERS
TO ACT AS ONE UNIT. STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF THE FINISHED FILLED
STRUCTURE, HENCE, CONTROL OF CRACKING IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE.

PRECAST COLUMN

PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-STOREY CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE
MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR STORIES WHEREIN CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS
SOMETIMES USED TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.

PRECAST BEAMS

THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF FRAMING. THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:

 RECTANGULAR BEAM

 INVERTED TEE BEAM

 L –SHAPED BEAM

 AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

 SOLID FLAT SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

 HOLLOW CORE SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

 DOUBLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

 SINGLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS SPAN. DEPTH TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm.

 AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY 7.60M., 250mm SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND A 300mm
SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN.
 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28 OF THEIR SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF
DOUBLE TEES ARE 300,350,400,450,510,610, AND815mm.

 A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS APPROXIMATELY 26.0M. AND 1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN.

 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT 1/16 OF THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND
1/12 OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY LOADINGS. THESE RATIOS APPLY TO RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED
BEAMS. THE WIDTH OF A BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ½ ITS DEPTH. THE PROJECTING LEDGERS ON INVERTED
TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS ARE USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP.

 TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE TOTAL ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY
THE COLUMN. A 250mm. COLUMN CAN SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A 300mm. COLUMN FOR 240 sq.m. AREA. A
400mm. COLUMN FOR 370 sq.m. AREA. A 500mm. COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m. AREA. A 600MM. COLUMN FOR 740 sq.m. AREA.

JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN THESE CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL
CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY TOPPING ARE USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED, TO PROTECT
THEM FROM FIRE AND CORROSION.

THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSE THAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING
ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS DONE WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A
BEAM RESTS ON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THE CONCRETE MEMBERS AT
BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH STRESS. BEARING
PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN THE MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE PADS
ARE STRIPS OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER POINT LOADING SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF
SYNTHETIC RUBBER AREUSED.

PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE

THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED FORCE TO A CONCRETE BEAM:

 PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING AGAINST ABUTMENT.

 SELF-CONTAINED METHOD – THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE JACK BASE TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES
LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE BEAM. USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW CONDUIT
EMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS ANCHORED AND FORCES ARE APPLIED AT THE OTHER
END. AFTER ATTAINING THE DESIRED PRESTRESS FORCE, THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE CONCRETE,
REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT.

 BOND FRICTION – THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF
CONCRETE IN THE BEAM FORMS. AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE JACKS ARE THEN
RELEASED TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE CONCRETE BY BOND AND FRICTION ALONG THE STRANDS.

THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING
OR POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM. THESE METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG
OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH OUT FROM THE LONG CASTING.

 THERMAL PRESTRESSING – THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST
THE OPPOSITE END OF THE CONCRETE BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGH
RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.
THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:

1. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE

2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE

3. CREEP OF CONCRETE

4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS

6. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED CURVATURE IN THE TENDONS.

CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING

CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES. MOST OF THE
PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi) 280-422 kg/cm2
BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.

A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF
PRESTRESS LOSS.

B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE MEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING
STRESSES AT THE ENDS OF POST AND BEAM WHERE THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED FROM
THE TENDON TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLY BEARS AGAINST THE CONCRETE.

C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING

CONSTRUCTION.

D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO PRECAST CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS
CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE

PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:

1. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.

2. EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR LOAD CELL OR BY THE USED OF
CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER.

 POST TENSIONING – THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER CONCRETE HAS CURED.

BUILDING MATERIALS
 WOOD MATERIALS

WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB SHOCKS FROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN
WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE IN A COUNTLESS VARIETY OF PURPOSES.

TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:

 SOFTWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.

 HARDWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS, PANELLING, FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD:

 HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.

 FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.

 STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.

 DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.

DEFECTS OF LUMBER:

 DECAY – CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.

 CHECKS – CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH.

 KNOTS – IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH INTERRUPS SMOOTH CURVE.

 PITCH POCKETS – WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.

 WANE – IS THE LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.

TYPES OF WARPING:

 CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.

 BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.

 TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS RAISED.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
  STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 8” WIDE.

 BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST 8” WIDE.

 DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 5” IN ANY DIMENSION.

 TIMBER – PIECES 4” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

 LOG – PIECES 12” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:

 YARD LUMBER – USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR
FLOORING, PLANK SIDING, TRIM AND MOULDING.

 SHOP LUMBER – IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS MAKING SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS.

 STRUCTURAL LUMBER – IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES
AND IS CUT INTO TIMBERS OF LARGER SIZE.

WOOD GRAIN:

 EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE FACE.

 FLAT GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS PARALLEL TO THE SURFACE.

 ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO THE FACE.

SEASONING OF LUMBER:

 AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO
CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.

 KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD
WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED TO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT. THIS
IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS
ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.

MANUFACTURE BOARDS:

MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT APPEAR IN THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE
OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE MANUFACTURE
OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO AN EXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS .

TYPES OF BOARDS:

 PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING
AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CAN BE
DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.

THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:

  SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE

 HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE
FACE IS HARD FINISHED.

 EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL USE.

 HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED INTO FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH
PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THE WOOD ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR
ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY
BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHT TO DARK BROWN.

 PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS, FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING,
SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE
BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE
AND CAN RESIST WARPING.

MASONRY

MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING
UNITS.

BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:

 COURSE – IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY UNITS.

 BED JOINT – IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.

 HEAD JOINT – IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.

 STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND ITS LONG DIMENSION HORIZONTAL.

 HEADER – IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.

 WYTHE – IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.

 SOLDIER – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL.

 ROWLOCK – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN THE WALL FACE.

STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:

 RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.

 COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE

 ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS.

 FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.

JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:

WEATHERED JOINT CONCAVE JOINT VEE JOINT

FLUCH JOINT RAKED JOINT STRIPPED JOINT

STRUCK JOINT

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHES OF BRICK 50 –100mm APART, PLACING
THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY, AND FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT,
AGGREGATES, AND WATER.

BRICK BOUNDS

 THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS
REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN BOND.

 THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY
OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES IS KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND.

 THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THEM
IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON-BEARING BLOCKS. LOAD BEARING BLOCKS
ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 15 CM. TO 20 CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWN
WEIGHT. NON-BEARING BLOCKS ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH ARE INTENDED FOR WALLS, PARTITIONS,
FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWN WEIGHT WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF
FOUR.

CONCRETE

CEMENTS

PORTLAND CEMENT

MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS OF LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON
COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONE PART CLAY ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED
THEN PULVERIZED. PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50 KILOS WEIGHT OR IN BULK INTO
CEMENT TRUCKS.

SPECIAL CEMENTS

 WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND EXCEPT IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING
PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE A PURE WHITE, NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR
ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS, DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND
TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE OR COLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.

 MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT
MADE WITH NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY AND
WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.

 WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY
CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENT CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE BY BINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF

SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE MADE OF CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE.
AGGREGATES USED ARE SAND, GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED FURNACE SLAG, BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED
VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.

SAND - FOUND IN RIVERBEDS, FREE OF SALT

AND MUST BE WASHED.

FINE AGGREGATE - ¼” AND SMALLER DIAMETER STONES.

COARSE AGGREGATE - BIGGER THAN ¼” DIAMETER STONES.

CONCRETE MIXES

CLASS “AA” - 1: 1 ½: 3 - CONCRETE UNDER WATER, RETAINING

WALLS

CLASS A - 1:2:4 - FOOTINGS, COLUMNS BEAMS, R.C.

SLABS

CLASS B - 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS

CLASS C - 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

SLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT THE SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED
CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS 12 INCHES HIGH (0.30) AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM
AND 4 INCHES (O.10) ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.

THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING TAMPED OR RODDED 25 TIMES WITH A STANDARD
5/8” BULLET NOSED ROD. WHEN THE CONE HAS BEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE
AMOUNT OF SLUMP IS MEASURED.

ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION ‘X’

BEAMS AND COLUMNS 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”

SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING 10.0 cm. (.10) 4”

CANAL LINING 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”

HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF CONCRETE, BASED ON 7 AND 28 DAYS CURING
PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICAL WITH A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER. STANDARD SIZE IS 12
INCH. HIGH AND 6 INCH. DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUT TAKEN OUT FROM THE MOLD
IN 24 HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET.
SOME COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000 psi.

SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

 ISLAND CEMENT

 CONTINENTAL CEMENT

 HI- CEMENT

 UNION CEMENT

 RIZAL CEMENT

 FILIPINAS CEMENT

 PACIFIC CEMENT

 FORTUNE CEMENT
  REPUBLIC CEMENT

 NORTHERN CEMENT

BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

 PRIME WHITE CEMENT

 KEENE

 TRINITY

 SNOWCRETE

 MORTAR – CEMENT, SAND & WATER.

 GROUT – CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.

 CONCRETE – CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER.

 TYROLEAN FINISH – ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING PLASTER ON A WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED
MACHINE.

 EFFLORESCENCE – AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED BY FREE ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR
ADJACENT CONCRETE AS MOISTURE MOVE THROUGH IT.

 ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN OR LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE CURING
PERIOD.

 WHEATHERED – MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS FOR WALLS.

 ADOBE BRICK – LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS OF VARYING SIZES.

 ASHLAR BRICK – A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO RESEMBLE ROUGHLY HACKED STONE.

 RETARDER – AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE OR MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH
PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OF HARDENING.

 STEAM CURING – THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR AT AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT
EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH PRESSURE.

 QUOIN / COIN – IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE AN EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.

 ZOCALO – LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE.

 FORTIFICATION – THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.

 SCRATCH COAT – INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.

 CINDER BLOCK – A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER CONCRETE.

 MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m.

 PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016 m.

 MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m.
 FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4” CHB.

FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS

FERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.

NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.

FERROUS METAL:

STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING AND REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP
STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE CARBON CONTENT.

PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND LIMESTONE. FIVE PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS
OF STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION
OF CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE MATERIAL.

FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN MOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS
USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEY INCLUDED:

 COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON IS USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS
HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT LOW IN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION.
HOWEVER SINCE IT IS CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS, MOTORS, ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF ITS
CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED FOR PIPES TO SOME EXTENT.

 WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE
CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. IT’S MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE
AND METAL ORNAMENTS.

 STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS
OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS, FRAMES FOR DOORS EXPANSION JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND GRAVEL
STOPS.

 COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED FOR MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL
LATH.

STEEL PRODUCTS

 ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES

 SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN SEVERAL SHAPE.

 STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.

 REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR RAILS.

REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS, BARS WHICH HAVE LUGS OR
DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TO PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.
 SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR ¼ in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)

No. 2= ¼“ = 6 mm.

No. 3= 3/8” = 10 mm.

No. 4= ½” = 12mm.

No. 5= 5/8” = 16mm.

No. 6= ¾” = 20mm.

No. 7= 7/8” = 22mm.

No. 8= 1” = 25mm.

No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.

 WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT CONSISTS OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL
WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSE WIRES AT REGULAR INTERVALS.

 STEEL WIRE – OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES, NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE,
FENCES.

 BOLTS AND NUTS – (EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM WIRE OF THE APPROPRIATE DIAMETER).
FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS,
POINTS, AND IN MANY ROLLS THE THREAD.

 STEEL STRAPPING – MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER OF SIZES. USED FOR BANDING
COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM FROM BULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. A
TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.

 OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS – LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT STYLES.

 SHEET STEEL – BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO MANUFACTURE CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING
AND FORMED STEEL DECKING.

 STEEL STUDS – LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND DOES NOT WARP OR SHRINK.
FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND JOINTS STAY CLOSED. MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD
INSTALLATION. AVAILABLE IN 1 5/8, 2 ½ AND 3 5/8 INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
FIT EASILY INTO A STEEL-FRAMEWALL.

 PANS AND DONES – MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND TWO-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR
SYSTEMS.

NONFERROUS METALS:

ALUMINUM – ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10 KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH POUND OF METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE
REDDISH BROWN ORE IS WASHED AND TREATED IN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKY-WHITE POWDER CALLED
ALUMNA, CONTAINING A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM.
 ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS AND CEILINGS AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION .

COPPER – A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE; HAS HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN
EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTOR, IS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY USED FOR
DOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING, ETC.

COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH CONTAIN PRIMARILY ZINC AND TIN,
RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL.

BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE APPLICTIONS. BRONZES ARE USED IN THE
PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.

LEAD – A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS LOW MELTING POINT AND A HIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL
EXPANSION. VERY EASY TO CUT AND WORK, ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING,
FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL PANELS.

TIN – A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOW MELTING POINT; RELATIVELY
UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR; USED FOR MAKING ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES

THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN
STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:

1. SQUARE BARS 6. I-BEAM

2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE BEAM

3. PLATE BARS 8. H-COLUMN

4. ANGLE BARS 9. WIDE FLANGES

5. CHANNELS 10. ZEE

STANDARD CHANNEL

THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON
ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD
CHANNELS ARE GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE ALSO SUITABLE FOR
FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER
SIDE. THE CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND
WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER LENGTH.

WIDE FLANGE

WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH MEANS THAT THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24
cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg. PER METER LENGTH. ALL WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE
FLANGE EXCEPT THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY, WIDE
FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I BEAM WITH RESPECT TO BENDING RESISTANCE.
STANDARD I-BEAM

THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE WHIRL OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE
STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH THE CENTROID PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY SMALL.

H-BEARING PILES

H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE
THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.

ZEE SECTIONS

THE ZEE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z WHICH IS NOT FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON THE FABRICATION OF STEEL WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.

 WROUGHT IRON – A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS NATURE, VALUED FOR ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND
DUCTILITY.

 CAST IRON – AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND SILICON WHICH HAS HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
BUT LOW TENSILE STRENGTH.

 WELDING – IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO JOINT THAT THERE IS AN ACTUAL UNION OF THE
INTERATOMIC BONDS.

 EXTRUSION – THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING METAL SHAPES OF A CONSTANT CROSS SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT
METAL THROUGH AN ORFICE IN A DIE BY MEANS OF A PRESSURE RAM.

 RED OXIDE – PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON.

 LAP SEAM – A JOINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING THE EDGES OF METAL SHEET OR PLATES AND JOINING THEM BY
RIVETING OR SOLDERING OR BRACING.

JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

STEEL SHAPES CAN BE JOINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY OF THREE FASTENING TECHNIQUES.

 RIVETS
 A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A CYLINDRICAL BODY AND A FORMED HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT
TO A WHITE HEAT, INSERTED THROUGH HOLES IN THE MEMBERS TO BE JOINED, AND HOT-WORKED WITH A PNEUMATIC
HAMMER TO PRODUCED A SECOND HEAD OPPOSITE THE FIRSTHEAD.

PROCESS OF RIVETING:

A) A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO MEMBERS TO BE JOINED,

B) ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP-SHAPED DEPRESSION,

C) WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY AGAINST THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO
FORM THE SECOND HEAD,

D) THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAW ING MEMBERS TIGHTLY TOGETHER.

 BOLTS

THE BOLTS COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES:

1) CARBON STEEL BOLTS – OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THE ORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT
CAN BE PURCHASED IN HARDWARE STORES.

2) HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS – ARE HEAT TREATED DURING MANUFACTURE TO DEVELOP THE NECESSARY
STRENGTH. IT IS USUALLY TIGHTENED USING PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC IMPACT WRENCH.

A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTING OR FRICTION-TYPE CONNECTIONS IS HOW TO VERIFY THE

NECESSARY TENSION HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN ALL THE BOLTS IN A CONNECTION.

SEVERAL WAY TO ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING:

 TURN-OF-NUT METHOD

 LOAD INDICATOR WASHER

 TENSION CONTROL BOLTS

PROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL BOLT:

A) THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF THE BOLT, AND TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE
ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN THE BOLT,

B) WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END TWISTS OFF IN THE WRENCH,

C) A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED END INTO A CONTAINER.
  WELDING

WELDING CAN JOIN THE MEMBERS OF A STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE A MONOLITHIC WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER
THAN THE MEMBERS THEY JOIN IN RESISTING BOTH SHEAR AND MOMENT FORCES.

TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION:

 FILLET WELD

 DOUBLE FILLET WELD

 DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

 SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

 V-GROOVE WELD

 V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

 PUDDLE WELD

 PARTIAL-PENETRATION SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

THE BASIC SYBOLS ARE:

BACK FILLET PLUG OR SLOT

GROOVE OR BUTT

SQUARE V BEVEL U J FLARE V FLARE BEVEL

THE ARROW

THE REFERENCE LINE CARRIES THE DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS

THE ARROW POINTS TO THE WELD

THE BASIC SYMBOLS

THE BASIC WELD SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE REFERENCE LINE AS FOLLOWS:

SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE

ARROW

SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE REFERENCE LINE

REFER TO WELDS ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE JOINT

AS

AS THE ARROW

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS

FIELD WELD – THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION. OTHER WELDS ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE
FABRICATOR’S SHOP.

WELD ALL AROUND – THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED FULLY AROUND THE PERIMETER OF THE
JOINING PIECES.

BACKUP BAR – AS INDICATED IN THIS EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO SUPPORT THE FIRST PASS OF THE WELD MUST BE
PLACED ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE ARROW.

SPACER – SMALL METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP BETWEEN THE PIECS TO BE JOINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.

A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE ARROWHEAD IS POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED
SIDE OF THE BEVEL OR J-GROOVED JOINT

GLASS
 THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD BRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE,
ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT; PRODUCED BY MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILIZER;
WHILE MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF SHAPES.

DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED, COOLED SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED
CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN THERMAL STRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.

THICKNESSES OF GLASS

GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSES RANGING FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm,

THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED SINGLE-STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO 22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL ORDER,
25mm IS AVAILABLE.

TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS

1. TEMPERED GLASS

TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TO THE REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE,
REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 1200 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A
BLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR TIMES AS STRONG IN BENDING AND MORE
RESISTANT TO THERMAL STRESS AND IMPACT.

2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS

THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING, BUT ITS, ABOUT ONE-THIRD AS HIGH
AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OF BENDING AND STRENGTH.

3. LAMINATED GLASS

ITS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER BETWEEN SHEETS OF GLASS AND BONDING THE
THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDER HEAT AND PRESSURE. WHEN ITS BREAKS, THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE
SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUT OF THE FRAME.

4. PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS

HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT SURFACE PATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT
TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED BUT VISION MUST BE OBSCURED FOR PRIVACY.

5. SPANDREL GLASS

SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE SPANDREL AREA (THE BANDS OF WALL
AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS) IN GLASS CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO
RESIST THE THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR HEAT BEHIND THE
SPANDREL.

6. WIRED GLASS
 SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. THE
WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THE RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETY GLAZING,
WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS, THE WIRES HOLD THE SHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.

TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

SOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED SPACES OF BUILDINGS WITH LARGE AREAS OF
GLASS, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM PART OF THE YEAR. THIS IS USE TO REDUCE GLARE AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR
HEAT GAIN.

1) TINTED GLASS

TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED CHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS
MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THE DESIRED HUE AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES, BLUES, GREEN, AND
GOLDS.

2) REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON A BRIGHT DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH
LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY APPEAR AS DARK BUT TRANSPARENT GLASS.

3) INSULATING GLASS

A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE BETWEEN THE SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE
OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS OF EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND
ORGANIC SEALANT.

GLASS PRODUCTS

I. GLASS BLOCKS

COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDED FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT.
THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A HOLLOW UNIT
WITH REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION. THE EDGE SURFACES OF THE BLOCK
ARE COATED WITH A GRITTY MORTAR BOND.

TWO TYPES:

1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS – DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSES THEOUGH THEM TO IMPROVE THE
ILLUMINATION OF THE BUILDING INTERIOR.
 THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:

A. A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK – DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARD THE CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE
EYE LEVEL.

B. A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK – DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY THROUGHOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.

C. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK

2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS – AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF STYLES AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS
MASONRY UNITS PROVIDE ALMOST UNLIMITED DESIGN VERSATILITY WHEN USED IN WINDOW, OPENINGS AND
FACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS AND DIVIDER PANELING.

PAINT FINISHES

THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT, PRESERVE OR VISUALLY ENHANCE THE SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS
APPLIED. FINISHES INCLUDE PLASTIC LAMINATED SURFACE COVERINGS SUCH AS PLASTIC LAMINATED AND VINYL OF
FABRIC WALL COVERING.

PAINT GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM-FORMING MATERIAL THAT ACTS AS A SHIELD OR
BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING MATERIAL AND THOSE ELEMENTS OR CONDITIONS THAT MAY ADVERSELY AFFECTS OR
DETERIORATE. THE PAINT FILM MUST RESIST DETERIORATION DUE TO SUNLIGHT HEAT, TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS,
WATER OR MOISTURE VAPOR, MILDEW AND DECAY CHEMICALS AND PHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY ALSO SERVE TO
MAKE SURFACES MORE SANITARY, IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING EFFECTS, AND PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT AND
SAFETY.

WHEN USING PAINT, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR AND SURFACE TEXTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED.
CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE STIMULATING WHILE OTHERS ARE RELAXING. WHITE AND LIGHT COLORS REFLECT SIZE OF
FORM AND SPACE. DARK COLOR CAN INHIBIT THE PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE USED FOR CONTRAST. FLAT PAINT
FINISHES SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE, ILLUMINATION EVENLY. GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE,
BUT THEY ALSO PROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY CLEANED, NON-ABSORPTIVE SURFACES.

MOST PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC APPLICATION THAT USE REQUIREMENTS AND
ARE READY-MIXED FOR APPLICATION EXCEPT FOR THINNING, STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF AN ACTIVATOR OR
CATALYST. IT IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE THEREFORE TO FOLLOW THE PAINT MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE
APPLICATION AND USE OF A PAINT OR OTHER PROTECTIVE COATING.

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:

MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED

 WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC, ETC.,

SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE

 GLOSS, SEMI-GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN, FLAT,& VARNISH.

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A PAINT INCLUDE:

SURFACE PREPARATION

- THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY PREPARED TO ENSURE PROPER ADHESION OF THE
PAINT FILM TO ITS SURFACE.

TYPE OF PAINT

- PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.

- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR, EXPOSURE, AND MANUFACTURER AND/OR TRADE
NAME.

METHOD

- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS BEING APPLIED. COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED,
ROLLED OR SPRAYED ON.

DRYING

- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST BE CHECKED.

FILM THICKNESS

- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER OF COATS.

- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE THICK COAT.

- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.

COVERAGE

- A PAINT’S COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUME SOLIDS:

- ie. PAINT WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS:

(NO THINNER)

1 GAL COVERS

1600 SF (149 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT

800 SF ( 74 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT

400 SF ( 37 m2) @ 4 MIL DFT

-PAINT WITH 50% VOLUME SOLIDS

(50% THINNER)
1 GAL COVERS

800 SF (74 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT

400 SF (37 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT

PAINT GENERALLY CONSIST OF:

PIGMENT – FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS COVERINGS OR HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR.

VEHICLE – LIQUID MEDIUM TO CARRY THE PIGMENT IN SUSPENSION DURING APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF
BINDERS AND SOLVENTS.

 BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE THE SURFACE BEING PAINTED.

 BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND DURABILITY OF THE PAINT FIL OR
PROTECTIVE COATING.

 SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.

 DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR HARDEN BY OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL
ACTION, OR BY THERMOSETTING ACTION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

COLOR

 DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.

EXPOSURE

 EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR

CHARACTERISTICS:

PIGMENTED COATING

 LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS

CLEAR COATINGS

 VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS

RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS

 ZINC-PIGMENTED COATINGS

 ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS

 ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS AGAINST WATER AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT
SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL AND TO WATERPROOF MASONRY SURFACES.
CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS

 MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT
EXPOSED STEEL

PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS

 COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ETC.,

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER:

ALKYDS – USED FOR EXTERIOR PAINTS.

 OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND EVAPORATION.

 THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE

 FAST DRYING A HARDER THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS, AND IMPROVES THE PAINTS WETTING
PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND ELASTICITY TO RESIST BLISTERING.

 HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER RESISTANCE FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURES, AND GOOD
COLOR RETENTION.

ASPHALT – USED FOR WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF DECKING.

 COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL ASPHALTS ARE USED TO PROTECT WOOD, MASONRY,
CONCRETE AND AS ROOF COATING.

 HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE.

 ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO REFLECT THE SUN’S RAYS.

 ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMIZES THE COLD FLOW AND MAXIMIZES THE CHEMICAL-RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.

CHLORINATED RUBBER – USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING.

 USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS, CHEMICALS, AND WATER

 MAY BE REMOVED BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS

 HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT EXPOSURE

 USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTS

EPOXY CATALYZED – USED FOR DUCO FINISH.

 TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER OR ENAMEL AND AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.

 MIXED JUST PRIOR TO USE – HAS LIMITED “POT LIFE”

 PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO BAKED ENAMEL.

 HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL ABRASION, TRAFFIC WEAR, A CLEANING
MATERIALS

 HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN RESISTANCE.

 HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY CHALK.

HARDWARE

HARDWARE - METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH AS BOLTS, HINGES, LOCKS, TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE
CLASSIFIED AS:

FINISHING HARDWARE – HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS, CATCHES, ETC. THAT HAS A FINISHED
APPEARANCE AS WELL AS FUNCTION, ESP. THAT USED WITH DOORS, WINDOWS, AND CABINETS, MAYBE CONSIDERED PART
OF THE DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF A ROOM OR BUILDING.

ROUGH HARDWARE – IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE MEANT TO BE CONCEALED, SUCH AS BOLTS,

NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES, RODS, AND OTHER METAL FITTINGS.

SOME FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS:

1. SARGENT 7. RABBIT

2. STANLEY 8. UNIVERSAL

3. YALE 9. EAGLE

4. CORBIN 10. MASTER

5. SCHLAGE 11. ALPHA

6. KWIKSET 12. YETI

DOORS – AN ENTRANCE WAY

TYPES OF DOOR:

 FLUSH – A SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE WHICH CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR
OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN USED INSIDE, IT IS OF HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID CORE.

 PANEL DOOR – A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS, WHICH FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES
AROUND RECESSED THINNER PANELS.

KINDS OF DOORS:

 SWINGING DOOR

 OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR – A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR WHICH OPENS AS AN ENTIRE UNIT.

 OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR – A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN, ASSUMES A HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE
DOOR OPENING, MADE OF SEVERAL LEAVES.
 ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A DOOR MADE UP OF SMALL HORIZONTAL
INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS WHICH ARE GUIDED IN A TRACK: THE CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT AN OVERHEAD
DRUM WHICH IS HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE OPENING, EITHER MANUAL OR MOTOR - DRIVEN.

 ACCORDION DOOR – A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF PANELS WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD
TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR IS OPEN, THE FACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST EACH OTHER. WHEN THE DOOR
IS CLOSED, THE EDGES OF ADJACENT PANELS BUTT AGAINST (OR INTERLOCK) EACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID
BARRIER.

 BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE HINGED TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND
FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.

 REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES (AT 900 TO EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT
A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN A CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF AIR
THROUGH THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.

 SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A HORIZONTAL DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO
ONE WALL.

 BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A FIXED DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR
ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR.

 SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE WALL.

 DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER PART CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER
PORTION IS CLOSED.

 FRENCH DOOR

FINISHING HARDWARES:

A. TO HUNG A DOOR

HINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO
PLATES JOINED TOGETHER BY A PIN WHICH SUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO SWING
OPEN OR CLOSED.

TYPES OF HINGES:

1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH ARE JOINED WITH A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE
PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN SMALL HINGES, IT IS FIXED.

 FAST PIN HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED PERMANENTLY IN PLACE.

 FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON THE SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND JAMB
WITHOUT MORTISING.

 LOOSE JOINT HINGE - A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE OF WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A
CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THE OTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR MAY BE
REMOVED WITH UNSCREWING THE HINGED.

 LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH PERMITS ITS TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.

 PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE JOINT OF THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN
DESIGN.

 OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES FORMING AN OVAL SHAPE.
2. SPRING HINGES - A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR MORE SPRINGS, WHEN A DOOR IS OPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO
OPEN POSITION AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.

 DOUBLE ACTION - EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS, HOSPITALS, KITCHENS, THE DOOR OPENS BY JUST
PUSHING IT WITH THE SHOULDER OR FEET.

 SINGLE ACTION

3. PIVOT HINGE - THE AXLE OR PIN ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR ROTATES.

 VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE- A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR WHICH IS MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF
THE DOOR, THE DOOR IS FASTENED TO THE FLOOR AND DOOR HEAD WITH PIVOTS.

B. TO FIX ONE SASH

TYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER:

 CHAIN HEAD AND FOOT BOLT

 DOOR OR BARREL BOLT

 FLUSH BOLT

 CHAIN DOOR FASTENER

C. TO LOCK THE DOOR

LOCKSET – A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC LOCKING MECHANISMS AND ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH
AS KNOBS ESCUTCHEONS, PLATES, ETC.

 BUTTON – A SMALL REJECTING MEMBER USED TO FASTEN THE FRAME OF A DOOR OR WINDOW.

 KNOB – A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR OPERATING A LOCK.

 ESCUTCHEON – A PROTECTIVE PLATE SURROUNDING THE KEYHOLE OF A DOOR.

 PLATES – A THIN FLAT SHEET OF MATERIAL.

 STRIKES – A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A DOORJAMB AND IS EITHER PLACED OR RECESSED TO
RECEIVE THE BOLT OR LATCH OF A LOCK, FIXED ON DOOR.

 LIP STRIKE – THE PROJECTION FROM THE SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE WHICH THE BOLT OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST,
WHEN A DOOR IS CLOSED; PROJECTS OUT FROM THE SIDE OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO PROTECT THE FRAME.

USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM:

 ENTRANCE LOCKSET – WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON WHICH WHEN PUSHED STAYS PUT AND LOCKS
THE DOOR.

 BEDROOM LOCKSET – SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET BUT SIMPLER IN DESIGN.

 TOILET LOCKSET – WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON THAT IS PUSHED TO LOCK INSIDE.
KIND OF LOCKSET:

 INTEGRAL LOCK – A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN THE KNOB.

 CYLINDER LOCK – A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE INTO WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH CASE
FITS.

LATCH – A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT NOT A DEAD BOLT CONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR
LOCKING WITH A KEY.

NIGHT LATCH – KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.

LIFT LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY MEANS OF A PIVOTED BAR THAT ENGAGES A HOOK ON
THE DOOR JAMB, A LEVER WHICH LIFTS THE PIVOTED BAR USED TO UNFASTEN THE DOOR.

RABBETED LOCK – A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH WITH THE RABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR JAMB.

ROLLER LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING TENSION INSTEAD OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT,
THE ROLLER ENGAGES A STRIKE PLATE, HAVING A RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.

SCREEN DOOR LATCH – A SMALL LOCKING OR LATCHING DEVICE USED ON SCREEN DOORS AND GENERATED BY A KNOB
OR LEVER HANDLE, SOMETIMES EQUIPPED WITH A DEAD BOLT.

HASP – A FASTENING DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A SLOTTED HINGE PLATE NORMALLY SECURED WITH
A PADLOCK.

KEY-PADLOCK – A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS IN POSITION MAYBE OPERATED BY A KEY.

MAGNETIC PADLOCK – A KIND OF LOCK WHICH OPENS BY USING THE CORRESPONDING MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH IT.

HASPLOCK – A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE WHICH CAN BE OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.

BORED LOCK – A LOCK INTENDED FOR INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A DOOR.

CREMONE BOLT – USED TO FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.

DEAD BOLT – A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN SECTION IS OPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A
TURN PIECE.
TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER:

 PNEUMATIC TYPE

 SEMI-CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE

 CONCEALED TYPE

 OVERHEAD LIQUID TYPE

TYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR:

 FLUSH

 OVERLAPPING

 OFFSET

TYPES OF CABINET HINGES:

 BUTT HINGES

 COMMON BUTT

 LOOSE PIN

 T-HINGE

 PIANO HINGE

 DECORATIVE HINGE

 OFFSET HINGES – USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR OVERLAPPING DOORS, AVAILABLE IN SEMI-CONCEALED
AND SURFACE-MOUNTED STYLES.

 PIVOT HINGES – MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOORS.

 INVISIBLE HINGES – DON’T SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS EXPENSIVE. THEY CAN BE USED FOR BOTH
FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOOR.

 FLUSH COUNTER HINGE – FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN BE LOWERED TO SERVE AS WORK
SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES THAT LAY FLUSH IN THE SURFACE, MORTISE THEM INTO BOTH SURFACES,
THEY DON’T SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED. A DROPDOWN DOOR ALSO REQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY
SUPPORT TO HOLD THE DOOR’S WEIGHT WHEN IT’S OPEN.

CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN PLACE

KINDS OF CATCHES:
  FRICTION CATCH – ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT ENGAGES A STRIKE, IS HELD IN THE ENGAGED POSITION BY
FRICTION.

 MAGNETIC CATCH – A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET TO HOLD THE DOOR IN A CLOSED
POSITION.

 BULLET CATCH – A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A DOOR IN PLACE BY MEANS OF A PROJECTING SPRING
ARCTUATED STEEL HALL WHICH IS DEPRESSED WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED.

TYPES OF KNOBS:

 SCREW-IN KNOB

 BOLT-ON KNOB

 FLUSH KNOB

 FLUSH RING

 PULL

OTHER FINISHING ACCESSORIES:

 GRAB BAR – A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER, WHICH MAY BE USED FOR STEADYING ARE
SELF.

 SELF BRACKET – ANY OVER HANGING MEMBER PROJECTING FROM A WALL OR OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A
WEIGHT.

 METAL BRACKET – USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF.

 SPRING DOOR CLOSER – ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.

 DOOR STOPPER – TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET FROM HARMING THE WALL OR TILES.

ROUGH HARDWARES:

NAILS

 COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.

 FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE

 MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND BRICK SURFACE

SIZES, 1”, 1 ½”, 2 “, 2 ½”, 3”, 3 ½”, 4”, 6”

OTHER COMMON HAMMER DRIVEN FASTENER

SCOTCH NAILS BRADS

STAPLES TACKS

SCREWS

CLASSIFIED BY GAUGE (DIAMETER), LENGTH, HEAD TYPE, AND METALLIC MAKE-UP.

TYPES OF SCREW HEAD

 FLAT HEAD SCREW

 OVAL HEAD SCREW

 PHILIPPS HEAD

 SHEET-METAL SCREW

 ROUND HEAD SCREW

 LAG SCREW

WASHERS

 FLAT

 COUNTER SUNK

 FLUSH

BOLTS

BOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE THEM, A HOLE IS DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT
THROUGH AND ADDING A NUT.

BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A WRENCH.

NUTS

 FLAT SQUARE NUT

 HEX NUT

 SQUARE NUT

 ACORN NUT

 T – NUT
  KNURLED NUT

 WING NUT

HUNGER BOLTS – FOR HANGING FIXTURES FROM WALLS.

U-BOLTS – TO ATTACH FLAT SURFACE TO ROUND POLES AND PIPES.

JOINERY BRACKETS

 MENDING PLATE

 T-PLATE

 FLAT CORNER PLATE

 L-BRACKET

 AWNING – AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTED WINDOW.

 BAY WINDOW – A WINDOW WHICH PROJECTS OUTSIDE THE MAIN LINE OF A BUILDING.

 HOPPER WINDOW – A WINDOW SASH WHICH OPENS INWARD AND ITS HINGED AT THE BOTTOM.

 ORIEL WINDOW – A PROJECTED WINDOW BEYOND BUILDING WALL CARRIED BY A CORBEL.

 BATTEN DOOR - A DOOR W/OUT STILES WHICH IS COSTRUCTED OF VERTICAL BOARDS HELD TOGETHER BY
HORIZONTAL BATTENS.

 STILE – VERTICAL FRAMES OF PANELLED DOOR.

 TRANSOM – WINDOW OVER A DOOR.

 DOOR JAMB – FINISHED FRAME SURROUNDING A DOOR.

 ANCHOR BOLT – A STEEL BOLT USUALLY FIXED IN ABUILDING STRUCTURE WITH ITS THREADED PORTION PROJECTING.

 PLATE BOLT – A BOLT IN A BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH SECURES THEPLATE OR SILL.

 MACHINE BOLT – A THREADED BOLT HAVING A STRAIGHT SHANK AND A CONVENTIONAL HEAD SUCH AS A SQUARE,
HEXAGONAL, BUTTON OR COUNTERSANK.

 CARRIAGE BOLT – A BOLT WITH NECK FOR NON-RATATING MOUNTING.

 LAG SCREW – COMMON HARDWARE FASTENER FOR TRUSS BRACES.

 KNOB BOLT – A DOOR LOCK WITH A SPRING BOLT CONTROLLED BY ONE OR BOTH KNOBS AND DEAD BOLT
CONTROLLED BY AKEY.

 BACKSET – THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE FACE OF A LOCK OF LATCH TO THE CENTER OF THE KNOB OR
LOCK CYLINDER.

 GUSSET – A PLATE ATTACHED TO SIDE OF A JOINT FOR INCREASE HOLDING POWER.

 BRAD – A THIN NAIL WITH SMALL HEAD.

 KERF – IN A SUSPENDED ACOUSTICAL CEILING, AGROOVE CUT INTO THE EDGES OF AN ACOUSTICAL TILES TO RECEIVE
SPLINES OR SUPPORTING MEMBERS OF THE CEILING SUSPENSION SYSTEM.

 PERFORATED TAPE – A TYPE OF TAPE USED IN FINISHING JOINTS BETWEEN GYPSUM BOARD.

 SAHARA – USED FOR WATERPROOFING.

 PARQUET – INLAID WOOD FLOORING USUALLY SET IN SIMPLE GEOMETRIC PATTERN.

 VINYL TILE – A FLOOR TILE COMPOSED PRINCIPALLY OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE.

 BEVEL – THE ANGLE WITH ONE SURFACE OF A BODY MAKES WITH ANOTHER SURFACE WHEN THEY ARE NOT AT RIGHT
ANGLE.

 CHASE – A CONTINOUS RECESS BUILT INTO A WALL TO RECEIVE PIPES, DUCTS, ETC.

 GYPSUM BOARD – MATERIAL USED IN DRYWALL CONSTRUCTION.

 PLOUGH – A GROOVE EXTENDED ALONG THE EDGE OR FACE OF THE WOOD MEMBER BEING CUT PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

BUILDING PROTECTION

PREVENTIONS

 WATERPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING SURFACES AGAINST THE DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF WATER.

 DAMP-PROOFING – PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED BY WATER REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN
WATER ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO THE EARTH. THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE THE
BUILDING CAN BE CAUSED BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY CONSIDERATION OF WATER
VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE.

 CLEAR PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS FOR MASONRY, CONCRETE – THIS IS A CLEAR, INVISIBLE SILICONE WATER
REPELLENT SPECIALLY FORMULATED FOR APPLICATION ON MASONRY AND BRICKS (STANDARD SILICONE REPELLENT)
AND FOR LIMESTONE AND CONCRETE THAT SEEPS MUCH RAINWATER (SPECIAL FORMULATED SILICONE REPELLENT).
THE SILICONE LIQUID IS APPLIED BY BRUSH OR LOW PRESSURE SPRAY AND DOES NOT AFFECT THE COLOR OR
NATURALNESS OF THE MATERIAL.

 ANAY (TERMITE) PROOFING BY SOIL POISONING – IT IS IMPORTANT TO POISON THE SOIL AGAINST ANAY (WHITE ANTS)
IN ORDER TO STOP THE ANAY FROM INFESTING THE MAINPOSTS, WALLS AND FLOORING.

 WOOD PRESERVATIVE (POWDER POST TERMITES) A CHEMICAL LIQUID PAINTED AND APPLIED TO LUMBER TO
PRESERVE IT FOR YEARS. IT PROTECTS WOOD AGAINST POWDER POST BEATLES (BUKBOK) POWDER POET TERMITE
(UNOS), DECAY CAUSING FUNGI, SUCH AS SAP STAIN AND SRYROT.

 FIREPROOFING – A CLEAR LIQUID APPLIED EASILY ON WOOD, PLYWOOD, LUMBER AND OTHER BOARD THAT RETAINS
THE NATURAL BEAUTY, GIVES ADDED STRENGTH AND PROTECTS MATERIALS AGAINST FIRE, WEATHER, DECAY,
INSECTS AND WARPING. SINCE THE LIQUID PENETRATED INTO THE WOOD, WHEN THERE IS FIRE. IT REACTS BY
DISPERSING THE FLAME, PREVENTING PROGRESSIVE BURNING.
 RATPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING ROOMS AGAINST THE INTRUSION OF RATS AND OTHER SMALL
DESTRUCTIVE ANIMALS FROM GNAWING THE WOODEN PARTS OF THE HOUSE, HABITATING ON CEILINGS AND FLOORS
OF HOUSES AND BUILDINGS.

 RUSTPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING THE FERROUS MATERIALS LIKE STEEL, IRON FROM RUSTING OR
CORROSION.

 FLOOR PROTECTION – WHEN FLOORS ARE SUBJECTED TO WEAR AND TEAR, OR FROM CHEMICAL ABRASIONS AND
HEAVY USE, A SPECIAL KIND OF MATERIAL SHOULD BE USED TO PROTECT THE FLOORING.

 DESCALERS, PAINT AND CHEMICAL STRIPPERS – WHEN AN OLD HOUSE HAVING OLE PAINT IS IN NEED OF REPAINTING,
PAINT REMOVER IS APPLIED TO THE SURFACE WHICH SOFTENS AND LIFTS THE PAINT. FOR CLEANING OF BUILDINGS
FROM STAINS, RUST, ALGAE OR EVEN CEMENT BUILD UP FROM FORMS OR EQUIPMENT, ETC. A CHEMICAL STRIPPER
OR DESCALER IS USED.

 CONTROL, PROTECT AND MANAGE – FOR BUILDINGS THAT NEED TOTAL CONTROL OF THE INCOMING AND OUTGOING
INDIVIDUALS FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE BUILDING AS A WHOLE FROM ROBBERS, STEALERS, ETC. THERE ARE SO
MANY EQUIPMENTS WHICH CAN BE INSTALLED.

THIS IS APPLIED ON THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:

 ROOF DECKS

 CONCRETE TERRACES AND BALCONIES

 SHEATHING FOR WOOD SHINGLE AND TILE ROOFING

 WATER TANKS

 CONCRETE ROOF GUTTERS

 PLANT BOXES INSIDE

 KITCHEN FLOOR

 TOILETS

 CANOPIES

 BASEMENT FLOOR AND WALLS

 ELEVATOR PITS

 SWIMMING POOL

 MACHINE ROOMS, AIR CON & PUMP ROOMS

 REFRIGERATION & COLD STORAGE ROOMS

THREE TYPES OF WATERPROOFING:

 INTEGRAL TYPE – MEDIUM IN POWDER FORM IS ADDED AND MIXED WITH THE AGGREGATES OF
CONCRETE. IN THIS CASE, ONE PACK OF USUALLY .908 KILOS IS ADDED TO ONE BAG OF KILOS CEMENT.
SOME OF THE KNOWN BRANDS ARE SAHARA AND SAKURA.

 MEMBRANE TYPE – RECOMMENDED FOR USE WHERE DIRECT RAIN, OR STANDING WATER ARE
EMINENT, THERE ARE ABOUT 14 USES. THE MATERIALS USED DEPENDING ON THE MANUFACTURER IS
 EITHER ASPHALT PAPER LAID WITH HOT ASPHALT, IMPREGNATED ASBESTOS FELT, SOMETIMES THICK
POLYETHYLENE SHEETS IS ALSO USED. OTHER MATERIALS ARE PERFORMED SELF SEALING ASPHALT.

 FLUID APPLIED – A FLUID APPLIED ELASTOMERIC COATING BASED ON HAVY SOLIDS

ELASTOMER COMPOUND FORMULATED TO WATERPROOF AND PRESERVE THE SUBSTRATE, LIKE
CONCRETE, WOOD, BRICKS AND STEEL. THE WATERPROOFING IS MONOLOTHIC, SEAMLESS, FLEXIBLE AND
ELASTIC OVER A WIDE TEMPERATURE RANGE, WITHSTANDS EXTREME THERMAL MOVEMENT, SETTLING
AND CRACKING. IT RESISTS PUNCTURE AND TEARING ABRASIVE OVERLAYMENTS. THIS ELASTOMERIC
FLUID CAN BE APPLIED BY ROLLER, BRUSH, SPRAY OR SQUEEGEE.

ROOFING FELTS – THE BASE FELTS USED IN BUILT-UP ROOFING ARE AVAILABLE IN TWO BASIC TYPE – ASBESTOS FELTS
AND ORGANIC OR RAG FELTS. THEY LOOK ALIKE, SUPERFICIALLY, BUT THEY DIFFER WIDELY IN SERVICE.

ASBESTOS:

 ASBESTOS FELTS – COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF ASBESTOS FIBER, A NON-ROTTING, NON-WICKING

INORGANIC MINERAL FIBER.

 IDENTICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES TO FINISHING FELTS.

 MINIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE OR WETTING OR DRYING WHICH MEANS MINIMUM DISTORTION.

 LOSES STRENGTH SLOWLY WHILE AGING.

 EXCELLENT RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.

 RAT RESISTANT.

ORGANIC:

 ORGANIC FELTS – COMPOSED OF FIBROUS ORGANIC MATERIALS. SUBJECT TO DETERIORATION BY

OXIDATION AND TO WICKING.

 DIFFERENT EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES FROM FINISHING PLIES.

 MAXIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE ON WETTING AND DRYING WHICH MEANS MAXIMUM DISTORTION.

 LOSES STRENGTH RAPIDLY WHILE AGING.

 POOR RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.

 POOR RESISTANCE TO ROT.

VAPOR INSULATION (DAMPROOFING)

THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE BUILDINGS CAN BE CAUSED BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE
OUTSIDE OR BY CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE. PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS
PROVIDED BY WATER REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO THE EARTH DONE THE
OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING. MOISTURE VAPOR ON THE OTHER HAND CAN PERMEATE MOST ORDINARY BUILDING
MATERIALS SUCH AS WOOD, PAPER, LATH PLASTER, UNTREATED BRICK, ETC. THE MOISTURE VAPOR WILL CONDENSE
WATER WHEN ITS TEMPERATURE IS REDUCED BY CONTACT WITH A COOL SURFACE OR COOL AIR. HENCE, HIGH HUMIDITY
IN A BUILDING MAY RESULT IN CONDENSATION OF WATER NOT ONLY ON THE INSIDE OF WALLS AND WINDOWS BUT ALSO
ON THE OUTSIDE OR WITHIN THE EXTERIOR WALLS, CEILING OR ROOF. MOISTURE VAPOR IS PRODUCED BY COOKING
OCCUPANTS, LAUNDERING, EARTH CRAWL SPACES, BASEMENT FLOORS, HUMIDIFIES, ETC.

VAPOR BARRIERS (DAMPROOFING MATERIALS)

THESE ARE MATERIALS WHICH EFFECTIVELY RETARD OR STOP THE FLOW OF WATER VAPOR AND NORMALLY ARE
PRODUCED IN SHEETS OR THIN LAYERS. VAPOR BARRIERS SHOULD BE INSTALLED ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE
INSULATION. THEY SHOULD BE CONTINUOUS SURFACES OF ASPHALT OR WAX COATED PAPER, ALUMINUM, OR OTHER
METAL FOIL SHEETS OR POLYETHYLENE FILM. THEY CAN BE ATTACHED TO THE INSULATION AS PART OF THE
MANUFACTURED PRODUCT OR INSTALLED SEPARATELY IN OR ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE WALL, FLOOR, OR CEILING.
THEY MUST BE CONTINUOUS AND ALLOW NO OPENINGS THROUGH WHICH VAPOR MAY PASS. ALTHOUGH ASPHALT PAPER
IS A GOOD MOISTURE BARRIER, IT IS NOT A VAPOR BARRIER, AND SHOULD BE USED ON THE OUTSIDE OF A BUILDING FOR
THAT PURPOSE.

MATERIALS USED AS VAPOR BARRIERS:

 POLYETHYLENE FILM – THIS IS CHEMICALLY INERT PLASTIC, UNAFFECTED BY ACIDS, ALKALIS AND
CAUSTICS, PRODUCED IN ROLLS OF 3 TO 20 FT. WIDE. COMMON THICKNESSES ARE 2,3,4 AND 6 MIL (1MIL =
.001 IN.) THIS FILM IS USEFUL NOT ONLY AS VAPOR BARRIER FOR WALLS, CEILINGS AND FLOORS BUT ALSO
AS A BARRIER TO PREVENT THE PASSAGE OF MOISTURE FROM THE EARTH UPWARD THROUGH A
CONCRETE SLAB LAIN ON THE GROUND. POLYETHYLENE FILM CAN BE APPLIED VERTICALLY IN 36 IN. W IDE
STRIPS TO STUDDING ON 16 IN. CENTERS WITH A FULL OVERLAP ON ALTERNATE STUDS. FILMS ARE
STAPLED TO STUDS. OVERLAPS AND EXTENSIONS TO FLOORS AND WALLINGS SHALL BE 6 IN.

 ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS VAPOR BARRIER AS A SINGLE SHEET, OR AS A THIN LAYER OF FOIL
LAMINATED TO A HEAVY BACKING OF ASPHALT-IMPREGNATED KRAFT PAPER. THIS IS ALSO DONE WITH
TWO LAYERS OF FOIL LAMINATED WITH ASPHALT CEMENT.

 KRAFT PAPER COATED WITH ASPHALT OR WAX. SOMETIMES TWO LAYERS OF PAPER ARE CEMENTED
WITH A CONTINOUS LAYER OF ASPHALT. ANOTHER MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP-PROOFING OF CONCRETE
WALLS IS “WEATHERKOTE” BITUMINOUS EMULSION, BY SHELL.

THERMAL INSULATION

IN COLD WEATHER, WE ARE INTERESTED IN TRANSFERRING HEAT FROM FURNACES, RADIATORS, HEATING PANELS, INTO
VARIOUS ROOMS OF OUR BUILDINGS. AT THE SAME TIME WE ARE INTERESTED IN PREVENTING THAT HEAT FROM BEING
TRANSFERRED FROM THE INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING TO THE OUTSIDE.

DURING THE SUMMER, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WE PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HOT OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES TO THE
WORKING AND LIVING SPACE WITHIN OUR BUILDINGS.

ALL OF THESE ARE DONE BY THE JUDICIOUS USE OF MATERIALS WHICH IS BEST PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HEAT, THIS
WE CALL THERMAL INSULATION.

KINDS OF THERMAL INSULATION

 LOOSE FILL – THIS BULKY AND DIVIDED INTO:

  FIBROUS TYPE

 GRANULAR INSULATION

 FIBROUS LOOSE FILL

 GRANULE

 BLANKET INSULATION- IS MADE FROM SOME FIBROUS MATERIAL SUCH AS MINERAL WOOL, WOOD FIBER, COTTON
FIBER, OR ANIMAL HAIR.

 BATTS

 STRUCTURAL INSULATION BOARD

 STRAWBOARD

 CORKBOARD

 BLOCK OR RIGID SLAB INSULATION – THIS TYPE OF INSULATION IS SO CALLED BLOCK OR RIGID BECAUSE THE UNITS
ARE RELATIVELY STIFF AND INELASTIC.

 FOAMED PLASTIC INSULATION

 CELLULAR GLASS INSULATION

 FOAMED CONCRETE

 CELLULAR HARD RUBBER

 SHREDDED WOOD OR WOOD FIBER

 RIGID SLAB INSULATION

 RIGID INSULATION- WHICH ARE IMPERVOUS TO MOISTURE PENETRATION RESULTING FROM

CONTINUOUS CONTACT WITH THE EARTH AND MOISTURE ARE PARTICULARLY USEFUL AS
PERIMETER INSULATION.

 REFLECTIVE INSULATION

 ALUMINUM FOIL

 COPPER- FOIL INSULATIONS

 REFLECTIVE INSULATION

 SHEET FOIL

 FOAMED-IN PLACE INSULATION – THIS IS POLYURETHANE PRODUCT MADE BY COMBINING A POLYISOCYANATE AND A
POLYESTER RESIN. THIS TYPE OF INSULATION CAN BE APPLIED EITHER BY POURING OR BY SPRAYING. THE BASIC
INGREDIENTS FOR BOTH ARE DRAW N FROM THEIR CONTAINERS, MEASURED, AND MIXED BY MACHINE.

 APPLICATION BY POURING

 APPLICATION BY SPRAYING

 SPRAYED-ON-INSULATIONS – MATERIALS USED ARE POLYURETHANE FOAM ASBESTOS FIBER MIXED WITH INORGANIC
BINDERS, VERMICULITE AGGREGATE WITH A BINDER SUCH AS PORTLAND CEMENT OR GYPSUM AND PERLITE
AGGREGATE USING GYPSUM AS A BINDER. MACHINES ARE USED FOR BLOWING THESE INSULATIONS INTO PLACE; AS
A RESULT THE SHAPE OR IRREGULARITY OF THE SURFACE BEING INSULATED IS OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCE.
  ASBESTOS FIBER INSULATION

 CORRUGATED INSULATION

SOIL TESTING

LARGER THAN A SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE, IT IS NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE SOIL AND WATER CONDITION BENEATH THE
SITE.

METHOD OF SOIL TESTING:

1. DIGGING TEST PITS – ARE USEFUL WHEN FOUNDATION IS NOT EXPECTED TO EXTEND DEEPER THAT ABOUT 8 FEET
WHICH IS THE MAXIMUM PRACTICAL REACH OF SMALL EXCAVATION MACHINE.

2. TEST BORING – BORING WITH STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS CAN GIVE AN INDICATION OF THE BEARING CAPACITY
OF THE SOIL BY THE NUMBER OF BLOWS OF A STANDARD DRIVING HAMMER REQUIRED TO ADVANCE A SAMPLING
TUBE INTO THE SOIL BY A FIXED AMOUNT.

TYPES OF SOILS:

 ROCK – IS A CONTINUOUS MASS OF SOLID MINERAL MATERIALS, SUCH AS GRANITE OR LIMESTONE, THAT CAN ONLY BE
REMOVED BY DRILLING AND BLASTING.

 SOIL – IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO EARTH MATERIAL.

 BOULDER – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL IS TOO LARGE TO LIFT BY HAND.

 COBBLE – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL TAKES THE WHOLE HAND TO LIFT.

 GRAVEL – IF THE PARTICLE CAN BE LIFTED EASILY WITH THUMB AND FOREFINGER.

 SAND – IF THE PARTICLE SEEN BUT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE PICKED UP.

 FINE GRAINED SOIL – IF THE PARTICLES ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN.

 SILT

 CLAY

PILE DRIVING

MATERIAL USED IN PILE FOUNDATION ARE:

1. TIMBER

2. CONCRETE

3. STEEL

TIMBER – CANNOT RESIST HIGH STRESSES DUE TO HARD DRIVING THAT IS REQUIRED TO PENETRATE HIHLY RESISTANT LAYER
OF SOIL. THE TIP OF THE TIMBER PILE WHICH COULD BE EASILY DAMAGED IS PROTECTED BY THE USE OF STEEL SHOES, ON
THE OTHERHAND THE BUTT IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH AN AMPLE PROTECTION BY THE USE OF CUSHION BLOCK.
CONCRETE PILES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

1. CAST-IN-PLACE

 CASED – IS CAST INSIDE A METAL SHELL FORM WHICH ARE LEFT IN THE GROUND.

 UNCASED – ELIMINATE THE METAL CASING.

2. PRECAST PILES – ARE REINFORCED TO RESIST HIGH STRESS CAUSED BY THE HAMMER IN DRIVING.

METAL PILE – IS AN EXCELLENT AMTERIAL FOR PILE BECAUSE OF ITS STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS TO WITHSTAND HARD
DRIVING AND RAPID PENETRATION INTO THE GROUND, RELATIVELY WITH SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.

DIFFERENT METAL PILES:

 H-BEARING PILES

 BOS PILES

 RAIL PILES