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6-Saudi Aramco-Structural - Steel - Design - Data, - Principles - and - Tools PDF
6-Saudi Aramco-Structural - Steel - Design - Data, - Principles - and - Tools PDF
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil and Structural For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: CSE-109.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Analysis and Design of Steel Structures
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 55
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
Types of Steel
• Ordinary grades
• High-strength
• Special purpose
Ordinary Grades
Mini- Fu
ASTM mum Ten- ASTM A6 1/2'' 3/4'' 1 1/4'' 1 1/2'' 2'' 2 1/2'' 4'' 5'' 6''
To to to to to to to to to to
Steel
Available
Not available
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-7, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Notes: Structural tees from W, M, and S sections fall into the same group as the structural section
from which they are cut.
Group 4 and Group 5 sections are generally contemplated for application as columns or
compression components. When used in other applications (e.g., trusses) and when
thermal cutting or welding is required, special material specification and fabrication
procedures apply to minimize the possibility of cracking.
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-8, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
High-Strength Steels
42 63
A441
46 67
50 70
A572 Grade
42 42 60
High - Strength
High- 50 50 65
Steel
Sterngth 60 60 75
Low-
Alloy 65 65 80
42 63
A242 46 67
50 70
42 63
A588 46 67
50 70
Available
Not available
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-7, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Quenched
Steel
&
Tem- A852d 70 90-
pered 110
Low-
Alloy
Quenched 100-
90
& 130
A514d
Tem-
pered 100-
Low- 100 130
Alloy
Available
Not available
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-7, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Source: Design of Welded Structures, Checklist for Use of High-Strength Steel, by O.W. Blodgett,
page 7.1-12, 12th printing - March 1982, © 1966.
• Yield strength
• Shear strength
• Elongation
• Ductility
• Hardness
• Chemical composition
σ= P ε = ∆L
A Lo
70
Ultimate Strength
60
Facture
50 Upper Yield
Stress, 1000 psi
Point
Lower Yield
40
Point
Proportional
30 Elastic Limit
20
10
0
0 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200
0.025 0.075 0.125 0.175 0.225
Strain, in. / in.
Source: Metals and How to Weld Them, Strain/Stress Figure, by T.B. Jefferson and Gorham
Woods, page 21, 1978 edition, ©1962.
Yield Strength
The yield point is the point, measured in ksi, beyond which the
material stretches briefly without an increase in load. For low-
and medium-carbon steels, the stress at the yield point is
considered to be the material’s tensile yield strength ( y). For
other metals, the yield strength is the stress required to strain
the specimen by a specified small amount beyond the elastic
limit.
Shear Strength
τ=V
A
A = Cross-sectional area
Elongation
See Figure 7.
L − Lo
e u = 100 u
Lo
Lo = Starting length
Original Distance
Between Points, Lo
2 in.
Original Test
Specimen
Final Test
Specimen
at Rupture
2 1/2 in.
Final Distance, Lu, or 25%
Elongation in 2 in.
Figure 7. Elongation
Ductility
Hardness
Chemical Composition
30 140
20
10
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0
Carbon, Percent
Source: Engineering for Steel Construction, page 2-4, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Physical Properties
Density
Thermal Expansion
strain = T
∆T = Change in temperature
e= T L
L = Original length
Types of Sections
Flange Y
tf k
k1
Web
d X X T
Root
tw Radius
Y
k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
k1 = Distance to root radius from web centerline
bf = Flange width
tf = Flange thickness
T = Distance between root radii
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of
flange
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-11, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Flange Y
tf k
k1
Web
d X X T
tw
Y
k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
k1 = Distance to root radius from web centerline
bf = Flange width
tf = Flange thickness
T = Distance between root radii
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of flange
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-35, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
tf Y k
d X X T
tw
Y k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of flange
bf = Flange width
tf = Flange thickness
T = Distance to root radius between root radii
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-37, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Y
tf k
k1
d X X T
tw
Y
k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
k1 = Distance to root radius from web centerline
bf = Flange width
tf = Flange thickness
T = Distance between root radii
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of flange
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-39, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Y
tf
T X X d
tw
Y
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of flange
bf = Flange width
tf = Flange thickness
T = Distance between root radii
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-41, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Y
tf
T X X d
tw
Y
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of flange
bf = Flange width
tf = Flange thickness
T = Distance between root radii
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-43, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
b
k
t
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-46, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Tee Sections (WT or ST) - Tee sections are typically cut from
W or S sections and conform to the flange specifications of the
W or S section.
tf bf
tw
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-55, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
OD
ID
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-93, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-94, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-98, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
X X
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-84, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Properties of Sections
The properties that are most important for design purposes are:
M2
In = I y –
A
I
r=
A
Basic Concepts
∑Qi ≤ Rn / F.S.
D + LI
(D + LI + W) x 0.75
(D + LI + E) x 0.75
D–W
D–E
LI = L + (Lr or R)
where: D = Dead load effect
LI = Live load effect
W = Wind load effect
E = Earthquake load effect
L = Live load due to occupancy and
movable equipment
Lr = Roof live load
R = Nominal load due to initial rainwater
exclusive of ponding contribution
0.75 = The reciprocal of 1.33, which
represents the 1/3 increase in
allowable stress when wind or
earthquake is taken simultaneously
with live load
Allowable Stresses
Given:
Select a suitable tubular member (b) to carry a load of 20 kips,
as shown, in Grade A36 steel using the allowable stress design
approach, with a factor of safety of 1.5.
(b)
30°
(a)
Using the determined cross-sectional area, 1.7 in.2, and the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction, select the tube section dimension that most closely approximates the
required cross-sectional area.
Answer:
Reference the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, p. 1-96, the Square Structural Tube
section chart. A 2 x 2 in. section with a wall thickness of 5/16 in. has a cross-sectional
area of 1.86 in.2.
Basic Concepts
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is the principle of proportioning structures so
that no applicable limit state is exceeded when the structure is subjected to all
appropriate factored load combinations. Although not widely used at this time, LRFD is
gradually becoming the design standard of the future.
LRFD uses separate factors for each load and for the resistance. Because the different
factors reflect the degree of uncertainty of different loads and combinations of loads and
the accuracy of predicted strength, a more uniform reliability is possible than with the
ASD principle.
Σγ i Q i ≤ φR n
On the left side of the inequality, the required strength is the sum of the various load
effects (Qi) multiplied by their respective load factors ( i). The design strength, on the
right side, is the nominal strength or resistance (Rn) multiplied by a resistance factor ( .
1 1.4D
The load factors (1 through 6) recognize that when several loads act in conjunction, only
one assumes its maximum lifetime value at a time. Other loads are at their “arbitrary-
point-in-time” (APT) values. Each combination models the total design loading condition
when a different load is at its maximum.
2 L
3 Lr or R (a roof load)
4 W (acting in direction of D)
5 E (acting in direction of D)
6 W or E (opposing D)
The APT loads have mean values considerably lower than the lifetime maximums. To
achieve a uniform reliability, every factored load (lifetime maximum or APT) is higher
than its mean value by an amount depending on its variability.
In general, the resistance factors are less than one ( <1). Several representative
LRFD factors for steel members are:
Resistance factors for other member and connection limit states are given in the AISC
LRFD Specification.
Given:
Roof beams W16 x 31, spaced 7.0 ft center-to-center, support a superimposed dead
load of 40 lb/ft2. Specified roof loads are 30 lb/ft2 downward (due to roof live load or
rain) and 20 lb/ft2 upward or downward (due to wind).
Solution:
L = 0
E = 0
Answer:
The critical factored load combination for design is the third (3), with a total factored
load of 821 lb/ft.
Limit States
Limit states are strength or serviceability conditions that represent a limit of structural
usefulness. Limit states may be dictated by functional requirements such as maximum
deflection. They can also be conceptual, such as plastic hinge or mechanism formation.
They may also represent the actual collapse of the whole or part of the structure.
• The ultimate limit state when the structure becomes incapable of carrying
the applied loads.
• The serviceability limit state when the structure becomes unusable from
the owner’s point of view.
Ultimate limit states are related to safety and load carrying capacity. Serviceability limit
states relate to performance under normal service conditions. Typically, a structural
member will have several limit states. For a beam, as an example, the limit states
include flexural strength, shear strength, vertical deflection.
Because the primary concern is safety, ultimate limit states are generally emphasized.
The load combinations for determining the required strength are given in expressions 1
through 6, as shown in Figure 23. Other load combinations with different values of
are appropriate for serviceability.
The vibration limit state may not be clearly defined for a given
situation. Modifying the natural frequency of the structure is
recommended when vibration is a critical factor. Designing to a
higher load factor does not always correct the situation and can
possibly make it worse.
• Environment
• Degree of exposure
• Shape of the members and structural detailing
• Protective measures applied, if any, to the surface of
the steel
• Possibility of future maintenance
Basic Concepts
Relationships to LRFD
Given:
Using the plastic design principle, select the Grade A36 steel
section to carry a uniformly distributed superimposed load of 1
kip/ft on a 20-ft simply supported span, using a load factor of
1.7.
Solution:
Beam
w = 1kip/ft
20 ft
Mmax = 50 ft kips
The load factor 1.7 is applied to the service load first, and the
required plastic moment is then computed.
wu = 1.0(1.70) kips/ft
Mp 85(12 )
Re quired Z = = = 28.4 in. 3
Fy 36
Answer:
Using the AISC Manual, pp. 28-29, Plastic Design Selection
Table, select W12 x 22 with Zx = 29.3 in.3.
Mainframe Applications
PC Applications
STAAD III has design capabilities for steel sections. For steel
design STAAD III compares actual stresses with allowable
stresses as defined by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) code.
• User manuals
Unsupported Programs
Maintenance
SUMMARY
GLOSSARY
live load Gravity load acting when the structure is in service, but
varying in magnitude and location (for example,
movable equipment, vehicles).
shear strength The material stress at which a tear or rip failure occurs.