Lecture: Neo Behaviorism

Reporters: Evangelista, Jhoana Jean and Godoy Marie Czarielle

Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable

behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define
learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental
conditions.
It is a theoretical approach in psychology that emphasizes the study of behavior—
that is, the outwardly observable reactions to a stimulus of an organism, whether animal or
human—rather than the content of the mind or the physiological correlates of behavior.

Neo behaviorism, the second phase of behaviorism where a behavior cannot be

fully understood simply in terms of observable stimuli and reactions. Neo behaviorism
introduce mediating variables into the behaviorist stimulus-response scheme. Neo
behaviorism is bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.

Neo Behaviorists and their Theories:

Edward C. Tolman is best-known for cognitive behaviorism,

his research on cognitive maps, the theory of latent learning and
the concept of an intervening variable. Tolman was born
on April 14, 1886, and died on November 19, 1959.

Tolman is perhaps best-known for his work with rats and mazes.
Tolman's work challenged the behaviorist notion that all
behavior and learning is a result of the basic stimulus-response
pattern.

Tolman believed that behavior was goal directed or purposive and that molar rather than
molecular behavior should be the unit of study. he did not think that reinforcement was
necessary for learning to occur. He developed the concept of the intervening variable, a
hypothetical factor internal to the organism that intervenes between stimulus and response
and is defined operationally, and most of the intervening variables were cognitive.

Clark Hull was a psychologist known for his drive theory and
research on human motivation. Through his teaching, Hull also
had an impact on a number of other well-known and influential
psychologists including Kenneth Spence, Neal Miller, and
Albert Bandura.

 Clark Hull was born on May 24, 1884, in Akron, New York.
 He died on May 10, 1952, in New Haven, Connecticut.

Best known for Drive reduction theory, behaviorism,

research on hypnosis.

Hull believed that all behavior could be explained by conditioning principles. According
to Hull’s drive reduction theory, biological deprivation creates needs. These needs activate
drives which then motivate behavior. The resulting behavior is goal-directed, since
achieving these goals aids in the survival of the organism.
Hull was influenced by Darwin and believed that the evolutionary process impacted these
drives and resulting behaviors. He suggested that learning occurred when reinforcement of
behaviors resulted in meeting some type of survival need.
For example, basic needs such as hunger and thirst cause organisms to seek out satisfaction
for these needs by eating and drinking. These drives are then temporarily reduced. It is this
reduction of drives that serves as reinforcement for the behavior. According to Hull,
behavior is the result of the continual and complex interaction of the organism and the
environment.

Albert Bandura is an influential social cognitive psychologist

who is perhaps best known for his social learning theory, the
concept of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll experiments.
He is a Professor Emeritus at Stanford University and is widely
regarded as one of the greatest living psychologists.

Born on December 4, 1925

Bandura’s work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in

psychology that began in the late 1960s. His theories have had a
tremendous impact on personality psychology, cognitive
psychology, education, and psychotherapy.

Albert Bandura's social learning theory stressed the importance of observational

learning, imitation, and modeling. "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to
mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to
inform them what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977 book on the subject. His theory
integrated a continuous interaction between behaviors, cognitions, and the environment.

The study was significant because it departed from behaviorism’s insistence that all
behavior is directed by reinforcement or rewards. The children received no
encouragement or incentives to beat up the doll; they were simply imitating the behavior
they had observed. Bandura termed this phenomenon observational learning and
characterized the elements of effective observational learning as attention, retention,
reciprocation and motivation.
Bandura's work emphasizes the importance of social influences, but also a belief in
personal control. "People with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks
as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided," he has suggested.

Neo Behaviorism

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Goal Latent General Contemporary

Directedness Principle Social Learning
Learning Perspective

Four
Cognitive Intervening Cognitive Conditions for
Maps Factors Effective
Variables Modeling
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Purposive Behaviorism - it is also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and
is often unite between behaviorism and cognitive theory
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming
beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that
knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior. Tolman’s system
was called purposive behaviorism because it studies behavior as it is organized
around purposes.

Tolman’s Key concept

Learning is always purposive and goal- directed.
Individuals do merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive towards goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic,
purposive, and cognitive.

Cognitive Maps
A rat in a maze will explore the maze to find the shortest route to the food. If the
shortest route is blocked, the rat will switch to the next shortest route. He doesn’t
need to explore the maze again because he has a mental picture of it.
Learning the location of reward. Once an individual has learned where a given
kind of reward is located, that location can be often be reached by means other
than those originally used.

Latent Learning

Kind of learning that remains with an individual until needed. This is not
outwardly manifested at once.
Latent learning is important because in most cases the information we have
learned is not always recognizable until the moment that we need to display it.
While you might have learned how to cook a roast by watching your parents
prepare dinner, this learning may not be apparent until you find yourself having to
cook a meal on your own.
When we think about the learning process, we often focus only on learning that is
immediately obvious. We teach a rat to run through a maze by offering rewards
for correct responses. We train a student to raise his hand in the class by offering
praise for the appropriate behaviors.
But not all learning is immediately apparent. Sometimes learning only becomes
evident when we need to utilize it. According to psychologists, this "hidden"
learning that only manifests itself when reinforcement is offered is known as
latent learning.

The concept of Intervening Variable

Intervening variables that are not readily seen but serves as determinants of
behavior. Tolman believe that learning is mediated or is influence by
expectations, perceptions, presentations, needs and other internal or
environmental variables. Example in his experiments with rats he found out that
hunger was intervening variables.
 Reinforcement not essential for learning
Tolman conclude that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it
provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was
able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e, to develop cognitive
map, even the absence of the reinforcement.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social
context. It is learning from one another including such concepts as observational
learning, imitation, and modeling.
General Principle of Social Learning Theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of
those behaviors
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning
theory has become increasingly cognitive in interpretation of human learning
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Contemporary Theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have
indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual
exhibit a behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote
learning.
Cognitive Factors in Social Learning
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors.

1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning

through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned
2. Cognitive process during learning: Social learning theorists contend that
attention is critical factor in learning
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the
consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain
behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner
needs to be aware, however, of the response punishment. Reinforcement increases
a response only when the learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the
environment and the person. In fact, each of these three variables, the person, the
behavior and the environment can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual
person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which
can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television,
videotape, computer programs.
Behaviors that can be learned through modeling
Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be
cited are, students can watch parents read, students can watch demonstration of
mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful situation.
Aggression can be learned through models. Research indicates that children become
more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and
moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This includes moral
judgements regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modeling.
Conditions necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else:

1. Attention- The person must pay attention to the model.

2. Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal
3. Motor Reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior
that the model has just demonstrated.
4. Motivation- The force/s that drives one to act.

Direct Reinforcement
- Occurs when an individual watch a model perform, imitates that behavior and is
reinforced or punished by some individual

Vicarious Reinforcement
-The observer anticipates receiving a reward for behaving in a given way because
someone else has been rewarded.

Self-Reinforcement
-The individuals strive to meet personal standards and does not depend on or care about the
reaction of others.

Effects of Modeling on Behavior:

1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.

2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping of teaching new behaviors. It can
provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching a new behavior.
4. To promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential
conditions exist: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
5. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors.
6. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models.

References:

Lucas, M. R. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive process (4th ed.).

Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Online Sources:

https://www.verywellmind.com/edward-c-tolman-biography-2795522

https://www.verywellmind.com/clark-hull-biography-1884-1952-2795504

https://www.verywellmind.com/drive-reduction-theory-2795381

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-reinforcement-2795414

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-latent-learning-2795327
 Outline

1. Behaviorism

2. Neo behaviorism

3. Tolman’s Purposive behaviorism

3.1 Goal Directedness

3.2 Cognitive Maps

3.3 Latent Learning

3.4 Intervening Variables

4. Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory

5. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

5.1 General Principle of Social Learning Theory

5.2 Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and

Punishment

5.3 Cognitive Factors in Social Learning

6. Behavior That Can be Learned Through Modeling

7. Conditions Necessary for effective Modeling to Occur

8. Three Kinds of Reinforcement

9. Effects of Modeling on Behavior

10. Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

 OUTLINE
(A Brief Summary For Every Topics)

Behaviorism- The prediction and control of human behavior in which introspection

and/or independent thinking play no essential part of its teaching methods.

Neo behaviorism- the second phase of behaviorism where a behavior cannot be fully
understood simply in terms of observable stimuli and reactions.
- a different approach to learning, as learning can happen even if a
behavior is not shown

- learning was not just shown through behavior, but that invisible
conditioned response like stress or love and is based on the general
behaviorism principle

Edward C. Tolman

-April 14, 1886 to November 19, 1959

- best-known for cognitive behaviorism, his research on
cognitive maps, the theory of latent learning and the concept of
an intervening variable.
- behavior was goal directed or purposive and that molar rather
than molecular behavior should be the unit of study.
 Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Purposive Behaviorism - AKA Sign Learning Theory and is often united
between behaviorism and cognitive theory
 Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge
 Revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed
behavior.
(example: In the most famous experiments, one group of rats was placed at random starting
locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the
food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from
their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than
the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific
sequence of turns) (this is included as a note in ppt)

Tolman’s Key Concepts

Learning is always purposive and goal- directed
act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive towards goals

Cognitive Maps
Learning the location of reward.
 Once an individual has learned where a given kind of reward is located,
that location can be often be reached by means other than those originally
used.
 When organism and individual learned the exact location, they will select
the shortest or easiest path to achieve their goal.

Latent Learning (Camouflaged)

 Learning that remains or stays within an individual until needed.
 Learning that is outwardly manifested at once
 (example: A college student is taught how to teach, but is unable to demonstrate that knowledge
until she receives a teaching job.)
 But not all learning is immediately apparent. Sometimes learning only becomes
evident when we need to utilize it.

Example II

Consider some examples in everyday life. Let's say, you have dinner with your fork and spoon
while your father has it with chopsticks.

You observe him every day but do not use the chopsticks. Your father is probably of the
assumption that you can never use a pair.

But, if you suddenly went to a country where your cutlery can’t be used, you are force to use
chopsticks, probably surprising your father.

Thus, your learning has taken place, without a reinforcement, but has been latent until the need
arose to use it.

The concept of Intervening Variable

 Variables that are not readily seen but serves as determinants of behavior.
 Learning is mediated by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs etc.
(example: Experiments on Rats- Hunger)
Reinforcement not Essential for Learning
 reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for
performance.

Clark Hull
May 24, 1884 to May 10, 1952
- a psychologist known for his drive theory and research on
human motivation
- Best known for Drive reduction theory, behaviorism,
research on hypnosis.

-believed that all behavior could be explained by conditioning

principles.

Hull’s drive reduction theory- biological deprivation creates needs. These needs
activate drives which then motivate behavior.
The resulting behavior is goal-directed, since achieving these goals aids in the survival of
the organism

Hull’s Key Concepts on his Theory:

 Motivation Emotion
 Reduction of the drive is a major cause of learning and behavior.
DRIVE= The state of tension or arousal caused by biological or
physiological needs.
 Learning occurred when reinforcement of behaviors resulted in meeting some
type of survival need
 It is this reduction of drives that serves as reinforcement for the behavior.
 behavior is the result of the continual and complex interaction of the organism
and the environment.

For example: hunger, thirst and sex are examples of primary drives, something
that is extremely vital.
Likewise, drives learned by conditioning are secondary drives(money).

Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory

also called observational learning

learning that occurs within a social context.
theory that emphasizes learning through observations of
others
learning from one another including such concepts as
observational learning, imitation, and modeling
we learn not only to perform a behavior but also what will
happen to us in a specific situation if we do perform it
Example:
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television
commercials.
General Principle of Social Learning Theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of
those behaviors
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning
theory has become increasingly cognitive in interpretation of human
learning
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Contemporary Theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment
have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual
exhibit a behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that
promote learning.

Cognitive Factors in Social Learning

1. Learning without performance:

through observation and actual imitation

2. Cognitive process during learning:

attention is critical factor in learning
3. Expectations:
consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring.

4. Reciprocal causation:
person, behavior and environment can have an influence on each other.

5. Modeling:
live model, an actual person demonstrating the behavior
symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other
medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.

BEHAVIOR THAT CAN BE LEARNED THROUGH MODELING

Many behaviors can be learned at least partly, through modeling.
(NOTE: Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can
watch demonstration of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a
fearful situation.)

 Aggression can be learned through models. Tend to be more aggressive when

violent models are being observed.
 Moral thinking and moral behavior are influence by observation and modeling.
  Moral judgment regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through
modeling.

Conditions necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur

(For Elements of Observational Learning)
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else:

5. Attention- Mental focus or concentration | Willingness to observe and mimic the

behavior of a model

The person must pay attention to the model.

6. Retention- To encode the behavior in the memory | Ability to store information

The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed.

7. Motor Reproduction- To actually perform the behavior

The ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.

8. Motivation- The force/s that drives one to act.

Direct Reinforcement
- Occurs when an individual watch a model perform, imitates that behavior and is
reinforced or punished by some individual

Vicarious Reinforcement
-The observer anticipates receiving a reward for behaving in a given way because
someone else has been rewarded.

Self-Reinforcement
-The individuals strive to meet personal standards and does not depend on or care about the
reaction of others.

Effects of Modeling on Behavior:

- teaches new behaviors.

- influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors
- may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
-increases the frequency of similar behaviors

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

7. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

8. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
9. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping of teaching new behaviors. It can
provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching a new behavior.
10. To promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential
conditions exist: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
11. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors.
12. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models.
 ACTIVITY

Activity Title: My a-MAZE-zing Journey

Mechanics:
The class will be divided into four groups. Each group will be provided each
piece of maze. Every group will be task to finish a given maze that has a different finish
lines of their chosen goal as a group. This will be done only in three minutes. If the jury
says stops the game will stop and if any group continue playing, they will be eliminated
from the game.
If none of the groups were finished on the given time, there will be another 3
minutes to finish the maze. After finishing the maze and have reached their goal, the
group will make tableau about their chosen goal.

Directions: Using your pen play the given maze of your a-MAZE-zing journey. The first
group to finish the maze will be given a reward. The first three minutes of the game will
be given to start the game and if no one finishes it by 3 minutes, additional 3 minutes will
be given to actually finish the maze.

Time Frame: 10-15 minutes activity