Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pressure Vessels
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Purpose
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Pressure Vessel vs Piping
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Outline
n Process Engineer Responsibilities
n Pressure Vessel Geometry and Heads
n Codes and Standards
n Evaluation Methods (nondestructive
examination)
n Fabrication and Welding
n Testing
n Support
n Revamps
n Stress and Strain
n Stress Analysis and Code Rules
n Wind and Seismic Loading
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Process/Project Engineer Responsibility
Process Design Conditions
n Design Pressure
n Design Temperature
n Vessel Size and Orientation
n Metallurgy
n Nozzle Sizes and Location
n Vessel Elevation
n Internal Requirements
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Mechanical Design Features
n Vessel Thickness
n Heads
n Shell
n Vessel Support
n Nozzle and Manway Details
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Mechanical Design Features
(continued)
n Fireproofing/insulation
n Internals, Including:
– Distributors
– Vortex Breakers
– Grids
– Trays
– Centerpipes and Scallops
– Mesh Blankets
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Process Design Considerations
Pressure Nomenclature
n Normal Operating
– Pressure at which equipment operates
n Maximum operating
– Highest operating pressure foreseen for all applicable
cases (normal, turndown, startup shutdown)
n Design Pressure
– Maximum operating pressure plus a safety margin
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Process Design Conditions
Determine Design Pressure
Maximum Operating
Pressure, psig Design Pressure, psig
Less than 25 50
25 to 250 Oper P + 25
250 to 1000 (Oper P) ∗ (1.1)
More than 1000 (Oper P) ∗ (1.05) (*)
(*) Applicable only if pilot operated relief valves are used,
otherwise use a 10 percent margin
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Process Design Conditions
Exchanger Design Pressure
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Process Design Conditions
When Vacuum Design is Specified
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Process Design Conditions
Temperature Nomenclature
n Normal Operating
– Highest temperature expected during the
equipment’s operating cycle, including start
and end of run.
n Design Temperature
– Normal operating temperature plus a margin
n If operation is cryogenic (cold), the margin is
a minus value (usually -25°F). Alternative
margins may be considered where the
metallurgy is affected.
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Design Temperature
n Maximum
– Mean metal temperature based on highest
expected operating conditions
n Minimum
– Mean metal temperature— considering lowest
operating, operational upsets, auto-refrigeration,
atmospheric temperature, and many other
sources of cooling
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Design Temperature
(continued)
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Process Design Considerations
Determine Design Temperature
Normal Operating
Temperature, °F Design Temperature, °F
Less than 200 250 *
More than 200 Operating Temperature + 50
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Process Design Considerations
Special Cases for Design Temperature
n Fractionators
– Design temperature normally constant top to
bottom, based upon the highest operating
temperature (which is generally at the bottom)
– Graduated for large delta T’s when the higher
design temperature is greater than 650oF
n Cooler Failure
– Failure of coolers upstream of equipment
could require a greater margin than 50°F
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Process Design Considerations
Special Cases for Design Temperature (continued)
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Overall Geometry
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Overall Geometry
(continued)
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Overall Geometry
(continued)
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Tangent and Weld Lines
n Tangent Line
– Point at which the head curvature begins
n Weld Line
– Point at which the head and shell are welded
together
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Tangent and Weld Lines
Detail
Weld line
Knuckle 1
Tangent line 3
Stright flange
Weld line Tangent line
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Common Head Styles
n Hemispherical
n Elliptical
n Conical
n Flanged and Dished
n Torispherical
n Flat
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Hemispherical
versus 2:1 Elliptical Heads
n Hemispherical
– Optimal pressure containing shape
– Half as thick as the shell
– No sharp radius bends (e.g. knuckles) or stress
concentration points
– Minimizes thinning, cracking, and compression
concerns
– Entire head is at one smooth, constant, curvature
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Hemispherical
versus 2:1 Elliptical Heads
(continued)
n Hemispherical (continued)
– Joint with the shell is more complex
– Greater contained volume than 2:1 elliptical
– More surface area than 2:1 elliptical
– More difficult to form or fabricate, fewer
potential vendors
– Suitable for thick shells (> 2 inches) (from a cost
viewpoint)
– Often fabricated rather than formed in one piece
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Hemispherical vs. 2:1 Elliptical Heads
(continued)
n 2:1 elliptical
– Three dimensional elliptical geometry
– Depth equals 1/2 the vessel radius
– Same thickness as the shell
– Easy butt weld detail at joint with the shell
– Commonly available
– Less volume and surface area than hemispherical
– Knuckles are in hoop compression
– Suitable for thin shells (< 2 inches) (from a cost
viewpoint)
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Nozzle Details
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Nozzle Details
(continued)
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Vessel Fabrication
Nozzles
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Nozzle Details
(continued)
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Nozzle Details
(continued)
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Nozzle Details
(continued)
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Flared Nozzles
1
3
2 4
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Nozzle Details
(continued)
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Nozzle Details
(continued)
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Nozzle Details
(continued)
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Nozzle Neck Thickness
n Greater of:
– A) Minimum thickness required for the nozzle
cylinder by the code design equations for
pressure plus external loads, plus corrosion
– B) Smaller of
• Minimum thickness of standard wall pipe
plus corrosion
• Vessel shell or head thickness required for
pressure, plus corrosion
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Codes and Standards
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Design Codes
(continued)
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Design Codes
(continued)
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Code Use
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Comparative Wall Thickness
Requirements in Various Countries
Wall thickness: inches
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Codes and Standards
ASME Section VIII, Division 1
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Scope of ASME Section VIII, Division 1
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Scope of ASME Section VIII, Division 1
(continued)
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Codes and Standards
ASME Section VIII, Division 2 (continued)
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UOP Guidelines
Design Pressure (psig) Use of ASME Section VIII Division 2
(thickness >4”)
(thickness <2”)
Diameter (feet)
Based upon an allowable stress = 17,000 psi
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Normal Fresh Catalyst Startup Reactor, D-2503
450
400
350
300
Temperature, deg C
250
200
150
100
50
-50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 0 5
Time, hours
160
140
120
100
Pressure, barg
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 0 5
Time, hours
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Codes and Standards
ASME Section VIII, Division 3
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Codes and Standards
ASME Code Cases and Interpretations
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Codes and Standards
Non-Code Vessels
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Codes and Standards
Other Related Codes and Standards
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ASME Versus ASTM Materials
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ASME Versus ASTM Materials
(continued)
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Low Temperature Requirements
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Low Temperature Requirements
(continued)
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Low Temperature Requirements
(continued)
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MDMT Determination
n Curve A
– All carbon and all low alloy steel not listed for
Curves B, C, and D below
– SA-216 Grades WCB and WCC; SA-217
Grade WC6 if normalized and tempered
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Partial Materials List for Curves
(continued)
n Curve B
– SA-216 Grade WCA if normalized and tempered
– SA-216 Grades WCB and WCC for thickness
not exceeding 2 inches, etc
– SA-217 Grade WC9 if normalized and tempered
– SA-285 Grades A and B
– SA-515 Grade 60
– SA-516 Grades 65 and 70 if not normalized
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Partial Materials List for Curves
(continued)
n Curve C
– SA-182 Grades 21 and 22 if normalized and
tempered
– SA-336 F21 and F22 if normalized and tempered
– SA-387 Grades 21 and 22 if normalized and
tempered
– SA-516 Grades 55 and 60 if not normalized
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Partial Materials List for Curves
(continued)
n Curve D
– SA-203
– SA-508, Grade 1
– SA-516 if normalized
– SA-524 Classes 1 and 2
– SA-537 Classes 1, 2, and 3
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Reduction in Minimum Design Metal
Temperature Without Impact Testing
1.0
0.8
tn-c
tr E
0.6
Ratio
0.4
0 20 40 60 80 100
°F
Nomenclature
tr = required thickness of the component in corroded condition for all applicable loadings based on
the applicable joint efficiency E, inches.
tn = nominal thickness of the component under consideration including corrosion allowance, inches.
c = corrosion allowance, inches.
E = joint efficiency.
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Name Plate
Name of Manufacturer
psi at °F
Max. Allowable Working Pressure
°F at psi
W (if arc or gas welded) Min. Design Metal Temperature
RT (if Radio graphed)
HT (if Postweld heat treated)
Manufacturer’s Serial Number
Year Built
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ASME Section VIII Division 1 Postweld
Heat Treatment Requirements
Code Reference
Vessels containing lethal substances UW-2
Carbon-steel vessels for service at temperature below -20°F UCS-67
Welded vessels UW-10
UW1-40
Carbon and low-alloy steel vessels UCS-56
t > 1.25 inches UCS-66
Low alloy steel vessels UCS-67
t > 0.625 inches UCS-79
U-1
High-alloy steel vessels UHA-32
Clad-plate vessels UCL-34
Bolted flange connections UA-46
Castings UG-24
Forgings UF-31
HT under symbol - entire vessel postweld heat-treated UG-116
PHT under symbol - part of the vessel postweld heat-treated UG-116
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Postweld Heat Treatment Not Required
n Carbon Steels
– t < 1.25 inches
– t < 1.50 inches if 200°F preheat
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Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements
for Carbon and Low Allow Steels
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Non-Destructive Examination Methods
Nondestructive examination (NDE) is a quality assurance
tool used to check welds for flaws. This results in safer
vessels and allows use of higher joint efficiencies; therefore,
thinner shells. Methods of NDE include:
n Visual
– Most economical
– Most versatile
– Requires an experienced inspector
– Detects surface imperfections only
n Dye Penetrant (PT)
– Places a contrasting dye over the weld surface, then
wiped clean
– Surface imperfections retain the dye
– Apply a developer to make dye visible
– Detects surface imperfections only
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Non-Destructive Examination Methods
(continued)
n Radiography (RT)
– Detects many types of subsurface
imperfections, lack of fusion, slag inclusion,
porosity, etc in addition to cracks
– Dangerous to perform
• May require an isolated or roped off area
and be done at night or other times when
people are not present
– Requires access to both sides of the examined
surface and clearance from obstructions in the
immediate vicinity
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Non-Destructive Examination Methods
(continued)
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ASME Section VIII Division 1
Full Radiographic Requirements
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
P Number and Group Number – Metals When Thickness Exceeds
P=1 Group 1 1.25 in
1 2
1 3
Carbon steels
P=3 Group 1 0.75 in.
3 2
3 3
Alloy steels with 0.75 maximum chromium and those with 2.00
maximum total alloy
P=4 Group 1 0.625 in.
4 2
Alloy steels with 0.75 to 2.00 chromium and those with 2.75
maximum total alloy
P = 5A Group 1 0.0 in.
5A 2
Alloy steels with 10.00 maximum total alloy
P = 9A Group 1 0.625 in.
9B 1
Nickel alloy steels
P = 10A Group 1 0.75 in.
10F 6
P = 10B Group 2 0.625 in.
10C 3
Other alloy steels
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Non-Destructive Examination Methods
(continued)
n Ultrasonic (UT)
– Uses reflection of sound waves to detect subsurface
flaws
– Used to measure thickness
– Access required from only one side
– Not dangerous
– Requires experienced operator to interpret results
– Requires smooth, clean surface (including grinding
of welds)
– Requires frequent calibration and a calibration
block for the material being examined
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Non-Destructive Examination Methods
(continued)
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Lethal Services
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Vessel Fabrication
Methods of Shell Fabrication
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Vessel Fabrication
Methods of Shell Fabrication (continued)
n Rolled Plate
– Commonly available
– Many potential fabricators
– Unlimited vessel size
– Includes at least one longitudinal weld seam
– Longitudinal seams of neighboring sections
cannot be aligned
– Difficult to form thick shells
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Vessel Fabrication
Methods of Shell Fabrication (continued)
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Vessel Fabrication
Methods of Shell Fabrication (continued)
n Drum Forging
– Excellent for thick shells; no thinning or
creation of stresses
– No longitudinal weld seam
– Close ID tolerance; can be machined to very
close tolerances
– Good thickness and diameter control
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Vessel Fabrication
Methods of Shell Fabrication (continued)
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Multi-Layer Construction
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Multi-Layer Construction
(continued)
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Multi-Layer Construction
(continued)
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Multi-Layer Construction
(continued)
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Vessel Seam Welds
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Welding Methods
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Welding Methods
(continued)
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Welding Methods
(continued)
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Welding Methods
(continued)
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Welding Methods
(continued)
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Welding Methods
(continued)
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Welding Methods
(continued)
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Pressure Testing
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Pressure Testing
(continued)
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Hydrostatic Pressure Testing
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Hydrostatic Pressure Testing
(continued)
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Pneumatic Pressure Testing
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Pneumatic Pressure Testing
(continued)
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Pneumatic Pressure Testing
(continued)
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Hydrostatic Test Example
Design Conditions: Hydrotest Pressure, PHYDRO
P = 50 psig
S TEST
T = 650°F (Top 100') P HYDRO = 1 . 3 P
= 1050°F (Bottom 100') S HOT Lowest Ratio
Material: Top of the Vessel,
SA387 GR11 CL2 (Bottom)
SA516 GR70 (Top) S TEST 20 , 000
= = 1 . 064
100'
SET
T PC =
R + 0.6T
1.3SET
Pr = − 0.433(S .G.)H
R + 0.6t
Where: S.G. = Specific Gravity of the test medium
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Vessel Supports
(continued)
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Vessel Supports
(continued)
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Vessel Supports
(continued)
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Vessel Support Skirts
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Vessel Support Skirts
(continued)
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Contoured Support Skirt Detail
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Contoured Support Skirt Detail
(continued)
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Vessel Supports
Contoured Skirt/Shell Junction
Insulation
Work Point
Bottom Head
Minimum
Support Skirt
Insulation
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Vessel Supports
Flared Skirt
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Revamps
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Revamps
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Revamps
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Revamps
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Revamps
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On-Stream Repair Concerns
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On-Stream Repair Concerns
(continued)
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Stress Analysis
n Terminology
n Primary Membrane Stresses in Shells
n Primary Membrane Stresses in Heads
n Code Design Equations for Shells and Heads
n Nozzle Reinforcement
n Discontinuity Stresses
n Code Allowable Stress Basis
n Wind and Earthquake
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Stress and Strain Definitions
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Review of Strength of Materials
P P
Engineering Stress = =σ
Ao
X
Lo ength
e L Stressed gage
g
Ga length (L)
P
P P
Ao
δ Original gage δ
2 length (LO) 2
L – Lo δ
Engineering Strain = =
Sect. X-X δ Lo Lo
ε=
Lo
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Typical Stress-Strain Curve
for a Stainless Steel
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Typical Stress-Strain Curve
for a Mild Steel
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Stress - Strain Terms
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Histories from a Loading At
Low Temperature
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Histories from a Controlled Loading at
Elevated Temperature
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Imposed Strain
Stress
Time
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Stress - Strain Terms
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Stress - Strain Terms
(continued)
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Stress - Strain Terms
(continued)
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Stress - Strain Terms
(continued)
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Stress - Strain Terms
(continued)
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Stress - Strain Terms
(continued)
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Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels
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Areas of Knowledge and Application
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Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels
Types of Stress
n Primary Stress
– Caused by an applied force, strain is a
response, i.e., a secondary event
– If excessive, can cause failure in a single
application
– Necessary to satisfy equilibrium of forces and
moments
– Not self-limiting
– Internal or external pressure
– Weight, wind, earthquake
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Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels
Types of Stress (continued)
n Secondary Stress
– Caused by an applied strain, stress is a response,
i.e., a secondary event
– Generally does not lead to failure in a single cycle
– Self-limiting (e.g. thermal stress)
– Local geometric effects, thermal stress, residual
stresses from welding (often due to constraints)
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Loadings Causing Vessel Stresses
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Loadings Causing Vessel Stresses
(continued)
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Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels
Terminology
n Stress Types
– Membrane Stress
• An essentially uniform stress averaged
across the thickness of the cross-section
– Bending Stress
• Stress level varies through the thickness of
the cross-section
n Stress Direction
– Circumferential
– Longitudinal
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Cylindrical Vessel
Longitudinal
Meridional (Longitudinal)
σ Stress
L σ
L
σ
H
σ
H
Hoop
Circumferential Stress
(Hoop)
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Spherical Vessel or Head
σ
L
σ
l
na
l) H
dio
ina
eri
ud
M
git
on
(L
Circumferential
(Hoop)
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Hoop Stress
R
P σH [ ]
σH [2 πRt ]= P πR 2
pR
σH =
2t
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Longitudinal Stress
P
σ
L
Longitudinal stress
t, Thickness
R
σL ( 2πRt) = P( πR 2 )
PR
σL =
2t
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Stresses in Pressure Vessels Due to
Internal Pressure
Spherical Shell or PR PR
Hemispherical Head 2t 2t
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ASME Code Design Thickness
Equations for Shells
Section VIII, Division 1
n Cylindrical Shells
– Circumferential stress (longitudinal joints)
PR Limits t ≤1 R
t= 2
SE − 0.6P P ≤ 0.385SE
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ASME Code Design Thickness
Equations for Shells
PR Limits t ≤1 R
t= 2
2SE + 0.4P P ≤1.25SE
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ASME Code Design Thickness
Equations for Shells
n Spherical Shells
PR Limits t ≤ 0.356R
t=
2SE − 0.2P P ≤ 0.665SE
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Pressure Vessel Heads
where D
1 D
2
K = 2 +
6 2 h
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Elliptical Head/Cylinder Stress Ratios
h
h
h
h
R R R R
2.0 σ 2.0 σ σ 2.0 2.0
σ σ
1.0 L = H 1.0 L 1.0 L 1.0 L
.0 .0 .0 .0
σ
-1.0 -1.0 H -1.0 σ
-1.0
-2.0 -2.0 -2.0 H -2.0
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0
σ
-4.0 -4.0 -4.0 -4.0 H
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ASME Code Design Thickness
Equations for Heads
n Pressure Vessel Heads
– Conical (without transition knuckle)
D
PD
t=
2 cos α (SE − 0.6P)
PDO
t=
2 cos α (SE + 0.4P) r
α
Limits:
Half Apex Angle, α<30°
P ≤ 1.25SE
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ASME Code Design Thickness
Equations for Heads
n Pressure Vessel Heads
– Toriconical heads (conical portion)
– Knuckle portion L
D
PLM
tk = r
2 SE − 0.2 P α
Di tK
L= Di
2 cos α α
1 L
M = 3 + tc
4 r
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Pressure Vessel Heads
t
D L
PLM 2SEt
t= or P =
2SE − 0. 2P LM + 0.2t
where
1 L
M = 3 + for the typical case where
4 r
r=0.06L and L=skirt OD,
0.885PL
t=
SE − 0.1P
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Symbols
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Symbols
(continued)
D = Inside diameter
DO = Outside diameter
DL = Inside diameter of conical portion of
toriconical head = D-2r(1-cosα)
α = One half apex angle of cone
r = Inside knuckle radius
L = Inside crown radius
h = Minor axis of elliptical head
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Vessel Weld Joint Categories
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Efficiency of Welded Joints (E)
(Excerpt from ASME Code Table UW-12)
Degree of Radiographic
Examination
No. Type of Joint Full Spot None
1 Double-welded butt joint or single- 1.00 0.85 0.70
welded butt joint with backing strip
which does not remain in place
2 Single-welded butt joint with backing 0.90 0.80 0.65
strip which remains in place
3 Single-welded butt joint without use – – 0.60
of backing strip
UOP permits only type 1 joints in hydrocarbon service.
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Weld Examination
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Section VIII, Allowable Stress Basis
n Division 1
– The lower of the following at temperature:
• 2/3 yield
• 1/3.5 ultimate tensile
• 2/3 average rupture stress in 100,000 hours
• 80% minimum stress to rupture in 100,000 hours
• Average stress for creep of 1% in 100,000 hours
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Section VIII, Allowable Stress Basis
(continued)
n Division 1 (continued)
– Note: For many steels, yield and tensile
strengths may first increase, then decrease as
temperatures rise above ambient
• Ambient allowable is used until a lower
one is required (usually at 650°F)
– In combination with wind or earthquake
loads, allowable stress may be increased to 1.2
times the values listed in the code
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Allowable Stress Table
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Allowable Stress Table
(Continued)
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Allowable Stress Table
(Continued)
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Section VIII, Allowable Stress Basis
(continued)
n Division 2
– Lower of the following at temperature (below
the creep range):
• 2/3 yield
• 1/3 ultimate tensile
– Above creep range, Division 1 allowables must
be used
n Allowable stresses for materials permitted by
the Code are listed in ASME Section II, Part D
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External Pressure Design
n Internal Pressure
– Allowable stress is a function of material
properties
n External Pressure
– Stability (buckling) becomes a concern
– Allowable stress is a function of material and
geometrical properties
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External Pressure Design
(continued)
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External Pressure
Design Length
Do
h/3 h/3
h = Depth of Head
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External Pressure Design
Code Design Method
n Step 1
– Assume a thickness t and determine the length
between stiffeners, L
– Calculate L/DO, DO/t
n Step 2
– Find factor A from figure G of ASME Section
II, Part D
n Step 3
– Find B, using the proper chart for the material
from ASME Section II, Part D
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External Pressure Design
Code Design Method (continued)
n Step 4
– Calculate allowable external pressure,
4B
Pext =
3( D O t)
– or, for A values to the left of chart,
2AE
Pext =
3( D O t)
n Step 5
– If Pext < applied external pressure, repeat Step 1,
using a larger t or a smaller L
– If Pext ≥ applied external pressure, design okay
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External Pressure Design
Code Design Method (continued)
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External Pressure Design
Code Design Method (continued)
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External Pressure Design
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External Pressure Design
Code Design Method (continued)
B = 6200psi
4 ( 6200 ) 24 , 800
Pext = = = 165psi > 15psi OK
3( 50 ) 150
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Carbon Steel Vessels 500°F
Full Vacuum Design
300
Internal Design Pressure (psig)
200 SA285 GR C
E = 1.0
100
SA285 GR A
E = 0.85
Stiffening Rings Required
5 10 15
L/D Ratio
Illustrates the internal design pressure above which no stiffening rings would be
required in accordance with the ASME code, for two material specifications.
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Axial Compression
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Nozzle Reinforcement
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Nozzle Reinforcement
(continued)
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Nozzle Reinforcement
(continued)
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Nozzle Reinforcement
(continued)
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Nozzle Reinforcement
CL
Aα
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Section A-A
Vent hole
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Nomenclature and Formulas
for Reinforced Openings
Dp
tn rn Reinforcement zone
trn
te
2.5t or 2.5tn + te
Use Smaller Value
tr
t c
d or Rn + tn + t d or Rn + tn + t
use larger value
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Opening Reinforcement
A 1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 (if required) ≥ A
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Nozzle Attachment Weld Loads and
Weld Strength Paths to be Considered
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Reinforcement of Multiple Openings
(continued)
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Examples of Multiple Openings
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External Loads on Nozzles
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Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
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Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
(continued)
n Pressure
– Internal pressure imposes tensile stresses on
the shell
– External pressure imposes compressive
stresses on the shell
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Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
(continued)
n Moment Loadings
– External loadings produce an overturning moment
and resulting tensile and compressive longitudinal
stresses at the bottom of tall vertical vessels.
– Common sources of large external moments are:
• Wind
• Earthquake
• Eccentricity
• Forces from piping weight, thermal expansion,
and expansion joints
– Wind and earthquake are short term loadings;
others are long term sustained loads.
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Design Cases
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Design Cases
(continued)
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Wind Loading
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Design of Tall Vertical Vessels for
Moment Loadings
• Combination of Longitudinal Stresses
- Internal pressure
Stress Windward Side Leeward Side
Due to Moment + (Tension) - (Compression)
Due to Internal Pressure + +
Due to Weight - -
- External pressure
Stress Windward Side Leeward Side
Due to Moment + -
Due to External Pressure – –
Due to Weight - -
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Design for Wind Loads
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Wind Load Design
n Exposure
– A measure of the surrounding conditions and
wind obstructions
– Range from A (center of large cities) to D
(unobstructed areas areas within 1500 feet of
open water 1 mile or greater in width)
– The default for refinery design is Exposure C
– Within each exposure, non building structures
are denoted as Case 2
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Design for Wind Loads
(continued)
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Design for Wind Loads
(continued)
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Design for Wind Loads
(continued)
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Design for Wind Loads
(continued)
n Force Coefficient Cf
DESCRIPTION Cf FACTOR
Round cross section (diameter/square root of 0.6
wind pressure > 2.5), smooth surface
Round cross section (diameter/square root of 0.8
wind pressure > 2.5), rough surface
(projection/diameter = 0.02
Round cross section (diameter/square root of 0.8
wind pressure < 2.5)
Square cross section, wind normal to face 1.4
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Design for Wind Loads
(continued)
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Design for Wind Loads
(continued)
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Wind Loading
EL 197.5'
Example
EL + 197.5'
EL 100'
17912#
If the vessel height was 150 feet, a 24 percent decrease:
EL 60' V = 65,800lb a 28 percent decrease
8396# M = 5,400,0001-lb a 45 percent decrease
EL 40'
7276#
EL 20'
6716#
6'
VB
MB
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Regimes of Fluid Flow
Across Circular Cylinders
<
< <
< <
< <
< <
<
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Vortex Shedding
Force
Wind Velocity
V
Vessel Diameter
D
Where,
S = Strouhal Number = 0.2
V = Wind Velocity, feet/second
D = Shell Diameter, feet
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Determining Structural Dampening
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Critical Wind Velocity
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Seismic (Earthquake) Design
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Seismic Design
(continued)
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Seismic Design
(continued)
Fx =
( V− Ft )Wx h x
∑ Wx h x
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Seismic Design
(continued)
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Seismic Design
(continued)
n Additional Points
– Movement or “sloshing” of liquid contents must be
accounted for
– In general, use of the static force method has been
adequate
• However, design for force resistance leads to use
of a stiffer structure, when more flexible
structures are preferred for seismic conditions.
– If support is at intermediate point along vessel, treat
portions above and below support separately
• Unlike wind loadings, the upper and lower
portions can move in opposite directions during
seismic activity
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Seismic Design
Ft
Ft1
V 1-Ft1
V-Ft
h
h1
2/3 h1
2/3 h
2/3 h2
h2
V 2-Ft2
Ft2
For Maximum Shear For Maximum Moment
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Training Services
Piping
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Purpose
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Piping Definition
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Definitions
n Pipe
– A hollow, generally cylindrical member used to
convey a wide range of fluids (gas, liquid, or
fine solids) over a wide range of temperatures
and pressures
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Definitions
(continued)
n Tube
– Special, thin wall class of pipe
– Are generally small diameter
– OD equals its nominal size
– Made of soft, ductile materials, allowing them
to be bent to the desired configuration
– Larger diameter tubes are used in heat
transfer applications due to the smaller mass
of metal, hence better heat transfer
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Definitions
(continued)
n Ducting
– A thin wall, often rectangular system used to
convey vapor at near atmospheric pressure
(i.e. a few inches of water).
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Piping Designation
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Piping Designation
(continued)
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Piping Thickness
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Piping Thickness
(continued)
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Piping Thickness
(continued)
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Design Properties of 8 Inch Pipe
A B C D E F G H I K L M O
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Piping Dimensions
Key
A Schedule
B Wall Thickness (inches)
C Inside Diameter (inches)
D (inside diameter)5(103 inches5)
E Outside Surface Area (square feet per foot)
F Inside Surface Area (square feet per foot)
G Metal Cross Section (inches2)
H Flowing Cross Section (inches2)
I Pipe Weight (lb/ft)
K Water Weight (lb/ft)
L Radius of Gyration (inches)
M Moment of Inertia (inches4)
O Section Modulus (inches3)
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Piping Fittings
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Piping Fittings
(continued)
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Piping Fittings
(continued)
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Components for Pipeline Systems
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Bending of Pipe
(continued)
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Bending of Pipe
(continued)
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Bending of Pipe
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Bending of Pipe
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Miters
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Miters
(continued)
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Multiple Miter Bend
r2
α α/2
α/2
M
R1
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Joining of Piping
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Weld Types
Buttweld Socketweld
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Piping Sizing
n Process considerations are primary factor used to
determine required pipe sizes
n Pressure drop through piping is the most common factor
in line sizing
– Often expressed in “equivalent length” of straight pipe
– Pressure drops of fittings, valves, reductions, etc., may be
expressed as an equivalent length of straight pipe
– Convenient source of equivalent lengths is Crane
Company’s Technical Paper 410
– The total pressure drop is found by multiplying the
equivalent length by the ? P per unit length of straight pipe
of the appropriate size
– Pipe size is then selected for a low pressure drop, while
remaining economical
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Representative Equivalent Lengths
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Piping Sizing
(continued)
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Piping Sizing
(continued)
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Piping Sizing
(continued)
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Valves
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Valves
(continued)
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Gate Valve
Handwheel
Yoke
Gland Flange
Gland
Stuffing Box
Bonnet Bushing Packing
Stem
Bonnet
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Gate Valves
(continued)
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Gate Valves
(continued)
Stem
Packing Nut
Gland
Stuffing Box
Bonnet Packing
Bonnet Ring
Disc
Direction of Flow
Body Seat Ring
Body
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Globe Valves
(continued)
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Globe Valves
(continued)
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Swing Check Valve
Cap
Body
Seat Ring Disc
Intended
Direction of Flow
Disc Face
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Check Valves
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Check Valves
(continued)
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Ball Valve
Lever Handle for quick quarter-turn
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Ball Valves
(continued)
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Butterfly Valve
Actuating Motor
Packing
Body
Disc
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Butterfly Valves
(continued)
Spring
Spindle
Relief
Seat Ring
Disc
Process Pressure
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC. PPF-R00-44
Relief and Safety Valves
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Relief and Safety Valves
(continued)
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Relief and Safety Valves
(continued)
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Relief and Safety Valves
(continued)
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Pipe Classes
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Pipe Classes
(continued)
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Pipe Classes
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC. PPF-R00-74
Piping Codes
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Codes
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Pressure Design
(continued)
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Design Conditions
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Design Conditions
(continued)
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Useful Piping Code Features
Bolting - 80%
Flanges - 90%
Piping and Valves - 95%
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Useful Piping Code Features
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Useful Piping Code Features
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Required Piping Thickness
Piping thickness required by ASME B31.3 for internal
pressure containment is: T m = PD / 2 (SE + PY)
Where: T m = Minimum required wall thickness
P = Design pressure
D = Pipe outside diameter
S = Allowable stress at design temperature,
per ASME B31.3
E = Quality factor, depending upon radio-
graphic examination or casting type (for
valves)
Y = Factor dependent upon material and
temperature; for ductile materials and
for temperatures below 900°F, it is 0.4
Equation is valid for T<D/6 and P/SE<0.385.
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Required Piping Thickness
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Required Piping Thickness
(continued)
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Basis for Allowable Stresses
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Basis for Allowable Stresses
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Multiple Miter Bend
r2
α α/2
α/2
M
R1
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Miter Allowable Pressure
SE( T − C) T− C
Pm =
r2 ( T − C)+ 0.643 tan θ r2 ( T − C)
or
SE( T − C) R 1 − r2
Pm =
r2 R 1 − 0.5r2
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Miter Allowable Pressure
(continued)
n Limitations include:
Θ ≤ 22.5°
M=larger of 2.5(r2T)0.5 and tanΘ (R1-r2)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Branch Connections
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Branch Connections
(continued)
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC. PPF-R01-55
Branch Connection Nomenclature
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC. PPF-R01-54
Branch Connection Reinforcement
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Branch Connection Reinforcement
(continued)
n Available reinforcement:
A2 = excess header thickness=(2d2-d1)(T h-th-c)
where:
d2 = reinforcement zone radius usually=d1
T h = nominal header thickness including the
minus mill tolerance
c = mechanical allowances (e.g. corrosion)
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Branch Connection Reinforcement
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Branch Connections
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nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Branch Connections
(continued)
Extruded Junction
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC. PPF-R01-83
Piping Testing
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Testing
(continued)
n Hydrostatic Testing:
– The Piping Code requires a test pressure of 1.5
times the design pressure times the ratio of cold to
hot allowable stresses (SC/SH)
– The SC/SH ratio is “capped” at 6.5
• Minimizes possibility of distortion or damage
during hydrotest from a high test pressure
caused by a low allowable stress due to creep
considerations for elevated temperature
operation
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Testing
(continued)
n Pneumatic Testing
– The Piping Code requires a test pressure of 110 percent
of design pressure, without correction for cold vs. hot
allowable stress
– This is due to the inherent danger from the stored
energy during a pneumatic test
– The initial test is normally performed at 25psig and
gradually increased to the final test pressure (110
percent of design)
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Piping Testing
(continued)
n Nondestructive Examination
– In certain circumstances (e.g., water exposure
is undesirable and pneumatic testing unduly
hazardous), Piping Code, unlike the Pressure
Vessel Code, also permits nondestructive
examination plus a leak test instead of full
pressure testing
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Testing
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Testing
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Cold Service Requirements
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Cold Service Requirements
(continued)
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Minimum Temperatures Without Impact
Testing for Carbon Steel Materials
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Examination and Heat Treatment
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Examination and Heat Treatment
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Flexibility
(continued)
n Object is to avoid:
– Failure of piping or components due to overstress
or fatigue
– Leakage at joints
– Detrimental stress or distortion in piping, valves,
or connected equipment (e.g. pumps, turbines,
expanders)
– Creation of “pockets” (unvented or drained high
or low spots), loss of required free draining, etc
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors Stress Intensification Factor
Flexibility Flexibility
Factor Outplane Inplane Characteristic Sketch
Description k io ii h
T
1.65 0.75 0.9 T R1
Welding elbow or r
pipe bend h h2/3 h2/3 r 22 2
R1 = bend
radius
T
1.52 0.9 0.9 cot θ Ts s
Closely spaced miter bend r
s < r 2 (1 + tan θ) h5/6 h2/3 h2/3 2 r22 2
θ R1 = s cot θ
2
T
Single miter bend or 1 + cot θ T s
1.52 0.9 0.9 r
widely spaced miter bend 2
s > r 2 (1 + tan θ) h5/6 h2/3 h2/3 2 r2
r2 (1 + cot θ)
θ R1 =
2
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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Sustained and Displacement Stresses
when Pipe Lifts off of Support
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
∆L = Lα∆T
where:
L = Length
∆T = Change in temperature
α = Thermal expansion coefficient— change
per unit length per degree
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Thermal Expansion Coefficients
(10-6 inches/inch-°F)
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Thermal Expansion
(inches/100 ft)
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Displacement Stresses per B31.3
S E = S b2 + 4S 2t
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Displacement Stresses per B31.3
(continued)
n Axial stress effects are generally insignificant and
ignored
n For elbows, tees, and other components with
applicable stress intensification factors (i) and
applied moment M, the form of Sb is:
Sb =
(i M ) + (i M )
i i
2
o o
2
Z
– Subscripts i and o represent in and out of plane
respectively; reference plane is that of the
component, not of the piping system
n Computed stress range SE is compared to the
allowable stress range (SA)
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Moments
Mt
Mi Mt Mo
Mi
Mo Mt
Mo
Mi
Mi
Mi
Mt
Mo
LEG 1
Moments in Bends
Mt
Mo
Moments in Branch Connections
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Piping Flexibility
Sa = ƒ (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh )
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
Where:
Sa = Allowable displacement stress range
ƒ = Stress reduction factor accounting for the number
of full displacement cycles (equals 1 if cycles are less
than 7000 during expected service life)
Sc = Code allowable stress at minimum temperature
during the displacement cycle
Sh = Code allowable stress at maximum temperature
during the displacement cycle
Sl = Longitudinal stresses due to sustained loadings (e.g.,
weight, pressure, etc.), based on nominal thickness
minus corrosion allowance; thermal stress not
included; under tolerance need not be subtracted to
determine Sl
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
If Dy / (L - U)2 ≤K1,
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
n Where:
– D = outside diameter of pipe (in or mm)
•All piping must be the same size and thickness
– y = resultant of total displacement strains to be
absorbed by the system (in or mm)
– L = developed piping length between anchors (ft or m)
– U = straight line distance between anchors (ft or m)
– K1 = 30 (Sa/Ea) for English units (208,000 (Sa/Ea) for SI
units)
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Example of Simplified Stress Evaluation
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Example of Simplified Stress Evaluation
(continued)
L = 15'+10'+15'+50'+25' = 115'
U= x + y + z = (15 + 25) + (10 − 50) + (15)
2 2 2 2 2 2
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Example of Simplified Stress Evaluation
(continued)
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Piping Flexibility
(continued)
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Providing Flexibility
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Providing Flexibility
(continued)
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Horizontal Expansion Loop
Deflected Shape
Anchor
Original Shape
Guide
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Providing Flexibility
(continued)
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Loop Example
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Loop Examples
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Providing Flexibility
(continued)
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Providing Flexibility
(continued)
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Single Expansion Joint
IA
MA
DMA G1 G2 G G G
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Universal Expansion Joint
IA PG
PG IA
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Providing Flexibility
(continued)
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Expansion Joint Blowout Force
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Providing Flexibility
(continued)
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Expansion Joint Bellows
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Expansion Joint Bellows
(continued)
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Expansion Joint Bellows
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Universal Expansion Joint
(without Initial Offset)
IA
Hot Position IA
PG Cold Position
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Universal Expansion Joint
(with Initial Offset)
IA
Neutral Position
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Pantographic Linkage
Process
Vessel
Pantographic Linkage
Process
Vessel
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Tied Expansion Joint
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Pressure Balanced Expansion Joint
Machine
IA
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Hinged Expansion Joint
Equipment
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Elastic Followup
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Elastic Follow-up
(continued)
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Elastic Followup
(continued)
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Elastic Followup Examples
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Elastic Followup Examples
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Elastic Followup
(continued)
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Elastic Followup
(continued)
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Elastic Follow-up
(continued)
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Piping Support
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Piping Support
(continued)
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Piping Support
(continued)
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Piping Support
(continued)
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Piping Support
(continued)
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Pipe Shoe Details
L Support Unless L Support Unless
Pipe Otherwise Noted Pipe Otherwise Noted
Shoe Shoe
Support Beam
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Piping Support
(continued)
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distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Pipe Support Assembly
Vessel Lug
Support Bracket
Support
Strap
L Pipe
L 3/4" Bolts Support Lug
N.S. & F.S.
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Stress (psi) Due to Sag
Standard Wall Pipe— Filled With Water
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Stress (psi) Due to Sag
Standard Wall Pipe— Empty
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Maximum Pipe Spans (Feet)
Basis: simple span; carbon steel pipe; water or lighter fluid service;
maximum temperature 650°F
Criteria: maximum stress = 6000psi
*Maximum deflection = smaller of 1" or nominal pipe diameter
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Piping Vibration
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Vibration Control
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Vibration Control
(continued)
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“Floating” Systems
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Location of Pipe Supports and Guides
Minimum
Support
+
40'-0" -
Guide
+
40'-0" -
Guide
15'-0" +-
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Spring Hangers
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Spring Hangers
(continued)
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Spring Hangers
(continued)
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Spring Hangers
(continued)
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Variable Support Size Selection Table
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Constant Supports
M B A
•
W H
Eb
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Constant Supports
(continued)
n Referring to the
diagram to the left, take
F1 3 2 1 three positions high,
F2 mid and low, and equate
F3
a3 a2 a Stationary the moments about the
1
b1 Spring main pivot
W Axis
b2 F1a1 = Wb1
W Main
Pivot F2a2 = Wb2
W b3 F3a3 = Wb3
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Constant Support Size Selection Table
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Spring Hangers
(continued)
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Piping Reactions
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Piping Reactions
(continued)
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Piping Reactions
(continued)
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Piping Reactions
(continued)
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Nozzle Loadings
(U.S. Units)
Note: Each value shown below indicates a range from minus that value to plus that value; for example 160 indicates a range from -160 to +160.
Each Nozzle
MX 340 700 980 1700 2600 3700 4500 4700 5400
MY 170 350 500 870 1300 1800 2200 2300 2700
MZ 260 530 740 1300 1900 2800 3400 3500 4000
MR 460 950 1330 2310 3500 5000 6100 6300 7200
Note 1: F = force in pounds; M = movement in foot-pounds; R = resultant. See Figures 2-2 – 2-6 for orientation of nozzle loads (X, Y, and Z).
Note 2: Coordinate system has been changed from API Standard 610, 7th Edition, convention to ISO 1503 convention.
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Nozzle Loadings Coordinate System
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Permissible Loads for Steam Turbines
per NEMA SM 23
A) At any connection:
3FR + MR ≤500 De
FR = Resultant force (lbs)
MR = Resultant moment (ft-lbs)
De = Nominal connection size
(inches). If greater than 8
inches, use (16+D)/3.
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Permissible Loads for Steam Turbines
per NEMA SM 23 (continued)
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Permissible Loads for Steam Turbines
per NEMA SM 23 (continued)
2) Component Limits
FX ≤50DC MX ≤250DC
FY ≤ 125DC MY ≤125DC
FZ ≤ 100DC MZ ≤125DC
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Force and Moment Terminology
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Cold Spring
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Cold Spring
(continued)
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Cold Spring
(Continued)
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Cold Spring
(continued)
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Cold Spring
(continued)
2003 ENGINEERING DESIGN SEMINAR – LIMITED DISTRIBUTION: This material is UOP LLC technical information of a confidential EDS-2003/PP-196
nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Cold Spring
(continued)
2003 ENGINEERING DESIGN SEMINAR – LIMITED DISTRIBUTION: This material is UOP LLC technical information of a confidential EDS-2003/PP-197
nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Cold Spring Fabrication
2003 ENGINEERING DESIGN SEMINAR – LIMITED DISTRIBUTION: This material is UOP LLC technical information of a confidential EDS-2003/PP-198
nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or PPF-R00-90
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC.
Flue Gas Line
Isometric
2003 ENGINEERING DESIGN SEMINAR – LIMITED DISTRIBUTION: This material is UOP LLC technical information of a confidential EDS-2003/PP-199
nature for use only by personnel within your organization requiring the information. The material shall not be reproduced in any manner or
distributed for any purpose whatsoever except by written permission of UOP LLC and except as authorized under agreements with UOP LLC. PPF-R01-70