Chemical Reaction & Equation Explained

C ontents Serial
No.
MODULE - 1
Page
No.
1. Chemical reaction & equation 1

CHEMISTRY
2. Acids, bases & salts 14
3. Metals & non-metals 37
4. Carbon & It's Compound 38
5. Periodic classification of Elements 120

Carbon has this genius of making a
chemically stable two-dimensional,
one-atom-thick membrane in a three-
dimensional world.
And that, I believe, is going to be very
important in the future of chemistry
and technology in general.
— Richard E. Smalley
CHEMICAL REACTION & EQUATION IIT-JEE/Medical/Boards
CHEMICAL REACTION & EQUATION

1. INTRODUCTION
 Change is the law of nature. Scientist classify these changes as physical changes and chemical changes. When a
chemical change occurs, a chemical reaction is said to have taken place.
< Physical change :– A change in which the physical properties of the substance changes but the chemical
composition does not change. The substance is restored to its original state as soon as the cause of change is
withdrawn.
< Chemical change :– In a chemical change, at least one of the reacting substance changes into a new substances
with a different composition. The new substances can not be changed back to the original substance even if the
cause of change is withdrawn.
< Difference between physical & chemical change :–
S.No. Phys ical change Che mical c hange

1 The identity of the substance is The identity of the original substa nce is
maintained. completely lost.
2 The change is temp ora ry, the The change is permane nt.
substance returns to its original state as
the cause of. change is withdrawn
3 No new substance is produced. A new substance is always produced.
4 H eat cha nge may or may not occur. Heat change may occur.
5 O nly the physical state or some of the The substance after the change can not
p hysica l properties of the substances come back to its original state even when
a re changed the cause of change is withdrawn.
< Chemical reaction :– The processes, in which a substance or substances undergo a chemical change to
produce new substance or substances, with entire new properties, are known as chemical reaction.
The nature and identity of products totally changes from the reactants. Observations which determines whether
the chemical reaction has taken place or not.
(a) Chemical reaction must be associated with change in temperature i.e. Heat should be either evolved or
absorbed.
(b) The reaction must occur between fixed quantities of the reactants.
(c) The chemical reaction should follow the law of conservation of mass.
(d) The products obtained must have properties different from those of the reactants.
 Example – (i) When potassium nitrate is heated, it gives potassium nitrite and oxygen.
(ii) When sodium reacts with water sodium hydroxide is produced and hydrogen gas is liberated.
As description of a chemical reaction in a sentence form is qute long so when it is written in shorter form by using
words and some signs (+ for addition & arrow () to show the direction), then it is called Word equation.
< Word equation :– A chemical equation which represents a chemical reaction briefly in words is called word
equation.
Ex. – For the example (ii) the word equation is
Sodium + water  Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
< Reactants :– The substance or substances which takes part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
< Products :– The new substance or substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction are called products.
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In the above reaction sodium & water are reactants and sodium hydroxide & hydrogen are products.
RULES FOR WRITINGAWORD EQUATION
(i) The substances taking part in chemical reaction reactants are always written on the left hand side of arrow.
(ii) The substances formed after the chemical reaction, products are always written on the right hand side of arrow.
(iii) A plus sign (+) is put in between the reactants or between the products. If their number is two or more.
(iv) An arrow () is put between the reactants and products, the arrow shows the direction of the reacton in which
the reaction proceeds. The arrow is read as "to yield" or "to form".
 In the word equation when symbols and chemical formulae of the reactants and products are
used then it is called as chemical equation.
Example – Na + H2O  NaOH + H2
 i.e. A chemical equation is a statement that describes a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae. In
this equation the law of conservation of mass is not obeying. Such chemical equation is called skeletal equation
or unbalanced equation.
 A chemical equation expressed in symbols and formulae, such that the number of atoms of different
elements towards the side of the reactants is not equal to the number of atoms of the products is
called skeletal equation or unbalanced equation.
 To make this equation meaningfull, this equation is balanced then it is called balanced chemical equation
Charge Table
–1 Cha rg e –2 Cha rg e –3 Cha rg e
Fo rmula Fo rmula Fo rmula
Na me o f Io n Na me o f io n Na me o f io n
– 2– 3–
Bromide ion Br Oxide ion O Nitride ion N
Chloride ion Cl– Sulp hide ion S 2– Phosp hide ion P 3–
– 3–
Fluoride ion F Boride ion B
–
Iodide ion I
Hydrogen carbonate
– 2– 3–
or (bisulp hate ion) HCO 3 Carbonate ion CO 3 Phosp hate ion PO 4
Hydrogen sulp hate
– 2– 3–
or (bisulp hate ion) HSO 4 Manganate ion MnO 4 Arsenate ion AsO 4
– 2– 3–
Hydroxide ion OH Thiosulp hate ion S 2O 3 Arsenite ion AsO 3
– 2–
Nitrate ion NO 3 Silicate ion SiO 3
– 2– 3–
Chlorate ion ClO 3 Sulp hate ion SO 4 Phosp hite ion PO 3
– 2– 3–
Nitrite ion NO 2 Sulp hite ion SO 3 Borate ion BO 3
– 2– 3–
Permanganate ion MnO 4 Chromate ion CrO 4 Ferricyanide ion [Fe(CN)6 ]
– 2–
Acetate ion CH 3 COO Dichromate ion Cr 2 O 7
Hydrogen
– 2–
Cyanide ion CN Phosp hate ion HPO 4
– 2–
Hyp op hosp hite ion H 2 PO 2 Oxalate ion C2 O 4 –4 Cha rg e
Meta aluminate ion AlO 2
–
Carbide ion C4–
Ferrocyanide
4–
+ 1 Cha rg e ion [Fe(CN)6 ]
+
Ammonium ion NH 4
 One which contains an equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.
< Balancing chemical equations :–
The simple equations are balanced by "hit and trial method". Which is done in following steps.
 Step (i) – Count the no. of atoms of various elements on both sides of the equation
Example – Fe + H2O  Fe3O4 + H2
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Ele ment No . o f a to ms in No . o f a to ms in pro duc ts
re a c ta nts (LHS ) (RHS )
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4
 Step (ii) – Start balancing with the compound which contains maximum number of atoms. It may be a reactant or product.
In that compound select the element which has maximum number of atoms.
According to this rule Fe3O4 has maximum number of atoms & oxygen has 4 atoms so it is selected.
S.No. Ato ms o f In rea cta nts In pro ducts
o xyg en
1 Initia l 1 4
2 To ba la nce 1 ×4 4
So the partly balanced equation is

Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + H2
 Step (iii) – Fe and H are not balanced in the above reaction so the above reaction repeat the above process for
both i.e.
S.No. Ato ms o f In rea cta nts In pro ducts
Hydro g en
1 Initia l 8 2
2 To ba la nce 8 2× 4
Now the equation becomes as

Fe + 4H 2 O  Fe 3 O 4 + 4H 2
 Step (iv) – Balance the Iron atoms similarly.
S.No. Ato ms o f Iro n In rea cta nts In pro ducts
1 Initia l 1 3
2 To ba la nce 1 ×3 3
Now the equation is

3Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + 4H2
 Step (v) – Finally check the correctness of the balanced equation by counting the number of atoms on both sides
of the equation.
Element No . o f a to ms in No . o f a to ms in pro ducts
rea cta nts (LHS ) (RHS )
Fe 3 3
H 8 8
O 4 4
 Step (vi) – To make chemical equation more informative physical states of the reactants and products are
mentioned as for solid (s), liquid (), gas (g) and for aqueous solution of reactant or product (aq) is written.
Now the equation becomes as
3Fe(s) + 4H 2 O(g)  Fe 3O 4(s) + 4H 2 (g)
Symbol (g) with water is written to show that water is used in the form of steam in this equation.
If a gas is evolved in a reaction it can be shown by the symbol () after the formula i.e. arrow pointing upwards e.g.
2Na(s) + 2H2O() 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g) or H2()
The symbol () or ppt is be written for precipitate.
NaCl + AgNO3  NaNO3 + AgCl () or ppt.
Reversible reaction is represented by (  ) symbol and irreversible reaction by () symbol.
The heat evolved in chemical reaction is written on the right side by putting positive (+) sign and heat absorbed
in the chemical reaction is written on the right hand side by putting negative (–) sign.
N2 + 3H2  2NH3 + 22400 calorie (Exothermic reaction)
N2 + O2  2NO – 43200 calorie (Endothermic reaction)
Some times the reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure, catalyst etc. are written above or below the
arrow in the equaton e.g.
200 atmosphere
N2 + 3H2   2NH3 + 22400 calorie heat
pressure
450°C (Fe-Mo)
< Exothermic reaction :– The reaction in which heat is liberated (or given out) is called an exothermic reaction
Ex – C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + Heat (393 kJ/mol)
< Endothermic reaction :– The reaction in which heat is absorbed (or taken in ) is called an endothermic
reaction
 Ex – C(s) + 2S(g)  CS2(g) – Heat (92 kJ/mol)
The reaction with + Heat term on the product side are called exothermic reaction, while those with –Heat term
on the product side are called endothermic reactions.
During respiration, the digested food gets oxidised and the energy is released. That is why, it is considered as an
exothermic reaction.
< Balancing of a chemical equation is necessary because no matter (hence, no atom) is lost or gained during a chemical
reaction.
< Types of chemical reactions :– Chemical reaction occurs as a result of breaking and making of bonds resulting in
redistribution of atoms among various reacting species in different ways. Accordingly the reactions are classified in
different types. They are –
(1) Combination reaction or synthesis reaction
(2) Decomposition reaction/Analysis reaction
(3) Displacement reaction
(4) Double displacement reaction/Methasis reaction
(5) Oxidation and Reduction reaction.
(1) Combination reaction :– The reaction in which two or more substances
combine to form a single new substance are called combination or synthesis
reaction.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
< Combination reactions are of three common types :–
(i) Combination of two elements to form a
Compound eg.
Light
(a) H2(g) + Cl2(g)  2HCl(g)
(b) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
(ii) Combination of an element and a compound to form a new compound.
(a) 2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g)
(iii) Combination of two compounds to form a new compound :–

(a) NH3(g) + HCl(g)  NH4Cl(g)
(2) Decomposition reaction :– The reaction in which a single compound
breaks up into two or more simpler substances are known as
decomposition reaction. The decomposition reaction generally takes
place when energy in some forms such as heat, electricity or light is
supplied to the reactants.
(a) Decomposition reactions by heat (Thermal decomposition)

Heat
(i) CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(Lime stone) (Quick lime)
(iii) 2FeSO4(s) Heat

 Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3g)
(Ferrous sulphate) (ferric oxide)
(iv) 2Pb(NO3)2(s)  2PbO + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(Lead nitrate) (Lead oxide) (Nitrogen dioxide)
(b) Decomoposition by electricity (Electrical decomposition or Electrolysis)
(i) 2H2O() E

lectric current
 2H2(g) + O2(g)
(c) Decomposition by sunlight (Photochemical decomposition)
(i) 2 AgCl(s) Sunlight

 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
(silver chloride) (Silver) (chlorine) Sunlight
(white) (Grey in colour)
Silver Chloride
(ii) 2AgBr(s) Sunlight
 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
(silver bromide) (Silver) (Bromine) Watch
glass
The decomposition of a compound with light is called photolysis.
Photochemical decomposition
Note :- All the decomposition reaction requires energy i.e. these reactions of silver chloride to grey silver
are Endothermic reactions. These reactions are used in extractions of metal
metals.
Decomposition reaction is called opposite of combination

reaction. This can be supported by the following reactions:
electric spark
combination reaction 2H2(g) + O2(g)   2H2O(l)
hydrogen oxygen water
electrolysis
Decomposition reaction : 2H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)
water hydrogen oxygen
Activity Series of Hydrogen and Common Metals
Potassium K Most Reactive
Sodium Na
DECREAS ING REACTIVITY
Barium Ba
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au Least Reactive
(3) Displacement reactions :– The chemical reaction in which one element takes the place of another element
in a compound, are called displacement reactions e.g. –
(i) Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate)
(ii) Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate)
Iron, zinc and lead are more reactive elements than so they displace copper from its compounds.
(iii) 2KBr + Cl2  2KCl + Br 2

(potassium bromide) (potassium chloride) (Bromine)
(iv) Copper displaces silver from silver nitrate.

2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
(silver nitrate) (copper) (copper nitrate) (silver)
(4) Double displacement reactions :– The reactions in which two compounds react to form two different compounds by
mutual exchange of ions, are called double displacement reactions. These reactions are also called as Metathesis
reaction.
< Two common types of double displacement reactions are –
(A) Precipitation reaction :– Any reaction that produces a precipitate, (the

insoluble substance formed), is called precipitation reaction e.g. –
(i) Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  BaSO4(s) () + 2NaCl(aq)
(Sodium sulphate) (Barium chloride) (Barium sulphate) (Sodium chloride)
(B) Neutralisation reaction :– When an acid reacts with base to form salt and water by exchange of ions e.g.–
(i) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O()
(Base) (Acid) (Salt) (Water)
(5) Oxidation and Reduction reactions or Redox reaction :–
< Oxidation :–
Heat
(i) The addition of oxygen to an element or compound. (a) 2Cu + O2  2CuO
–2H
(ii) Removal of hydrogen from a compound is known as oxidation. 2HCl   Cl2
< Reduction :–
(i) The addition of hydrogen to an element or compound H2 + O2  2H2O
Heat
(ii) Removal of oxygen from a compound. CuO + H2  Cu + H2O
< Oxidising agent :– The substance which gives oxygen or removes hydrogen for oxidation is called oxidising agent and
the substance which gains oxygen during reaction is said to be oxidised.
< Reducing agent :– The substance which gives hydrogen or removes oxygen for reduction is called reducing agent. The
substance which gains, hydrogen during reaction is said to be reduced.
Those reactions in which oxidation and reduction (both) occurs simultaneously are called redox reactions.
In the name Redox the term 'red' stands for reduction and 'ox' stands for oxidation.
Removal of H2 i.e. oxidation
SO2 + 2H2 S 2H2O + 3S
Example
Removal of oxygen i.e. reduction
 SO2 is reduced to sulphur, so it is oxidising agent.

 H2S is oxidised to sulphur, so it is reducing agent.
It should be noted that substance which undergoes oxidation acts as reducing agent where as the substance undergoes
reduction act as oxidising agent.
There is an another concept of oxidation and reduction in terms of metals and nonmetals. This is as follows –
(i) The addition of nonmetallic element (or removal of metallic element) is called oxidation.
(ii) The addiition of metallic element (or removal of nonmetallic element) is called reduction.
ELECTRONIC CONCEPT FOR OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
< Oxidation – The loss of an electron by atoms or ions is called oxidation.
Atom  Cation + electrons
A An+ + ne–
Atom 'A' loses n electrons to become a positively changed ion An+. It is called cation
< Reduction :– The gain of an electron by an atom or ion is called reduction. B + ne–  Bn–
The atom B gains n' electrons to become negatively charged ion Bn–, it is called anion.
Oxidation and reduction reactions occurs simultaneously and are called as redox reactions. Only oxidation or only
reduction is called half reaction. i.e.
A An+ + ne– – Oxidation
B + ne– Bn– – Reduction
A + B A+B– AB Redox
e.g. Na + Cl NaCl
In this process sodium loses one electron and oxidised to Na+, chlorine gains this electron and is reduced to Cl–.
Na  Na+ + e– (loss of an electron is oxidation )
Cl + e– Cl– (Gain of an electron is reduction)
Loss of an electron i.e. oxidation
+ –
Na + Cl Na Cl NaCl
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7 2, 8 2, 8, 8
Gain of an electron i.e. reduction
< Effects of oxidation reactions in everyday life :– Oxidation has damaging effect on metals as well as on food. The
damaging effect of oxidation on metals is studied as corrosion and that on food is studied as rancidity. Thus there are
two common effects of oxidation reactions are as
(i) Corrosion of metals (ii) Rancidity of food
(i) Corrosion of metals :– Corrosion is the process of deterioration of metals as a result of its reaction with air, moisture
and acids. (Present in environment) surrounding it.
The corrosion causes damage to buildings, bridges, ships and many other articles especially made of iron.
Rust : Iron corrode readily when exposed to moisture and gets covered with a brown feaky substance called rust. It is
called rusting of iron, Rust is a hydrated Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3 · 2H2O.
Rusting of iron takes place under the following conditions –
(a) Presence of air (or oxygen)
(b) Presence of water (or moisture) Oil
It has been observed that Iron nail Iron nail

(a) Presence of impurities in the metal speed Dry water Iron nail
up the rusting process. Pure iron does Tap water
Anhydrous Boiled Rust
not rust. calcium chloride (a) (b) water (c)
(b) Presence of electrolytes in water also speeds up the process of rusting
(c) The position of the metal in the electrochemical series determines the extent of corrosion. More the reactivity of the
metal, there will be more possibility of the metal getting corroded. Other examples of corrosion are –
(i) Coppper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and slowly loses its shiny brown surface and acquires
a green coating of basic copper carbonate.
(ii) Silver articles become black after sometime when exposed to air because it reacts with sulphur to form a
coating of silver sulphide.
(iii) Lead or stainless steel lose their lusture due to corrosion.
Unreactive metals such as gold, platinum, palladium, titanium etc. do not corrode.
< Rancidity :– Fresh foods containing fats and oils smell and taste pleasant but when it remains exposed in air for a long
time it's smell and taste changes to unpleasant. It is said that the food has become rancid.
OR
It is due to the oxidation of fats and oils, butter, ghee, boiled rice etc, after prolonged exposure to air i.e. The condition
produced by the aerial oxidation of fats and oils in foods marked by unpleasant smell and taste is called rancidity.
< Prevention of rancidity :–
(i) Rancidity can be prevented by adding antioxidants to foods containing fats and oils. Antioxidants are reducing
agents so when they are added to food it do not get oxidised easily and hence do not turn rancid. The two common
anti oxidants are –
(a) BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole)
(b) BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene)
Vitamin-E and vitamin-C (ascorbic acid) are the two antioxidants occuring in natural fats.
(ii) Rancidity can be prevented by packaging fat and oil containing foods in nitrogen gas.
(iii) It can be retarted by keeping food in refrigerator.
(iv) It can also be retarded by storing food in air tight containers.
(v) It can be retarded by storing foods away from light.
EXERCISE – 1 (COMPETITIVE QUESTIONS)
(A) OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is not a decomposition reacion?
(A) CaCO3   CaO + CO2 (B) 2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
(C) Digestion of food in the body (D) H2 + Cl2   2HCl
2. Which of the following represent a double displacement reaction?
(A) 2H 2 + O 2  2H 2 O (B) 2Mg + O2  2MgO
(C) AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl  + NaNO3 (D) H2 + Cl2   2HCl
3. Which of the following is a displacement reaction?
(A) CaCO3   CaO + CO2 (B) CaO + 2HCl  CaCl 2 + H 2 O
(C) Fe + CuSO 4  FeSO 4 + Cu (D) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H 2 O
4. The reaction H 2 + Cl 2  2HCl is a –
(A) Decomposition reaction (B) Combination reaction
(C) Double displacement reaction (D) Displacement reaction
5. Which of the following is a decomposition reaction?
(A) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2 O (B) NH4CNO  H2NCONH2
(C) 2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2 (D) H2 + I2  2HI
6. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
(A) In oxidation, oxygen in added to a substance.
(B) In reduction, Hydrogen is added to a substance.
(C) Oxidizing agent in oxidized.
(D) Reducing agent is oxidized.
7. Which of the following is a combustion reaction –
(A) Boiling of water (B) Melting of wax (C) Burning of petrol (D) None of these
8. Which of the following is a redox reaction?
(A) CaCO3   CaO + CO2 (B) H2 + Cl2  2HCl
(C) CaO + 2HCl   CaCl 2 + H 2 O (D) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H 2 O
9. Which statement is correct about the following reaction?
ZnO + CO  Zn + CO 2
(A) ZnO is being oxidized (B) CO is being reduced
(C) CO2 is being oxidized (D) ZnO is being reduced
10. The reaction C + O 2  CO 2 + Heat is a –
(A) Combination reaction (B) Oxidation reaction
(C) Exothermic reaction (D) All of the above
11. Conversion of CaCO 3 in to CaO as per following reaction is an example of –
CaCO 3  CaO + CO 2
(A) Decomposition reaction (B) Reduction reaction
(C) Oxidation reaction (D) None of these
12. Fe2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Fe This reaction is an example of –
(A) Combination reaction (B) Double displacement reaction
(C) Decomposition reaction (D) Displacement reaction
13. In reaction SO2 + 2H2S  2H2O + 3S the reducing agent is –
(A) SO2 (B) H2S (C) H2O (D) S
14. Which of the following reaction is metathesis reaction?
(A) FeCl3 + 3NaOH Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl (B) Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
(C) 2CO + O2 2CO2 (D) N2 + O2 2NO
15. What happens when dil hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings?
(A) Hydrogen gas and Iron chloride are produced.
(B) Chlorine gas and Iron hydroxide are produced.
(C) NO reaction takes place
(D) Iron salt and water are produced.
16. When Iron nails are added to an aquous solution of copper sulphate, a chemical change occurs, which of the following
is not true about this reaction?
(A) Blue colour of the solution fades. (B) Iron nails becomes brownish in colour.
(C) It is a displacement reaction. (D) Iron nails dissolves completly.
(B) FILL IN THE BLANKS

Heat
1. The reaction CaCO 3    CaO + CO 2 is a ........... reaction.
2. The reaction in which oxygen in added to the substance is called ............. reaction
3. Reaction in which hydrogen is added to a substance is called ............. reaction.
4. The process of loss of an electron in known as ............. and the process of gain of an electron is known
as .............
5. The species undergoing oxidation acts as a ............. agent.
6. The reducing agent undergoes ............. of electrons.
7. Formation of Nitric oxide from nitrogen and oxygen is a ............. reaction.
8. The potato chips manufacturers uses ............. gas to flush the chips bags to prevent the chips getting oxidised.
9. Reaction in which energy is absorbed is known as ............. reaction.
10. The reaction in which heat is given out along with products is known as ............. reaction.
11. Digestion of food in our body is an example of ............. reaction.
CHEMICAL REACTION & EQUATION ANSWER KEY EXERCISE-1
 Ob jective typ e q uestio ns

1. D 2. C 3. C 4. B 5. C 6. C 7. C 8. B 9. D
10. D
11. A 12. D 13. B 14. A 15. A 16. D
 Fill in the blanks

1. Decomposition 2. Oxidation 3. Reduction 4. Oxidation, reduction
5. Reducing 6. loss 7. combination 8. Nitrogen
9. Endothermic 10. Exothermic 11. Combustion
EXERCISE – 2
EXERCISE – 2
(C) VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Is it possible to have combustion without oxygen?
2. Can a double displacement reaction be a redox reaction?
3. What happens when a strip of zinc is dipped in a copper sulphate solution?
4. Is copper more reactive than iron? Give a reaction in support of your answer –
5. In which type of reaction does an exchange of partner takes place?
6. (Based on activities)
Why a dilute acid is added to water during electrolysis of water?
7. Name the product obtained on cathode during electrolysis of water
8. Is the volume of gases produced during electrolysis of water is same? If not than what is the ratio in between
them?
9. What will happen if silver bromide is kept for some time in sunlight?
10. Write names of three metals which do not corrode?
11. Name two antioxidants which are usually added to fat and oil containing foods to prevent rancidity.
(D) MATCH THE FOLLOWING

1. Column-A Column-B
Types of chemical reaction Chemical equation
(A) Combination reactoin (i) Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
Electricity
(B) Oxidation & reduction reaction (ii) 2H 2 O   2H 2 + O 2
(C) Decomposition reaction (iii) CaO + CO2  CaCO3
(D) Displacement reaction (iv) H2 + Cl2  2HCl
(E) Double displacement reaction (v) BaCl2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4  + NaCl
(E) SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS :–

1. What do you mean by a precipitation reaction?
2. Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?
3. Write a balanced chemical equation with symbols for the following reactions –
(i) Solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react to give insoluble barium sulphate and
the solution of sodium chloride.
(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in water) to produce sodium
chloride solution and water.
4. Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions.
(i) Hydrogen + chlorine  Hydrogen chloride.
(ii) Barium chloride + Aluminium Sulphate  Barium sulphate + Aluminium chloride.
(iii) Sodium + water  Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen.
5. How can you say that respiration is an exothermic process?
Name two biochemical reaction which are exothermic.
6. Why blue colour of copper sulphate solution becomes faded when iron fillings are added to it?
7. What happens when copper turnings are added to silver nitrate solution?
8. Why the solution of silver nitrate becomes blue in colour after some time when copper turnings are added
to it?
9. A solution of a substance 'X' is used for white washing –
(i) Name the substance 'X' and write the formula.
(ii) Write the reaction of the above substance 'X' with water.
10. Why is the amount of gas double in one of the test tube during the electrolytic decomposition of water? Name
the gas?
(F) LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

11. When a green iron salt is heated strongly, its colour finally changes to black and odour of burning sulphur is given
out.
(i) Name the iron salt
(ii) Name the type of reaction that takes place during the heating of iron salt.
(iii) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved.
12. Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied by heat, light and electricity.
13. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions? Write equations for these reactions.
14. Classify each of the following reactions as combination, decomposition, displacement or double displacement reaction.
(i) H2 + Cl2 2HCl

Heat
(ii) 2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
(iii) Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
Blue Colour less
(iv) 2Pb(NO3)2 Heat

 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(v) NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
(vi) BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2HCl
(vii) CaO + CO2 CaCO3

(viii) CaCO3  CaO + CO2
(ix) 2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2
Electricty
(x) 2H2O  2H2 + O2
CHEMICAL REACTION & EQUATION ANSWER KEY EXERCISE-2
 Very sho rt answer type

1. No 2. No 3. Blue colour of solution fade up.
4. No, because iron is more reactive metal than copper.
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
5. Double displacement reaction. 6. To increase the ionization of water.
7. Hydrogen gas 8. No, H2 : O2 (2 : 1)
9. Photochemical reaction takes place.
2AgBr 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)

10. Silver, Gold, Platinum.
11. (a) BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole)
(b) BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene)
 Ma tch the f ollowing
(A) (iii), (iv) ; (B) (ii). (iv) ; (C)  (ii) ; (D) (i) ; (E) (v)
Long Answer
14. (i) Combination reaction (ii) Decomposition reaction (iii) Displacement reaction
(iv) Decomposition reaction] (v) In double displacement reaction  Neutralization reaction
(vi) Double displacement reaction (vii) Combination reaction (viii) Decomposition reaction
(ix) Displacement reaction (x) Decomposition reaction
ACIDS, BASES & SALTS IIT-JEE/Medical/Boards
ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

INTRODUCTION –
A wide variety of materials consists essentially of elements and compounds having different characteristics exist
around us. Some of them are sour, some are bitter, while some are salty in taste.
For Example – Sour and bitter tastes of food are due to acids and bases, respectively, present in them.
Acids react with bases to produce salt whose properties are different from acid and base.
ACIDS –
The term "acid" is derived from the latin word "acidus" meaning sour to taste.
Example – Sour taste of lemon, unripened grapes, Vinegar, tomatoes etc.
According to Arrhenius theory :
"An acid is a substance which dissolved in water, it ionizes and releases hydrogen ions [H+(aq.)] in solution".
HCl(aq.)  H+ (aq.) + Cl–(aq.)
Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen ion Chloride ion
or HCl(g) + H2O ()  H3O(aq.) + Cl–(aq.)
Note :- Hydrogen ion do not exist as H+ ions in solution, they attach themselves to the polar water molecules to form
hydronium ions or hydroxonium ions, (H3O or H+(aq.))
H+ + H2O  H3O+
Hydrogen ion Water Hydronium ion
H2SO4(aq.)  2H+ (aq.) + SO2–
4 (aq.)
Sulphuric acid Hydrogen ion Sulphate ion
HNO3(aq.)  H+ (aq.) + NO3–(aq.)
Nitric acid Hydrogen ion Nitrate ion
CLASSIFICATION OFACIDS –
(I) On the basis of their source acids are of two type –
(i) Mineral acids ; (ii) Organic acids
(i) Mineral Acids (Inorganic acids) :-
The acids which are usually obtained from minerals are known as inorganic acids.
Name Chemical Formula Where found or used

Hydrochloric acid HCl In purification of common salt, in textile industry
as bleaching agent, to make aqua regia.
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Commonly used in car batteries, in the manufacture
of fertilizers (Ammonium phosphate, Super phosphate
detergents etc, in paints, plastics, drugs)
manufacture of artificial silk, in petroleum refining.
Nitric acid HNO3 Used in the manufacture of explosives (TNT,
Nitroglycerine) and fertilizers (Ammonium
nitrate, Calcium nitrate, Purification of Au, Ag.
Carbonic acid H2CO3 In soft drinks and lends fizz, In stomach as
gastric juice, used in tanning industry
Phosphoric acid H 3 PO 4 Used in antirust paints and in fertilizers
Note : Aqua regia is a mixture of (3 part HCl & 1 part HNO 3) which dissolves even noble metals
like Au, Pt.
(ii) Organic Acids :- The acids which are usually obtained from plants and animals are known as organic acids.
Name Where found or used
Formic acid (HCOOH) Found in the stings of ants and bees, used
in tanning leather, in medicines for treating gout.
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Found in vinegar, used as solvent in the
manufacture of dyes and perfumes.
Lactic acid Responsible for souring of milk in curd
Benzoic acid Used as a food preservative
Citric acid Present in lemon, orange and citrus fruits
Tartaric acid Present in tamarind.
(II) On the Basis of their Basicity :-

"The basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms present in a molecule that can be produced
by the complete ionisation of one molecule of that acid in aqueous solution."
or
"Basicity of an acid is determined by number of hydronium ions (H3O+/H+(aq)) produced per molecule of an acid
on ionisation."
(i) Manobasic Acids :- The acid on complete ionisation produce one hydronium ion in aqueous solution.
Example : Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) Hydroiodic acid (HI)
Nitric acid (HNO3) Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Formic acid (HCOOH)
HCl + H2O  H O
 + Cl– (Chloride ion)
3
Hydronium ion
CH3COOH + H2O  H O
 + CH3COO–
3
Hydronium ion Acetate ion
HNO3 + H2O  H O
 + NO3–
3
Hydronium ion Nitrate ion
(ii) Dibasic Acid :- The acid on complete ionisation produces two hydronium ions in aqueous solution.
Example : Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Oxalic acid (COOH)2
 H O
H2SO4 + H2O  + HSO4– (Step – I) Bisulphate ion
3
 H O
HSO4– + H2O  + SO42– (Step – II) Sulphate ion
3
(iii) Tribasic Acid :- The acid on complete ionisation produces three hydronium ions in aqueous solution.
Example :  3H O
H3PO4 + 3H2O  + PO4–3
3
Hydronium ion Phosphate ion
(III) Classification on the basis of their strength :-
(i) Strong Acid :-The acid which undergoes complete ionisation in aqueous solution are known as strong acids.

Example : HCl + Water  H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) 

H2SO4 + Water  2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)  Complete ionised

HNO3 + Water  H+(aq) + NO3– (aq) 

(ii) Weak Acid :- The acid which undergoes partial or incomplete ionisation in aqueous solution are known as weak
acids.
CH3COOH + Water CH3COO– (aq) + H+ (aq)
Acetic acid Acetate ion
Example : Formic acid (HCOOH), Oxalic acid (COOH)2 , Carbonic acid (H2CO3), phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
(IV) Classification on the basis of concentration of the Acid :-
(i) Concentrated Acid :- The acids which contains very small amount of water is called a concentrated acid.
(ii) Dilute Acid :- The acids which contains more amount of water is called a dilute acid.
D "Strength of an acid is not depend upon the concentration of an acid"
Strength of an Acid  Concentration of hydronium ion.
BASES – Substances with bitter taste and give a soapy touch are known as bases but many bases have corrosive nature. So
bases are defined as "
 According to Arrhenius :
those substances which give hydroxide or hydroxyl ion (OH–) in their aqueous solution" are called bases.
NaOH(aq.)  Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
KOH(aq.)  K+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Example – Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Zinc oxide (ZnO), Copper oxide (CuO), Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], Aluminium
hydroxide [Al(OH)3].
 The compounds which are either metallic oxides or metallic hydroxides. Which combines with acids to form salts and
water only.
CuO + 2HCl  CuCl2 + H2O
Base Acid Salt Water
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4  MgSO4 + 2H2O
alkalis – Bases which completely dissolves in water are called alkalis.
Examples – KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2
D All the alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis.
Examples – [Fe(OH)3] ferric hydroxide and cupric hydroxide [Cu(OH)2] are base, but not an alkali.
CLASSIFICATION OF BASES –
(I) Classification on the basis of their strength :-
(i) Strong alkalis or bases :-
The alkalis or bases which undergo almost complete ionisation in aqueous solution are known as strong
alkalis or bases.
Examples –
NaOH(aq.)  Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) 

Sodium hydroxide 

KOH(aq.)  K+(aq) + OH–(aq)  Complete ionisation

Potassium hydroxide 

Ba(OH)2(aq.)  Ba+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

Barrium hydroxide 
(ii) Weak alkalis or bases :- The alkalis or bases which undergo only partial ionisation in aqueous solution
are known as weak alkalis or Bases.
Example –

 
Ca(OH)2(aq.)  Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq.) 

Calcium hydroxide  Partial Ionisation

 
Mg(OH)2(aq.)  Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq.) 
Magnesium hydroxide
(II) Classification on the basis of their concentration –
(i) Concentrated Base or Alkali – The bases or alkalis which contain very small amount of water is called
a concentrated bases or alkalis.
(ii) Dilute Acid – The bases or alkali which contain more amount of water is called a dilute bases or alkalis.
(III) Classification on the basis of their acidity –
Acidity of a base is determined by the number of hydroxyl (OH–) ions produced by per molecule of a Base or
Alkali on complete dissociation in water "or"
The "number of hydrogen ions of an acid with which a molecule of that alkali or base react to produce salt and
water is known as acidity of an alkali or Base".
(i) Mono acidic Bases or Alkali –The base or alkali on complete ionisation produce one hydroxyl (OH–) ion
in aqueous solution.
Example – NaOH(aq.)  Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Hydroxyl ion
KOH(aq.)  K+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Hydroxyl ion
(ii) Diacidic Bases (or alkalis) – The base or alkali on complete ionisation produce two hydroxyl ion (OH–) in
aqueous solution
Example – (A) Diacidic Bases of –
Ca(OH)2(aq.)  Ca2+(aq.) + 2OH–(aq.)
Mg(OH)2(aq.)  Mg2+(aq.) + 2OH–(aq.)
(B) Diacidic Bases –
Ferrous hydroxide [Fe(OH)2] and copper hydroxide [Cu(OH)2]
Fe(OH)2(aq.)  Fe2+ + 2OH–(aq.)
Fe+2(OH)2– + 2H+Cl–(aq.)  FeCl2 + 2H2O
(iii) Tri Acidic Bases - The base or alkali on complete ionisation produce three hydroxyl ion (OH)– in aqueous
solution.
Example – Aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH)3], Ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3]
Al(OH)3(aq.)  Al3+(aq.) + 3OH–(aq.)
Al3+(OH)3– + 3HCl(aq.)  AlCl3 + 3H2O
PROPERTIES OF ACID AND BASES –
(1) Physical properties of Acid –
(I) Taste – Acids have sour test.
(II) Physical state – Some acid are solids while other are liquid at room temperature.
Example – Solid – Oxalic acid (COOH)2, Boric acid (H3BO3)
Liquid – Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Formic acid (HCOOH),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Volatile liquid – Carbonic acid (H2CO3), Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Nitric acid (HNO3)
(III) Effect of Indicator – They affect the indicators as given below
Indicator Change in acidic medium
Blue litmus paper Blue to Red
Methyl orange Orange to pink
Phenolphthalein Remains colourless
Turmeric paper Remains colourless
D Carbonic acid (H2CO3) turns blue litmus to pink. Because this is weak mineral acid.
D Litmus – A water soluble purple dye, extracted from certain lichens, a plant belonging to the
division thallophyta and is commonly used as an indicator. The pH range for litmus is 4.5 –
8.3 at room temperature.
Activity : Take small amount of finely chopped onions along with some strips of clean cloth in a plastic bag. Tie up the
bag tigthtly and leave it as such in a refrigerator for a night. In the morning, take two of these strips and check their odour.
Now put a few drops of dilute HCl solution on one strip and a few drops of dilute NaOH solution on the other. Rinse both
the cloth strips with water and again check their odour and note down in your note book. You will see that onion will give
different odour in HCl and NaOH.
You can repeat the activity by taking dilute vanilla essence. Smell dilute vanilla essence. Now take some dilute HCl
solution in one test tube and dilute NaOH solution in another test tube add a few drops of dilute vanilla essence to both
the test tubes and shake well. Check the odour once again. You will feel different smells in both the test tubes.
Lastly, you can repeat the activity by taking clove oil in place of vanilla essence.
From this activity, we conclude that vanilla, onion or clove oil can also be used as olfactory indicators since these
change their odour in acidic and basic media.
(IV) Effect on Skin – All strong mineral acids have a corrosive action on skin and cause painful burns.
Example – Concentrated sulphuric acid stains the skin black.
Concentrated nitric acid & hydrochloric acid stains the skin yellow.
(V) Electrical Conductivity – All mineral acids are good conductors of electricity and conduct electricity
in their aqueous solution. On electrolysis, they decompose liberating hydrogen at cathode.
(2) Chemical Properties of Acids –
(I) Reaction with metals –
Dilute acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid (H2SO4) react with certain active metals to
evolve hydrogen gas and form their metallic salt
Zn(s) + H2SO4  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
dilute
2Na(s) + 2HCl  2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
dilute
Mg(s) + H2SO4  MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
dilute
Fe(s) + H2SO4  FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
dilute
Activity : To study the reaction of acids, with metals.

 Materials required : – Granulated zinc, Dilute sulphuric acid, Boiling tube, Matchbox
 Procedure : – Take about 5 ml of dilute sulphuric acid in a boiling tube. Add a few piece of zinc metal into
it and place an inverted boiling tube over its mouth . Your can see the bubbles of hydrogen gas coming out
of the mixture in the lower tube. After a few minutes, remove the upper boiling tube (Keeping its mouth downwards)
near to its mouth. What do you see ? The gas in the upper boiling tube burns with a blue flame producing popping
sound. Repeat similar experiment with different acids and a few other metals. Write down your observations.
 Observation : Colourless, odourless gas is evolved. It burns explosively with a 'pop' sound.
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (dil)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
 Conclusion : Reactive metals react with dilute acid to liberate hydrogen gas.
D Metals which can displace hydrogen from dilute acid are known as active metals.
e.g. – Na, K, Zn, Fe, Ca, Mg etc.
(II) Reaction with metal carbonates and metal Hydrogen Carbonates –
Both metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates) react with dilute acids to evolve CO2 gas and
form salt.
Activity : To study the reaction of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate with dilute acids.
 Materials required : Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), Sodium hydrogencarbonate, Hydrochloric acid (dil.),
Limewater, Boiling tubes, Delivery tube.
 Procedure : Take about 0.5g of sodium carbonate in a boiling tube, and 2-3 mL of freshly prepared limewater in
another test tube. Set a delivery tube as shown in fig. given alongside. Add about 2mL of dilute hydrochloric acid into
the boiling tube containing sodium carbonate. A brisk effervescence is seen in the reaction mixture. Pass the gas
evolved through limewater with the help of a delivery tube. What do your observe ? The limewater turns milky. When
excess of carbon dioxide is passed, the milkyness disappears. Repeat similar experiemnt with sodium hydrogencarbonate
(NaHCO3), and if desired with other acids also.
 Conclusion : All acids decompose carbonates and hydrogencarbonates with the liberation of carbon dioxide gas.
(III) Reaction with metallic oxide –

Metal oxides react with dilute acids to form salt and water.
Activity : To study the reaction of dilute acid with metal oxides (or basic oxides.)
 Materials required : Copper (II) oxide, Dilute hydrochloric acid , Test tube
 Procedure : Take about 0.5g of copper (II) oxide (black in colour) in a test tube. Add dilute hydrochloric
acid dropwise with occasional shaking till copper (II) oxide dissolve. Note the colour of the
solution. I not it bluish-green ? It is the solution of copper (II) chloride.
 Conclusion : Acids react with metal oxides to give the corresponding salt & water.
Na2O (s) + 2HNO3  2NaNO3(aq) + H2O ()
Sodium oxide Dilute Sodium Nitrate
CuO (s) + 2HCl  CuCl2(aq) + H2O ()
Copper (II) oxide Dilute Copper (II) chloride
PbO (s) + 2HNO3  Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O ()
Lead (II) oxide Dilute Lead (II) Nitrate
FeO (s) + 2HCl  FeCl2(aq) + H2O ()
Iron (II) oxide Dilute Iron (II) chloride
(IV) Reaction with metallic sulphites and hydrogen sulphites –

Metallic sulphites and hydrogen sulphites react with dilute acids to liberate sulphur dioxide.
CaSO3 (s) + H2SO4  CaSO4(aq)+ H2O () + SO2 (g)
Calcium sulphite Dilute
NaHSO3 (s) + HCl  NaCl(aq) + H2O () + SO2 (g)
Sodium hydrogen Dilute
sulphite
(V) Reaction with metallic sulphides and hydrogen sulphides –
Metallic sulphides and hydrogen sulphides react with dilute acid to liberate hydrogen sulphide gas.
FeS + H2SO4  FeSO4 (aq) + H2S (g)
Iron (II) sulphide Dilute Iron sulphate
KHS + HCl  KCl (aq) + H2S (g)
Potassium Dilute Potassium chloride
hydrogen sulphide
ZnS + H2SO4  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2S (g)
Zinc sulphide Dilute Zinc sulphate
(VI) Reaction with metal chlorides –
Metal chlorides react with concentrated acids to produce hydrogen

chloride gas. Which give white dense fumes with ammonia.

2NaCl (s) + conc. H2SO4 
 Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(g)
Sodium chloride Sodium sulphate

2KCl (s) + conc. H2SO4 
 K2SO4 (aq) + 2HCl(g)
Reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodiumcarbonate
Potassium chloride Potassium sulphate (washing soda) and testing the gas evolved
(VII) Reaction with metal nitrates –
Metal nitrate react with concentrated acids to produce more volatile nitric acid.

2NaNO3 + conc. H2SO4   Na2SO4 (aq) + 2HNO3
Sodium nitrate Sodium sulphate
(VIII) Reaction of Acid and Base with each other –
All metallic hydroxides (Bases) react with acids to form their metallic salt and water. This reaction is also known
as acid-base neutralisation reaction.
Activity : To study a reaction of an acid say, hydrochloric acid with an alkali or base.
 Materials required : Hydrochloric acid solution, sodium hydroxide solution, phenolphthalein indicator, Boiling
tube, dropper, trough.
 Procedure : Take about 5 mL of dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in a test tube. Add 2
drops of phenolphthalein indicator in it. The solution in the test tube turns pink. Now,
add dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) when the pink colour of the solution just
disappears.
Now, add a drop of sodium hydroxide solution and shake the test tube to mix the solution.
What do you see? The solution turns pink. Add a drop of HCl solution to the solution in the
test tube. The pink colour disappears. Keep repeating the addition of sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid solution one after the other and watch the appearance and disappearance of
pink colour.
 Conclusion : This experiment show that the addition of HCl solution destroys the alkaline nature of NaOH. On
the other hand , the addition of NaOH solution destroys the acidic nature of HCl. That is, both
NaOH and HCl appear to cancel the effect of each other. Such a reaction between an acid and
alkali is called neutralisation.
Physical Properties of Bases –
(I) Taste – They are sharp bitter in taste.
(II) Effect on skin – They give a feeling of soapy touch and all alkali have a mild corrosive action on skin.
(III) Effect on Indicator – They effect the indicators as given below –
Indicator Change in acidic medium
Red Litmus Red to Blue
Methyl orange Orange to yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless to pink
Turmeric paper Yellow to red brown

(4) Chemical Properties of Bases –
(I) Reaction with Metals –
Bases react with some metals to liberate hydrogen gas.
Zn (s) + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2 (g) 
Zinc Dilute Sodium zincate Hydrogen gas
2Al (s) + 2NaOH+2H2O ()  2NaAlO2 + 3H2 (g) 
Dilute Sodium aluminate
(II) Reaction of Bases with Non-metallic oxide –
Base react with non-metallic oxide to form their respective carbonates and water.
2NaOH (aq) + CO2(g)  Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O ()
Sodium hydroxide Carbon dioxide Sodium carbonate water
2KOH (aq) + CO2(g)  K2CO3 (aq) + H2O ()
Potassium hydroxide Potassium carbonate
Some of the alkalis like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are called deliquescenc because they absorbs carbon dioxide from the
air and its strength decreases with time.
(III)
Reaction of Bases with Acids –
They neutralise the acids to form salt and water.
Acid + Base  Salt + Water
(IV) Reaction of Bases with ammonium salt –
Bases react with ammonium salt to evolve ammonia gas.
NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl(g)  NaCl (aq) + H2O () + NH3 (g) 
Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2NH4Cl(g)  CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O () + NH3 (g) 
Calcium hydroxide Calcium chloride
(V) Reaction of Bases with Salt –
Bases react with salt solution to form another base and another salt.
3NaOH (aq) + FeCl3(aq)  Fe(OH)3 (aq) + 3NaCl(aq)
Sodium hydroxide Iron (III) chloride Iron (III) hydroxide
Base–1 Salt–1 Base–2 (Brown ppt.) Salt–2
2NaOH (aq) + ZnSO4(aq)  Zn(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Sodium hydroxide Zinc sulphate Zinc hydroxide Sodium sulphate
(White ppt.)
Uses of Bases or –
S .N o . Base Us e
It is use d in the m a nufa cture of wa shing soa p , p a p e r, p e trol
1 Sodium hydroxide (N a OH )
re fining a nd a s a re a ge nt in the la bora tory.
It is use d in the m a nufa cture of soa p p a p e r (ba thing soa p ) a nd
2 Pota ssium hydroxide (KO H )
a lka line ba tte rie s.
Ca lcium hydroxide (S la ke d lim e ) It is use d in the m a nufa cture of ble a ching p owde r a nd softe ning of
3.
[Ca (O H )2 ] ha rd wa te r.
4 Ma gne sium hydroxide [Mg(OH )2 ] It is use d a s a n a nta cid.
5 Alum inium hydroxide [Al(O H)3 ] It is use d a s a foa m ing a ge nt in fire e xtinguishe rs.
6 Am m onium hydroxide (N H 4 O H ) It is use d in re m oving gre a se sta ins from clothe s
It is use d a s a cle a ning a ge nt for dom e stic p urp ose s a nd a lso for
7 Sodium ca rbona te (Na 2 CO 3 )
re m oving p e rm a ne nt ha rdne ss of wa te r.
Comparis Between Properties of ACIDS & BASES –

Acids Bases
(i) Sour in taste (i) Bitter in taste
(ii) The properties are due to the presence of (ii) The properties are due to the presence of
hydrogen ion (H+) in water solution of an acid hydroxide ion (OH–) in water solution of a
base.
(iii) Turns blue litmus to red (iii) Turns red litmus to blue
(iv) Aqueous solution conducts electricity (iv) Aqueous solution conducts electricity
(v) Reacts with active metals like Na, K, Ca and (v) Does not react with metals except with
Zn to give hydrogen gas. Zn, Al and Sn.
(vi) Acidic properties disappear when react with (vi) Basic properties disappears when react
bases (Neutralization) with acids (Neutralization)
(vii) Reacts with carbonates to give carbon dioxide (vii) Absorbs carbon dioxide to form carbonate.
(viii) Frequently corrosive to skin (viii) Frequently corrosive to skin and slippery in
nature.
(ix) The pH value is less than 7 at 25°C (ix) The pH value is greater than 7 at 25°C.
WHAT DO ALLACIDS AND BASES HAVE IN COMMON ?

A common thing for all the acids is that they produce hydrogen ions [H+ (aq.)] when dissolved in water.
For Example – Acids like HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, CH3COOH etc. show acidic character because they dissociate
in aqueous solution to produce hydrogen ions.
But all the compounds containing hydrogen are not acids such as glucose (C6H12O6) and alcohol (C2H5OH)
also contain hydrogen but they do not show acidic character.
Activity : To find the characteristics common between acids and bases.

 Materials required : Dilute hydrochloric acid, Dilute sulphuric acid,
Dilute solution of sodium hydroxide, Ethanol, Glucose solution & Beaker,
Carbon electrodes , Dry cells, bulb 1.5 V, Key.
 Procedure : Take a beaker and place two carbon electrodes into it.
Connect the electrodes to a battery bulb through a key and a dry cell. Pour
dilute hydrochloric acid into the beaker and press the key. Did the
Acid solution in water
bulb glow ? Perform similar experiment with all the given solutions, and conducts electricity
record your observation
 Observation :
Solution Bulb glows Bulb does not glow Nature of solution
Dil. Hydrochloric acid  × Conducting

Dil Sulphuric acid  × Conducting
Dil. Sodium hydroxide  × Conducting
Ethanol ×  Non- Conducting
Glucose solution ×  Non- Conducting
 Conclusion : The solutions of acids and bases are good conductors of electricity. The solution of glucose
and ehtanol are nonconductor of electricity.
A common thing for all the bases (or ) is that they all produce hydroxide ions (OH–) when dissolved in water.
For Example – NaOH, Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 and NH4OH are all bases because they dissolve in water to produce
hydroxide ion (OH–)
ACIDS OR BASES (ALKALI) IN WATER SOLUTION –
The acidic behaviour of acids due to the presence of hydrogen ions. H+ (aq) ions, in them. The acids produce
hydrogen ions only in the presence of water. So, in the absence of water, a substance will not form hydrogen ions and
hence will not show its acidic behaviour.
Activity : To show that acids furnish H+ (aq) ions only in the presence of water.
 Materials required : Common salt, Conc. sulphuric acid, anhydrous calcium chloride, blue litmus paper, boiling
tube, delivery tube packed with anhydrous calcium chloride.
 Procedure : Take 0.5g of dry common salt in a dry boiling tube.
Add a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid over common salt in
the boiling tube. What do you see ? A colourless, irritating gas is
evolved. Fit a cork carrying a calcium chloride packed delivery tube
into the mouth of the boiling tube.
Bring a dry blue litmus paper near the opening of the calcium
chloride tube. Observe, if there is any change in colour. Colour of the
litmus paper remains unchanged. Now, bring a moistened blue litmus
paper near the mouth of the calcium chloride tube. Do you observe any
change in the colour of litmus paper ? Yes, blue litmus has changed to
Preparation of HCl gas
red.
From the above activity, following conclusion can be drawn :-
 Conclusion : Dry HCl gas on coming in contact with dry blue litmus paper does not produce H+ ions, and hence
the colour of litmus paper does not change. so, we can say that separation of H+ ions form acid takes place only in the
presence of water.
HOW STRONGARE ACID OR BASE SOLUTION –
Acids and bases on dilution with water, decreases the concentration of H+(aq) or OH–(aq) ions in the acidic and basic
solutions respectively.
If we find quantitatively, the amount of H+(aq) / OH–(aq) ions present in a solution, we can judge how sttrong
an acid or a base is ?
We can do this by the help of a universal indicator, which is a mixture of several indicators. The universal
indicator shows different colours at different concentration of hydrogen ions or pH values in solution.
pH SCALE –
S.P.L. sorenson, a Danish Chemist in 1909 introduced the concept of measuring the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H+ (aq)] in a particular solution., The p in pH stands for 'potenz' in German, meaning power. On the pH scale we can
measure pH from "0" (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).
Variation of pH with the change in concentration of H+(aq) and OH (aq) ions

The concentration of H+ (aq) and OH– (aq) ions in pure water is 1 × 10–7 mol litre–1. This means that all aqueous
solutions contain both H+(aq) and OH– (aq) ions. The product of concentration of H+(aq) and OH–(aq) in water is
constant (equal to 1 × 10–14 mol2 litre–2 at 25°C) and is known as ionic product of water (KW).
KW = [H+(aq)] [OH– (aq)] = (1 × 10–7) (1 × 10–7) = 1 × 10–14 mol2 litre–2 at 25°C
 If [H+(aq)] = [OH–(aq)] = 1 × 10–7 mol litre–1, then the solution is neutral.
 if H+(aq) > OH– (aq) (H+ (aq) > 1 × 10–7 mol litre–1), then the solution should be acidic
 and if H+(aq) < OH–(aq) or H+(aq) < 1 × 10–7 mol litre–1, then the solution should be basic or alkaline.
Table – pH Value of Some Common Substances

Solution pH Value Solution pH Value
Conc. Hydrochloric acid 0 Dil. Hydrochloric acid 1.0
Conc. Sodium hydroxide 14.0 Dil. Sodium hydroxide 13.0
Gastric Juice 1.4 Lemon juice 2.5
Vinegar 4.0 Tomato juice 4.1
Saliva (before meals) 7.4 Saliva (after meals) 5.8
Coffee 5.0 Soft drinks 6.0
Blood 7.4 Eggs 7.8
Toothpaste 8.0 Baking Soda Solution 8.5
Washing Soda Solution 9.0 Pure Water 7.0
Importance of pH in everyday life –

(1) Plants and Animals are pH Sensitive –
The pH plays an important role in the survival of animals, including human being. Our body works well with in a narrow
pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. The aquatic animals (Fish) can survive in river water with in a narrow range of pH change.
Example – When the pH of rain water is about 5.6, it is called acid rain. Too much acid rain can lower the pH of river
water to such an extent and make it so acidic that the survival of aquatic animals becomes difficult or kill the aquatic
animals.
Soil pH and Plants –
Most of the plants grow best when the pH of soil is close to 7. If the soil is too acidic or too basic (too alkaline), the
plants grow badly or do not grow at all.
Treatment of Acidic or Basic Soil –
The pH of acidic soil can reach as low as 4 and that of the basic soil can go up to 8.3. Chemicals can be added to soil
to adjust its pH and make it suitable for growing plants. If the soil is too acidic, then it is treated with materials like
quicklime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (Calcium hydroxide) or chalk (Calcium carbonate). All these materials are bases
and hence react with the excess acid present in soil and reduce its acidity. If the soil is too basic (or too alkaline) then
its alkalinity can be reduced by adding decaying organic matter (manure or compost). Which contains acidic materials.
(2) Importance of pH in our digestive system –
As we know our stomach produces gastric juice which contains large amount of hydrochloric acid (pH about 1.4). The
acid so produced does not harm the stomach walls, but kills germs and bacteria which enter in our digestive system
along with food, thus in a way it protects us from diseases and helps in digestion. Sometimes excess of acid is
produced in the stomach due to overeating or eating spicy foods. This stage is called acidity. To get relief from this
pain, we take tablets known as antacids. These contain bases to neutralise the excess acids.
Example – Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia).Mg(OH)2
(3) pH change as the cause of tooth decay –
Generally, the pH in the mouth is more than 7, as the saliva produced in the mouth is basic in nature. However, when
we take food, some food particales remain in the mouth after eating and bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by
degradation of food particles. This acid lowers the pH in the mouth, tooth decay starts when the pH of acid formed in
the mouth falls below 5.5. Therefore to prevent tooth decay, it is advised to clean the mouth and use toothpastes which
are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth. It neutralise the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
(4) Self defence by animals and plants through chemical Warfare –
The sting of the honey bee contains formic acid, this acid causes a lot of irritation and pain. The pain can be reduced
by applying baking soda paste on the affected region as the acid gets neutralised.
In plant kingdom nettle (Bichu Booti) is a herbaceous plant which grows in wild. The nettle leaves have stinging hair.
When a person happens to touch the leaves of a nettle plant accidently, the stining hair of nettle leaves inject
methanoic acid (HCOOH) into the skin of the person causing burning pain. The nettle sting, being acidic can be
neutralised by rubbing baking soda on the skin. Nature provides remedy for the nettle sting in the form of a 'dock' plant,
which often grows besides the nettle plants. The leaves of dock plant contain some basic chemicals which neutralises
methanoic acid.
SALTS –
A substance formed by the partial or complete replacement of H+(aq) ions of an acid by a metal or electropositive ion, is
called a salt.
For Example –
H 2 SO 4 + NaOH  NaHSO 4 + H2O
Sodium hydrogen sulphate
(Partial replacement : only one hydrogen atom is replaced)
H 2 SO 4 + 2NaOH  Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O
Sodium sulphate
(Complete replacement : Both the hydrogen atom are replaced)
A substance formed by neutralization of an acid with a base is called a salt.

Example – HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O
Acid Base Salt Water
A salt is a ionic compound which dissolved in water dissociate to positive ions other than hydrogen ions (H+) and
negative ions other than hydroxyl ions (OH–) are called salts.
Example – NaCl + Water  Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
CuSO4 + Water  Ca2+(aq) + SO42– (aq)
Naming of Salts –
(A)Salt obtained from "Sulphuric acid" are called "Sulphates". e.g. Na2SO4, CuSO4
(B) Salt obtained from "nitric acid" are called "Nitrates" e.g. KNO3, NaNO3
(C) Salt obtained from "hydrochoric acid" are called "Chlorides" e.g. NaCl, CaCl2, KCl
(D) Salt obtained from "phosphoric acid" are called "Phosphates" e.g. Ca3(PO4)2, Na3PO4, Mg3(PO4)2
(E) Salt obtained from "carbonic acid" are called "Carbonates" e.g. Na2CO3, K2CO3, CaCO3.
(F) Salt obtained from acetic acid are called "Acetates" e.g. CH3COONa, (CH3COO)2Ca, CH3(COO)2Pb.
CLASSIFICATION OF SALTS –
The salts may be classified in the following ways –
(1) Normal Salts –
The salts which are obtained by complete replacement of the ionisable hydrogen atoms or hydroxyl ion by a metallic or
an ammonium ion are called normal salts
"OR"
A salt that does not contain any replaceable hydrogen atoms or hydroxyl groups is called a normal salt.
Examples – HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
(Normal salt)
Sodium chloride
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(Normal salt)
Sodium sulphate
Pb(OH)Cl + HCl  PbCl2 + H2O
S o m e n o rm a l s a lts w ith th e ir p a re n t a c id s
S .N o . P a re n t A c id N o rm a l S a lts
1 H ydrochloric a cid (H Cl) N a Cl, KCl, MgCl2 , AlCl3 , ZnCl2 , Ca Cl2 a nd N H 4 Cl
2 N itric a cid (H N O 3 ) N a N O 3 , KN O 3 , Mg(N O 3 )2 , Al(N O 3 )3 , Zn(N O 3 )2 , Ca (N O 3 )2
3 S ulp huric a cid (H 2 S O 4 ) N a 2 S O 4 , K2 S O 4 , MgS O 4 , Al2 (S O 4 )3 , ZnS O 4 , Ca S O 4

4 Ace tic a cid (CH 3 CO O H ) CH 3 CO O N a , CH 3 CO O K, (CH 3 CO O )2 Ca , (CH 3 CO O )2 P b,
5 Ca rbonic a cid (H 2 CO 3 ) N a 2 CO 3 , K 2 CO 3 , MgCO 3 , ZnCO 3 , Ca CO 3 , (N H 4 )2 CO 3
6 P hosp horic a cid (H 3 P O 4 ) N a 3 P O 4 , K3 P O 4 , Mg 3 (P O 4 )2 , Zn 3 (P O 4 )2 , Ca 3 (P O 4 )2
(2) Acidic Salts –
The salts which are obtained by the partial replacement of ionisable hydrogen atoms of a polybasic acid by a metal or an
ammonium ion are called Acid Salts.
H2SO4 + NaOH  NaHSO4 + H2O
Insufficient amount Sodium hydrogen
sulphate (acid salt)
NaHSO4  Na+ + H+ + SO2–4
S o m e a c id s a lts w ith th e ir p a re n t a c id s
S .N o . P a re n t A c id A c id s a lts
1 S ulp huric a cid (H 2 S O 4 ) N a H S O 4 , KH S O 4 , Ca (H S O 4 )2
2 Ca rbonic a cid (H 2 CO 3 ) N a H CO 3 , KH CO 3 , Ca (H CO 3 )2 , Mg(H CO 3 )2
3 S ulp hurous a cid (H 2 S O 3 ) N a H S O 3 , KH S O 3 , Ca (H S O 3 )2 , Mg(H S O 3 )2
4 P hosp horic a cid (H 3 P O 4 ) N a H 2 P O 4 , N a 2 H P O 4 , KH 2 P O 4 , K 2 H P O 4 , Ca (H 2 P O 4 )2 , Ca H P O 4
(3) Basic Salt –

The salt which are formed by partial replacement of hydroxyl (–OH) groups of a polyacidic base by an acid radial are
called basic salts.
Pb(OH)2 + HCl  Pb(OH)Cl + H2O
Lead hydroxide Lead oxychloride
(Basic salt)
(4) Double salt –
The salt which are obtained by the crystallisation of two simple salts, from a mixture of their saturated salt solutions are
known as double salts.
For Example –
(A) Potash alum –
Crystallisation
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3 + 24H2O   K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
Potassium sulphate Aluminium sulphate Potash alum (Double salt)
(B) Mohr's Salt –FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.6H2O
(C) Dolomite – CaCO3.MgCO3
(D) Carnallite – KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
(E) Ferric alum –Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O
(5) Mixed Salt –
The salts containing more than one cations or anions other than H+ or OH– ions are called mixed salts.
For Example –
Sodium Potassium Carbonate – NaKCO3 (contains two cations)
Bleaching powder – CaOCl2 (contains two anions Cl– and OCl–)
or
OCl
Ca
Cl
Disodium potassium phosphate – (Na2KPO4)
Microcosmic salt – NaNH4HPO4
General methods of preparation of soluble salts –
(I) By direct combination of elements – By heating two elements together

2Na + Cl2   2NaCl
Molten Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride
(Metal) (non-metal)
Zn + Cl2  ZnCl2
(metal) (non-metal) Zinc chloride
(II) By the action of dilute mineral acids on active metals –
Zn + dil. H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2(g)
2Al + dil 6HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H2 (g)
2Na + dil. 2HCl  2NaCl + H2 (g)
(III) By Decomposition –
(a) By Decomposition of metal hydrogen carbonates –
NaHCO3(s) + HCl (dil)  NaCl + H2O + CO2(g)
(b) By Decomposition of metal carbonates –
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl (dil)  CuCl2 + H2O + CO2(g)
Copper carbonate
(c) By decomposition of metal chloride –

2NaCl + H2SO4 (conc.) 
20 0  C

 Na2SO4 + 2HCl (g)
Sodium sulphate
(IV) By the process of neutralization –
Acid + Base (alkali)  Salt + water
HNO3 + NaOH  NaNO3 + H2O
Nitric acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium nitrate
(V) By the action of alkalis on metals –
Zn + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2 + H2(g) 
Sodium zincate
General methods of preparation of insoluble salts –
(VI) By direct combination of elements –
When metal powder is heated with sulphur, we get corresponding metal sulphides which are insoluble salts.
Pb + S  PbS
Lead Sulphur Lead sulphide
(2) By double decomposition of two soluble salt –
Soluble salt + Soluble salt  Insoluble salt + Soluble salt
(I) (II) (Precipitate)
NaCl + AgNO3  AgCl () + NaNO3
(Sodium chloride) (Silver nitrate) (Silver chloride) (Sodium nitrate)
BaCl2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 () + 2NaCl

(Barium chloride) (Sodium sulphate) (Barium sulphate) (Sodium chloride)
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4  PbSO4 () + 2NaNO3

(Lead nitrate) (Sodium sulphate) (Lead sulphate) (Sodium nitrate)
FAMILY OF SALT –
The salts having the same positive radical (or cation) or negative radical (or anion) are said to belong to the same family.
For example,
 NaCl (sodium chloride) and Na2SO 4 (sodium sulphate) belong to the family of sodium salts because both
contain the same radical (or cation), that is Na+. These may be called sodium salts.
 Copper sulphate (CuSO 4 ) and sodium sulphate (Na 2SO 4 ) belong to the family of sulphates because both
contain the same acid radical (or anion), that is sulphate (SO42–).
The salts belong to certain families are listed belong :

Sulphate family Sodium family Chloride family
Potassium sulphate (K2SO4) Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) Sodium bromide (NaBr) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) Potassium chloride (KCl)
Copper sulphate (CuSO4)
pH OF SALT :
Activity :
 Collect the following salt samples - sodium chloride, potassium nitrate , aluminium chloride, zinc
sulphate, copper sulphate, sodium acetate, sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate.
 Check their solubility in water.
 Check the action of these solutions on litmus and find the pH using a pH paper.
 Which of the salts are acidic, basic or neutral ?
 Identify the acid or base used to form the salt.
S .No . S a lt
S a lt S o lubility Actio n o n litmus pH Na ture Acid Ba s e
1 Sodium Chloride soluble No action 7 Neutral HCl NaOH
2 Potassium Nitrate soluble No action 7 Neutral HCl KOH
3 Aluminium Chloride soluble Turns red Less than7 Acidic HCl Al(OH)3
4 Zinc Sulp hate soluble Turns re d Less tha n7 Acidic H 2 SO 4 Zn(OH)4
5 Cop p er sulp hate soluble Turns red Less than7 Acidic H 2 SO 4 Cu(OH)2
6 Sodium acetate soluble Turns blue More than7 Basic CH 3 COOH NaOH
7 Sodium Carbonate soluble Turns blue More than7 Basic H 2 CO 3 NaOH
Sodium
8 soluble Turns blue More than7 Basic H 2 CO 3 NaOH
Hydrogencarbonate
SODIUM CHLORIDE (COMMON SALT/ TABLE SALT) –
We know that hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide combine with each other to form sodium chloride (NaCl) which
in common language is also known as common salt. This is the salt which you sprinkle on your salads and use in your
kitchens. Common salt is an ionic compound of sodium and chlorine (Na+Cl–)n.
The main source of common salt (sodium chloride) is the sea water. Sea water contains about 3.5% of soluble salts, the
most common of which is sodium chloride (2.7 to 2.9%). Saline water of inland lakes, such as Sambhar lake in Rajasthan
is also a good source of common salt (sodium chloride) is also found as rock salt. Beds of rock salt were formed when
lakes/Seas dried up in past.
CHEMICALS FROM COMMON SALT –

Common salt is a raw material for chemicals and play an important role for making various materials of daily use. Such as
sodium hydroxide. baking soda, washing soda, bleaching power and many more.
(i) Sodium hydroxide :– Commercially , sodium hydroxide is also called caustic soda because of its corrosive action on
animal and vegetable tissues.
Chlor-alkali process for obtaining sodium hydroxide – When we pass electricity through a solution of sodium chloride,
commonly called brine. It decomposes to form sodium hydroxide according to the following equation:
Electric
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 
Current
 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
On electrolysis, chlorine gas is formed at anode and hydrogen at cathode sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the
cathode. All these products are commercially important. The process of production of sodium hydroxide from sodium
chloride is known as chlor-alkali process because of products formed – chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.
HYDROGEN Pure salt
CHLORINE
Produced Produced
NaOH
at at
cathode anode
Uses Uses Uses

(As fuels, for manufacturing (In water treatment, swimming pools, (In decreasing metals, in the
ammonia for fertilisers) and manufacturing PVC, disinfectants, manufacture of soap and
CFCs, pesticides) detergents, paper making,
and artificial fibres)
Hydrogen and Chlorine Combine Chlorine and Sodium hydroxide

to give Hydrochloric acid combine to give Bleach
Uses Uses
(In cleaning steel, in the preparation (In household bleaches,
of ammonium chloride, medicines) and bleaching fabric)
(ii) Bleaching powder :–

We know that chlorine is produced during the electrolysis of aqueous sodium choride (brine). This chlorine gas is used
for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powdr is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime
[Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2  CaOCl2 + H2O
Slaked lime Bleaching powder
Uses of bleaching powder
(a) For bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper factories and
for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
(b) As an oxidising agent in many chemical industries, and
(c) For disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.
(iii) Baking soda :–
The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogencarbonate or sodium bicarbonate. Baking soda (or
sodium bicarbonate) is represented by the formula NaHCO3. The soda commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty
crispy pakoras is baking soda. Sometime it is added for faster cooking. It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the
raw materials.
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)+ NH3(g)  NH4Cl(aq) + NaHCO3(s)
common salt ammonium Sodium
chloride hydrogencarbonate
It can be used to neutralise an acid because it is mild non-corrosive base due to the hydrolysis of HCO3– ion.
The following reaction takes place when it is heated during cooking.
Heat
2NaHCO3(s)  Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2()
Uses of sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3)
(a) For making baking powder which is a mixture of baking soda (sodium hydrogencarbonate) and a mild
edible acid like tartaric acid. When baking powder is mixed with water, the following reaction takes place.
NaHCO3 + H+  CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of the acid
From acid
Carbon dioxide so produced during the reaciton is responsible for making the bread and cake to rise making them soft
and spongy.
(b) As an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
(c) It is used in soda-acid fire extinguisher.
(iv) Washing soda (Sodium carbonate) :–
The chemical formula of washing sode is Na2CO3·10H2O, (sodium carbonate decahydrate). Anhydrous sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) is generally called soda ash. Washing soda is manufactured by Solvay process. This process is also known as
Ammonia soda process. The raw material needed for the process are sodium chloride, lime stone (CaCO3) and ammonia
(NH3). The reactions involved are.
Step-I NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)+ NH3(g)  NH4Cl(aq) + NaHCO3(s)
common salt ammonium Sodium
chloride hydrogencarbonate
The CO2 required in this reaction is obtained by heating limestone.
Heat
CaCO3  CaO + CO2(g)
limestone quicklime
Step-II Dry sodium hydrogencarbonate is heated strongly to produce sodium carbonate.
Heat
NaHCO3(s)  Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
sodium carbonate
soda ash
Step-III Washing soda (Na2CO3·10H2O) is obtained by crystallisation from a saturated solution of soda ash
(Na2CO3)
Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l)  Na2CO3 (aq)  crystallisation
 Na2CO3·10H2O
sodium carbonate water washing soda
Uses of washing soda :–
(a) Washing soda (or sodium carbonate) is used for washing clothes (laundry purposes).
(b) Washing soda is used for softening hard water.
(c) Sodium carbonate (soda ash) is used for the manufacture of detergents.
(d) Sodium carbonate is used for the manufacture of many important compounds, such as borax (Na 2B 4O 7),
Hypo (Na2S2O3 · 5H2O), etc.
(e) Sodium carbonate is also used in paper and paint industries.
ARE THE CRYSTALS OF SALTS REALLY DRY ?
Crystals of some salts contain certain amount of associated water. The water associated the crystal (or molecule) of any
salt is called water of crystallisation.
The salt containing water of crystallisation are called hydrated salts.
Activity :– To show that water of crystallisation can be removed by heating.

 Materials required : – CuSO4·5H2O (Blue vitriol), boiling tube, burner,
cork, delivery tube, test tube, clamp stand.
 Procedure : – Take 2 g of CuSO4·5H2O in a boiling tube
fitted in a clamp stand. Removing water of
crystallisation
Observe its colour. Fit it with cork and delivery tube bent at two right angles which dips into a test tube.
– Heat crystals in boiling tube.
– Observe vapours being condensed in test tube.
– Cool the crystals and add few drops of water into it
 Observation : Water vapours get condensed in a test tube and colour of blue crystals changes into white.
On adding water to anhydrous copper sulphate it changes into blue again.
Heat
CuSO4·5H2O  CuSO4+ 5H2O
Blue vitriol White
 Conclusion : Crystalline substances have water of crystallization which is lost on heating.
 Water of crystallization : – It is fixed number of water molecules present in crystalline salt, eg.,
Blue vitriol CuSO4 + 5H2O Green vitriol FeSO4 + 7H2O
Glauber's salt Na2SO4 + 10H2O White vitriol ZnSO4 + 7H2O
Gypsum CaSO4 + 2H2O Epsom salt MgSO4 + 7H2O
PLASTER OF PARIS : (CaSO4 ½ H2O)
 Plaster of peris is hemihydrate (hemi means half and hydrate means water) of calcium sulphate. Its molecular formula is
CaSO4.½ H2O or (CaSO4)2 .H2O
 In plaster
CaSO4–H
of paris one molecule of water is shared by two CaSO4 as
CaSO4–H–O
Preparation of Plaster of Paris :
Plaster of paris is obtained by heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at 373K (or 100°C).
373K,(100 ºC)
2[CaSO4.2H2O](s)   (CaSO4)2.H2O(s) + 3H2O(g)
heat
gypsum Plaster of paris
373K,(100 ºC)1 3
or CaSO4.2H2O(s)   CaSO4. H 2 O(s)  H 2O(g)
heat 2 2
gypsum Plaster of paris
During the preparation of plaster of paris, temperature should be controlled carefully. Otherwise, anhydrous calcium
sulphate (CaSO4) will be formed. Anhydrous calcium sulphate does not set into hard mass when mixed with water. So,
if temperature is not controlled carefully, the plaster of paris obtained will have poor setting property.
Property of Plaster Paris :
 Plaster of paris is a white, odourless powder.
 At ordinary room temperature, plaster of paris absorbs water and a large amount of heat is liberated.
 When mixed with a limited amount of water (50% by mass), if forms a plastic mass, evolves heat and
quickly sets to a hard porous mass with in minutes. This is called the setting process.
During setting, a slight expansion in volume occurs. It is due to this that it fills the mould completely
and gives sharp impression. The reaction during process is
CaSO4 .0.5H2O(s) + 1.5 H2O() CaSO4 . 2H2O(s)
Plaster of paris Water Gypsum (Hard mass)
Uses of Plaster of Paris :
 Plaster of paris is used in making casts and patterns for moulds and statue.
 Plaster of paris is used as cement in ornamental casting and for making decorative materials.
 Plaster of paris is used as a fire proofing material and for making chalks.
 Plaster of pairs is used in hospitals for immobilising the affected part in case of bone fracture of strain.
 Plaster of paris (POP) is used to fill small gaps on walls & roofs.
EXERCISE # 1 QUESTIONS FOR COMPETATIVE EXAM
(A) OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS :

1. A solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is likely to be–
(A) 1 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 10
2. A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime-water milky. The solution contains–
(A) NaCl (B) HCl (C) LiCl (D) KCl
3. 10 ml of a solution of NaOH is found to be completely neutralised by 8mL of a given solution of HCl.

If we take 20 mL of the same solution of NaOH, the amount HCl solution (the same solution as before)
required to neutralise it will be–
(A) 4 mL (B) 8 mL (C) 12 mL (D) 16 mL
4. Which one of the following types of medicines is used for treatment indigestion–
(A) Antibiotic (B) Analgesic (C) Antacid (D) Antiseptic
5. According to Arrhenius acid gives –

– –
(A) H+ in water (B) OH in water (C) Both (A) & (B) (D) OH in acid medium
6. Milk of magnesia is an –
(A) Acid (B) Antacid (C) Alkali (D) Rock salt
7. Noble metals are dissolved in –
(A) Conc. HNO3 (B) Conc. HCl (C) Conc. H 2SO 4 (D) Aqua-regia
8. Which of the following is not a strong acid?
(A) H2SO4 (B) CH3COOH (C) HNO3 (D) HCl
9. Soda ash is –
(A) Na2CO 3·H 2 O (B) Na2CO 3 (C) NaOH (D) NaHCO2
10. Which of the following is an basic salt?
(A) SnCl2 (B) NaCl (C) NH4Cl (D) CH3COONa
11. Which of the following method is not used in preparing a base?
(A) Burning of metal in air. (B) Adding water to a metal oxide.
(C) Reaction between an acid and base. (D) Heating metal carbonates.
12. Fats + NaOH  ........+ Glycerol. One of the product formed in this reacton is –
(A) Soap (B) Cloth (C) Paper (D) Wood
13. Potash alum is a ?
(A) Simple salt (B) Complex salt (C) Acid salt (D) Double salt
14. NaHCO 3 represent the formula of which one of the following ?
(A) Sodium carbonate (B) Baking soda
(C) Sodium acetate (D) Washing soda
(B) FILL IN THE BLANKS :

1. An indicator changes its .................with change of the nature of the solution.
2. The properties of.................are due to the hydrogen ions it produces in aqueous solution.
3. A water soluble base produces.................ions in solutions.
4. A farmer treats the soil of his field with lime when the soil has .................nature.
5. Electrolysis of an aqueous solution of .................produces hydrogen at cathode, chlorine at anode and sodium
hydroxide in the solution.
6. Hydrated copper sulphate contains five molecules of ...............of crystallization.
7. Phenolphthalein gives a ................ colour when added to sodium hydroxide solution.
8. Blue litmus turns red when added to ................solution.
9. the pH of an acidic solution is ................than 7.

NaCl + H 2 SO 4 
10.  ........... + HCl.

2P + 5H 2 SO 4 (conc.) 
11.  .......... + 2H 2 O + 5SO 2 .
12.  .............+ H 2

3Fe + 4H2 O 
ANSWER KEY
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. B 7. D 8. B 9. B 10. D
11. B 12. A 13. D 14. B

1. Colour 2. an acid 3. Hydroxide(OH– ) 4. Acidic
5. Sodium chloride 6. Water 7. Pink 8. an acidic
9. Less 10. NaHSO 4 11. 2H 3 PO 4 12. Fe 3 O 4
EXERCISE # 2 SCHOOL / BOARD EXAMS.

(A) VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS :
1. Name the acids present in (i) vinegar (ii) lemon (iii) orange
2. Which is a stronger acid and why : HCl or CH3 COOH.
3. Which type of acid forms only the normal salts ?
4. Name the gas which is liberated at cathode during the electrolysis of mineral acid.
5. Write the main use of boric acid.
6. How alkalis differ from bases ? Explain
7. What will happen to the concentration of [H +] ions in a solution if NaOH is added to water ?
8. Why does copper not react with dil. H 2 SO 4 or dil.HCl ?
9. Name the metals which are soluble only in aqua regia.
10. When concentrated acid is diluted, does the pH get higher or lower ?
(B) MATCH THE FOLLOWING :

1. Column-A Column-B
Compound Chemical name
(i) Bleaching powder (a) Sodium bicarbonate
(ii) Baking soda (b) Sodium carbonate
(iii) Washing soda (c) Calcium oxychloride
(iv) Plaster of Paris (d) Calcium sulphate hemihydrate
(C) SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS :

1. How is plaster of paris obtained ? What reaction is involved in the setting of a paste of plaster of paris?
2. What happens when crystals of washing soda are left open in dry air. What is this named as ?
3. How can you prepare acid-base indicator at home ?
4. Write down the molecular formula for : Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid, Phosphric acid, Carbonic acid.
5. Name the gas evolved when dilute sulphuric acid acts as sodium carbonate. Write the chemical equation for
the reaction involved.
6. What does pH stand for ? What does a pH scale indicate.
7. Differentaite between :
(i) Strong acid and concentrated acid
(ii) Weak base and dilute base
8. 'Sweet tooth' may lead to tooth decay. Explain why ? What is the role of toothpaste in preventing cavities?
9. A blue salt becomes white on heating. With the help of a reaction explain the change in colour.
10. Why do we not categorise metal oxides as salts while we categorise metal sulphide as salts ?
11. What happen when electric current is passed through brine ? Give reaction.
12. Select the formulae of acids, bases and salts from the following list :
NaCl, NaOH, H 3 PO 4 , Na 2 CO 3 , Ca(OH) 2 , CuSO 4.5H 2 O, H 2SO 4,H 2 CO 3 , HCl, NaHCO 3 , Na 2 CO 3 . 10H 2O,
Al(OH)3, KCl
(D) LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS :
1. Dry HCl gas does not affect a dry blue litmus paper, whereas it changes a moist blue litmus paper to red.
Explain.
2. What is the pH scale ? How can you know, if the given sample is acidic, basic or neutral from its pH value.
3. How can you classify salts on the basis of their solubility in water ? Give examples.
4. What is plaster of paris ? How is it prepared ? Give the chemical equation.
5. Comment on the statement : Are the crystals of salts really dry ?
6. Discuss chlor-alkali process for manufacturing sodium hydroxide.
ACIDS, BASES & SALTS ANSWER KEY EXERCISE
 Very short answer type

1. (i) Acetic acid (ii) Citric acid (iii) Citric acid 2. HCl, because it ionises completely in dilute aqueous solution 3 .
Monobasic acids 4. Hydrogen 5. For eye washing and as an antiseptic.
6. All alkalis are water soluble while all bases are not water soluble
7. [OH–] concentration will increase 8. Copper not a active metal
9. Pt and Au 10. Higher
 Ma tch the f ollowing

(i) (c), (ii) (a), (iii) (b), (iv) (d)
METALS & NON-METALS IIT-JEE/Medical/Boards
METALS & NON-METALS

INTRODUCTION
All the materials around us are made up of chemical elements, which are found in the earth's crust. Earth is the source of
coal, petroleum, graphite, diamond and many other minerals of metals and non-metals. We get various useful things like
gasoline, kerosene, wax, coal gas and natural gas from the natural resources, which are made up of many non-metals.
These elements occur as minerals and rocks in the earth's crust. Some of these elements like oxygen, nitrogen and
carbondioxide occur in atmospheric air.
There are more than 115 elements known at present 80% of these elements are metals and rest are non-metals. On the
basis of their characteristic properties, all of these elements are divided into two main groups : Metals and non-metals.
POSITION OF METALS AND NON-METALS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
The elements which are placed on the left hand side (except hydrogen) and in the centre of the periodic table are called
metals. Such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, copper zinc etc.
The elements which are placed on the right hand side of the periodic table are called non-metals such as oxygen,
nitrogen, chlorine, fluorine etc. These metals and non-metals are separated from each other in the periodic table by a zig-
zag line. The elements placed in the zig-zag line show some properties of metals and some properties of non-metals are
called metalloids. Such as boron(B), silicon(Si), germanium(Ge), arsenic(As), antimony(Sb), tellurium(Te) and
polonium(Po).
The position of metals, non-metals and metalloids are shown in a simple form in figure..
Metals present at the extreme left are known as light metals, while those are present in the centre of the periodic table are
called heavy metals or transition metals.
The elements at the extreme left of the periodic table are most metallic and those on the right are least metallic or non-
metallic.
POSITION OF METALS, NON-METALS AND METALLOIDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
Thus, metallic character decreases on going from left to right side in the periodic table. For example, sodium is more
metallic than aluminium because sodium is on the left hand side of aluminium.
However on going down in a group the metallic character increases. For example, carbon is non-metal while lead is metal
because metallic character increases down in a group.
Metals :
The elements which can be polished, drawn into wires (ductile), hammered into sheets (malleable) and good conductor of
heat and electricity are called metals. Such as gold, silver and aluminium. Al is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust.
ELECTRONIC VIEW OF METAL
An element is called metal, which forms positive ions (or cations) by losing electron.
Example : Sodium is a metal which form's sodium ion (Na+) by losing one electron.
Similarly, magnesium metal forms Mg2+ by losing of two electrons, Al metal forms Al3+ by lose of three electrons.
Thus, metals are also known as electropositive elements.
The atoms of metals have 1 to 3 electrons in their outermost shell. For example, all the alkali metals have one electron in
their outermost shell. (Lithium-2, 1, sodium 2, 8, 1, potassium-2, 8, 8, 1, ... etc).
Sodium(11) magnesium(12) and aluminium13 (2, 8, 3) are metals having 1, 2 and 3 electrons respectively in their outermost
shell, which lose these electron easily. The number of electrons lost by an atom of a metal is called its valency.
Thus metals have 1 to 3 electrons in their valence shell of their atoms.
Exceptions : Hydrogen and Helium. Hydrogen is a non-metal having 1 electron in its outermost shell of its atom. Helium
having 2 electrons in its outermost shell of its atom.
Extended or Long Form of the Periodic Table
IA 0
Metals
(1) (18)
Period 1 2
H Non metals He
1 1.0079
IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.0026
Hydrogen (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) Helium
Metalloids
METALS & NON-METALS
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.940 9.0122 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluonne Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948
Sodium Magnesium (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Aluminium Silicon Phosporus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.941 51.996 54.938 55.847 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.39 62.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chrominum Manganese Iron Cobolt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 98 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 210 210 222
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 The symbols for elements 104-109 used in this table are those
7 Fr Ra Ac** Unq Unp Unh Uns Uno Une Uun Uuu Uub proposed by the American Chemical Society and
223 226 227 261 262 266 264 269 268 269 272 277
Francium Radium Actinium Unnilquadium Unnilpentium Unnilhexium Unnilseptium Unniloctium Unnilennium Ununnilium Unununium Ununbium 110-112 proposed by IUPAC
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
6 *Lanthanide Series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 145 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.07 174.97
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dyspro- Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
sium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
7 **Actinide Series Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 237 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262
Sanshiksha Academy, 2nd Floor,Zameer Compound,Above SBI city branch,Canal Road ,Raebareli. Ph.7705002074/75
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Califonium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
IUPAC designations of groups of elements are given in brackets
39
IIT-JEE/Medical/Boards
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS : The important physical properties of metals are given below :
PHYSICAL STATE OF METALS
Most of the metals are solid under normal conditions of temperature and pressure (Except mercury which exist in liquid
state at room temperature) For example: Iron, Copper, Aluminium, Zinc, Sodium are solid at room temperature.
HARDNESS OF METALS
Most of the metals are hard, but all metals are not equally hard. The hardness of metals varies from metal to metal.
For example : Iron, Copper, Aluminium, Sodium and Potassium.
MALLEABILITY OF METALS
The property in which metals can be beaten with a hammer into very thin sheets without breaking is called malleability.
Gold and silver are the best malleable metals. Alluminium and copper are also highly malleable metals. All of these metals
can be beaten with a hammer to form very thin sheets, are called foil.
Activity-1.1
Aim : To show that the metals are malleable.
Procedure : Take a iron nail, a piece of zinc, copper, coal, aluminium, place all of above one by one on a block of iron and
strike it 4 and 5 times with a hammer.
Observation :
1. Iron nail, aluminium, copper & zinc metals change their shape into thin sheets.
2. Coal is broken into small pieces. i.e. it is not a metal, because it does not show the property of malleability.
Conclusion :
1.Zinc, Fe, Al, Cu, are malleable i.e. they are metals.
2.Coal is non-metal.
LUSTRE OF METALS
Most of the metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is called metallic lustre. Example, gold is
shining yellow and copper is brown, iron, aluminium and zinc are lustrous grey.
Activity-1.2 : To show that metals have shine or brightness. Take a small piece of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium.
Now clean their surface by rubbing them with a sand paper.
Observation : Iron is shining grey in colour, magnesium and aluminium appear white, gold in yellow in colour and copper
is reddish in colour.
Result : Thus metals have shine or brightness.
DUCTILITY OF METALS
Ductility is also an important property of metals. The ability of metals to be drawn (stretched) into thin wire generally,
wires are made up of iron, copper and aluminium. Gold and silver are the most ductile metals.
For example 100 mg of silver can be drawn into a thin wire of about 200 metres long. Similarly we can draw a wire of about
2 kilometre from only 1 gm of gold. Copper and aluminium are also very ductile, and therefore, they can be drawn into thin
wires which are used in electrical wiring.
We are familiar with silver foil used for decorating sweets and aluminium foil are used for wrapping food.
THERMALCONDUCTIVITYOF METALS
The process in which a metal allows the flow of heat through it is called its thermal conductivity. Most of metals are good
conductors of heat, such as silver, gold, iron, copper and aluminium. Silver and copper are the best conductor of heat.
Activity-1.3 :
Aim : To show the metals are good conductor of heat.
Procedure : Take a one metal rod and place it's one end in hot water.
Observation : The other end also gets heated soon.
Result : This shows that metals are good conductors of heat.
Activity-1.4 :
Procedure : Take a small wire and clamp it on a stand as shown in figure as below. Then fixed a pin to the free end of the
wire with the help of wax. Now heat the copper wire with a candle or burner near its clamped end.
Observation : After some time the other end will also
Stand
become hot and wax will melt and nail will fall down. Metal wire
Result : This shows that metals are good conductors of heat. Clamp
Free end
This experiment also shows that metal wire does not melt. i.e. of wire
Wax
metals have high melting points. Repeat this activity with
aluminium & iron metal. Now an important point is arises that Pin
"How do metals conduct heat" Metals conduct heat when a
Burner
portion of an object made of metal is heated, its atoms gain
energy. The energetic atoms vibrate vigorously and transfer
energy to the other adjacent atoms. In this way the entire
object and any thing in its contact also become hot.
ELECTRICALCONDUCTIVITYOF METALS
The property in which metal facilitates the flow of electric current through it is called electrical conductivity. All metals
are good conductors of electricity because they contain free or mobile electrons. These free electrons conduct electric
current. Silver is the best conductor of electricity. Since silver is expensive, therefore, copper and aluminium are commonly
used for making electric wires. These metals are next best conductor of electricity. However, iron and mercury offer
greater resistance to the flow of current. Therefore, they have low electrical conductivities.
Activity-1.5 :
Aim : To show that metal is a good conductor of electricity.
Procedure : Take a dry cell, a bulb fitted in a holder, connecting wires (copper wire), crocodile clips and a switch. Set up
all apparatus an electric circuit as shown in figure.
Battery Bulb
A B
Insert sample
to be tested
Observation : The bulb glows at once when switch is on.
Result : This shows that copper metal conducts electric current, i.e. it is a good conductor of electricity.
SONOROUS
The property of metals in which metals produce sound when they strike a hard object or other surface are called
sonorous. Some metals like copper, silver, gold, aluminium give musical sound when they are struck by themselves or
any other object.
USES OF SOME METALS

Many metals and their compounds are useful in our daily life. These are as follows : Aluminium is used to prepare
utensils and house hold equipments like vacum cleaner. Aluminium is extensively used in making bodies of rail, cars,
automobiles, trucks and aircraft. Aluminium wires are widely used in electrical work. Aluminium foil is used to wrap
chocolate cigarette and medicines and to seal milk bottles.
Major use of copper is in making electrical wires. Copper is also used in making utensils, steam pipes, coin and in
electroplating.
Steel is an alloy of iron which is used for making parts of machines, as building material and in the construction of fridges.
As a matter of fact steel is said to be the back bone of industry.
Gold and silver called noble metals (or coinage metals) are used in jewellery.
Mercury is used in thermometers barometers and to prepare amalgams.
Platinum is used to make crucibles and electrodes.
Zinc is used to galvanize iron, to prepare roofing material, container of dry cells and to make brass when mixed with
copper.
Metal like sodium, titanium and zirconium find their applications in atomic energy and space science projects.
Titanium (Ti) and its alloys are used in aerospace, marine equipments, aircraft frames, chemical industries and chemical reactors. The
wide application of titanium is attributed to its resistance to corrosion, high melting points and high strength.
The metals such as titanium, chromium, manganese and zirconium are called strategic metals because these metals play
an important role in the country's economy and defence. These metals and their alloys are used in high grade steels, jet
engines, space science projects and atomic energy.
NON-METALSAND THEIR GENERALPROPERTIES
Non-metals are present on the right hand side of the periodic table (exception : Hydrogen). Among the total known
elements, there are only 22 non-metals, out of which 11 are gases like oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen one is a liquid
(Bromine) and the rest 10 are solids such as sulphur, phosphorus and the allotrops of carbon (Diamond and graphite).
ELECTRONIC VIEW OF NON-METALS
An elements is called non-metal which form ions by gaining electrons. For example, oxygen is a non-metal which form
O2– ions by gaining two electrons. Similarly, nitrogen form N3– ions by gaining three electrons.
Thus, non-metals also known as electronegative elements.
The atoms of non-metals have usually 4 to 8 electrons in their outer most shell. For example,
Carbon (At No. 6), Nitrogen (At. No. 7), Oxygen (At. No. 8), Fluorine (At. No. 9) and Neon (At. No. 10), have respectively
4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 electrons in their outermost shell. However, there are two exceptions namely hydrogen and helium which
have one and two electrons in their valence shell or outer most shell, but they are non-metals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS
The important physical properties of non-metals are given below :
1. Non-metals may be solids, (such as sulphur, phosphorus and diamond), liquid (Bromine), or gases (such as oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, neon, argon, etc.) at room temperature.
2. Non-metals are usually brittle and can not be used to make sheets and wires.
3. Non-metals are non lustrous and can not be polished. (Exception : Graphite and iodine are lustrous non-metals).
4. Non-metals are generally bad conductor of heat and electricity.
Exception : Graphite which is a good conductor of electricity. Non-metals do not conduct the electric current due to
absent of free or mobile electrons.
5. Non-metals can be easily broken due to its low tensile strength.
6. Non-metals are generally light and have low densities.
7. Unlike metals, non-metals do not produce any sound when struck with an object.
8. Non-metals are soft (Exception : Diamond)
9. Non-metals have low melting and boiling points. (Exception : Graphite has very high melting point (3730°C))
On the basis of the above discussion of the physical properties of metals and non-metals, we have concluded that
elements can not be grouped according to the physical properties alone, as there are many exceptions.
For example,
(i) All metals except mercury are solids at room temperature. We know that metals have very high melting points but gallium
(Ga) and caesium (Cs) have very low melting points. These two metals will melt if we keep them on our palm.
(ii) Iodine is a non-metals but it is lustrous.
(iii) Alkali metals such as Lithium, Sodium and Potassium are soft, so, that they can be easily cut with a knife. i.e., they have
low densities and low melting points.
(iv) Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms. Each form is called an allotrope Diamond, an allotrope of carbon
is the hardest natural substance. which has very high melting and boiling point. Graphite is another allotrope of carbon
which is good conductor of electricity.
The elements can be more clearly classified as metals and non-metals on the basis of their chemical properties.
Activity-1.6 :
Aim : To show that metals and non-metals react differently with oxygen :
Procedure : Take a small piece of magnesium ribbon and hold it with a pair of tongs and burn it over the flame of burner.
Observation : Magnesium ribbon burns with brilliant light and gets into white solid residue called ash. Collect this ash
in a beaker and add some water. Now, dissolve it by stirring.
Result : Test this solution with both blue and red litmus paper. The red litmus paper becomes blue but blue litmus paper
remains unaffected. This shows that the solution is basic or alkaline.
2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)
MgO(s) + H2O()  Mg(OH)2(aq)
Mg(OH)2(aq) + Red litmus  Blue
Similarly,
Take a small amount of sulphur powdered in a deflagrating spoon and start burn. Then introduce the spoon into a gas
jar. After burning add some water to the gas jar and shaked.
Improvised
deflagrating
spoon
Burning of sulphur powder
Observation : Test the solution with both blue and red litmus paper. The blue litmus paper becomes red and red litmus
do not affected. This shows that solutions of SO2 is acidic in nature.
S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
SO2(g) + H2O()  H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3(aq) + Blue litmus  Red
Repeat this activity with sodium and copper metals and phosphorus.
Result :
(i) Most metals form basic oxides when dissolved in water.
(ii) On the other hand, non-metals form acidic oxides. when dissolved in water.
CHEMICALPROPERTIES OF METALS
Reaction of metals with oxygen : Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen  Metal oxide
But all metals do not react with oxygen at the same rate. They show different reactivity towards oxygen. Such as sodium
and potassium react so vigorously that they catch fire if kept in the open. Hence they are kept in kerosene for protection.
4Na(s) + O2(g)  2Na2O
4K(s) + O2(g)  2K2O
Sodium and potassium react with oxygen of air, burns with a golden yellow colour and form sodium and potassium
oxides, which dissolve with water to form alkali called sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. These turn red litmus
blue.
Na2O(s) + H2O()  2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s) + H2O()  2KOH(aq)
Zinc react with oxygen only when strongly heated to form zinc oxide.
2Zn(s) + O2(g)  2ZnO
Since, it is less reactive than sodium and potassium.
Copper does not react with oxygen even on strong heating. It react very slowly on prolonged heating to form cupric
oxide (black oxide)
2Cu(s) + O2(g)  2CuO(s)
Similarly, Aluminium forms aluminium oxide.
4Al(s) + 3O2(g)  2Al2O3.
The order of reactivity of these metals towards oxygen as follow.
Na > K > Mg > Zn > Fe > Cu
At ordinary temperature, the surface of metals like magnesium (Mg), Aluminium (Al), Copper(Cu), Zinc(Zn), lead etc. are
covered with a thin layer of oxide. The protective oxide layer prevents the metals from further oxidation. Silver and gold
does not react with oxygen due to this silver and gold are called noble metals.
NATURE OF METALLIC OXIDE

Generally, metallic oxides are basic in nature except aluminium and zinc oxides which are amphoteric in nature. That
means these oxides (Al2O3, ZnO) react with base as well as acid. The basic oxide of metals react with acid to give salt.
For example :
CuO + H2SO4  CuSO4 + H2O
Copper(II)oxide Copper(II) sulphate
Some oxide of metals dissolve in water and form alkalis.
Example for :
Na2O(s) + H2O() 2NaOH(aq)
Sodium hydroxide
K2O(s) + H2O() 2KOH (aq)
Potassium hydroxide
Reaction showing amphoteric in nature of Al2O3 and ZnO.
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O()
Hydrochloric acid Aluminium chloride
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O()
Sodium hydroxide(base) Sodium meta aluminate
Similarly,
ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2ZnCl2(aq) + H2O()
Hydrochloric acid Zinc-chloride
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O()
Sodium hydroxide Sodium Zincate
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER
Metal react with water and produce a metal oxides and hydrogen gas. Metal oxides that are soluble in water dissolve in
it to form metal hydroxide. But all metals do not react with water.
Metal + Water  Metal oxide + Hydrogen gas
Metal oxide + Water  Metal hydroxide
The following activity clears this reaction properly.
Activity : 1.7 :
Procedure : Take the samples of common metals such as copper, iron, calcium, aluminium, sodium and potassium. Put
small of the samples separately in beakers which half-filled with water.
Aim : To study about the reactivity of metals with water & zinc.
Observation : Sodium and Potassium calcium react with cold water. Sodium and Potassium react violently with cold
water, making a hissing sound. These reactions are exothermic and evolved hydrogen gas which catches fire and leads
to little explosion.
Calcium react less violently and the piece of calcium starts floating in water because the bubbles of hydrogen gas
formed stick to the surface of the metal. Now put the metals which do not react with cold water in beaker which is half
filled with hot water. Magnesium reacts rapidly with hot water. It also starts flaoting due to the bubbles of hydrogen
sticking to its surface. [The rest samples of metals which do not react with cold and hot water.
To study its reactivity with steam, to set up an experiment as shown in figure as below.
Metal sample
Hydrogen
Glass wool
soaked in water Cork
Water
Burner Delivery
Stand
tube
Fig : Action of Steam on a metal

A lump of wet glass wool is placed at the bottom of a boiling tube. Then placed the metals samples in the middle of the
horizontally kept boiling tube one by one now start at the bottom of a boiling tube with a help of burner. The water
present in glass wool forms steam on heating. This steam then pass over the metal. Observe that aluminium react with
steam and iron does not react under ordinary conditions but it reacts only when steam is passed over hot iron. Copper
do not react with water either at ordinary temperature or at higher temperature. The following reaction occur from the
above activity.
1.(i) Na and K metals react vigorously with cold water to form NaOH and H2 gas is liberated.
2Na(s) + 2H2O()  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium Cold water Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen gas
(ii) 2K(s) + 2H2O()  2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium cold water Potassium hydroxide
This reaction is so vialent and exothermic that the H2 gas evolved catches fire.
(iii) Calcium reacts with cold water to form Ca(OH)2 and H2 gas. It is less violent.
Ca(s) + 2H2O()  Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium hydroxide
(iv) Aluminium does not react either with cold or hot water. But it react only with steam to form aluminium oxide and
hydrogen gas.
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g)  Al2O3(s) + 3H2
Steam Aluminium oxide
(v) Similarly, Zinc react with steam to form zinc oxide and H2 gas.
Zn(s) + H2O(g)  ZnO(s) + H2
Steam Zinc oxide
(vi) Magnesium react with hot boiling water to form MgO and H2 gas.
Mg(s) + H2O()  MgO(s) + H2(g)
boiling water Magnesium oxide
(vii) Iron metal react when steam is passed over red hot iron and form iron oxide and H2 gas.
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)  Fe3O4(s) + H2(g)
Iron (Red hot)Steam Iron(II, III) oxide
(viii) Copper do not react with even under strong conditions. Similarly, gold and silver also do not react with water. The above
reactions indicates that sodium and potassium are the most reactive metals while copper is less reactive.

Result : The reactivity order of these metals with water are
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn >Fe > Cu
Reactivity with water decreases.
REACTION OF METALS WITH ACIDS

The highly reactive metals react with dilute acid to displace hydrogen from acid. The reactivity of different metals is
different with same acid. This is clear by the following activity.
Activity : 1.8 :
Aim : To show that different metals react differently with dilute acids.
Procedure : Take equal amounts of small pieces of magnesium (Mg), Aluminium (Al), Zinc(Zn), Iron(Fe) and Copper(Cu).
After clean by rubbing with a sand paper, these metals are place in separate test tubes. Now add about 10 ml of dilute HCl
to each tube. Now suspended thermometers in each test tubes.
Observation : In the test tube which containing Mg, the hydrogen bubbles will appear very rapidly.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Hydrochlorice acid Magnesium chloride
In the test tubes containing Al and Zn reaction with acid is fast.
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2
Aluminium chloride
The reaction between Fe and acid is slow.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq)  FeCl2(aq) + H2
Ferrous chloride
No reaction is observed in the test tube which containing Cu and dil HCl.
Cu(s) + HCl(aq)  No reaction
Result : The order of reactivity of metals with dilute acid is
Na > Mg > Al  Zn > Fe > Cu
Reactivity with dilute acids decreases.
Similarly, All above metals react with dil. H2SO4.
2Na(s) + 2H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2
Sodium Sulphate
Mg(s) + 2H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2
Magnesium sulphate
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq)  FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Ferrous sulphate
Cu(s) + H2SO4(aq)  No reaction
IMPORTANT INFORMATION
Hydrogen gas is not evolved when metals such as Zn, Fe, Cu and Al react with nitric acid. Because HNO3 is strong
oxidising agent. It oxidises, H2 gas to water and is itself reduced to oxides of (NO, N2O and NO2) nitrogen.
3Fe(s) + 8HNO3(aq)  3Fe(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O() + 2NO(g)
Iron Nitric acid (dil) Iron(II) nitrate Water Nitric oxide
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq)  3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O() + 2NO(g)
Copper Nitric acid Copper nitrate Water Nitric oxide
But copper react with hot concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) to produce copper sulphate, sulphur dioxide and water.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4  CuSO4 + 2SO2 + 2H2O
Mg react with very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(g)
Magnesium Nitric acid (dil) Magnesium nitrate
Fe react with dil H2SO4 to evolve H2
Fe(s) + dil H2SO4(aq)  FeSO4(s) + H2
Iron Sulphuric acid Ferrous sulphate
AQUA REGIA(ROYALWATER)
Aqua regia is a Lattin word it means " royal water". It is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid
and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3 : 1. It is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid and it used for dissolve gold
and platinium.
REACTION OF METALS WITH SOLUTIONS OF OTHER METAL SALTS
When a more reactive metal is placed in a salt solution of less reactive metal, then the more reactive metal displaces
the less reactive metal from its salt solution . This reaction is also known as displacement reaction. Let us learn it with
the help of following activity.
Activity : 1.9 :
Aim : To compare the reactivity of the metals.
Procedure : Take a clean wire of copper and an iron nail, two test tube. Now dissolve copper sulphate in water in one test
tube and ferrous sulphate in another test tube. Place iron nail in the blue coloured copper sulphate solution with the help
of a thread and copper wire in the greenish colour ferrous sulphate solution as shown in figure as below.
Cork
Thread
Test tube
Test tube stand
Iron nall Copper wire
Copper Iron sulphate
sulphate solution
solution
Iron nail
Figure :
Reaction of metals with salt solutions
Observation : The blue colour of copper sulphate has faded and becomes greenish. The green colour of the solution is
due to the formation of iron (II) sulphate and copper is displaced. A reddish-brown coating is formed on the surface of
iron nail. The reaction is represented by the chemical equation.
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq)  FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Iron Copper sulphate solution Ferrous sulphate
But the greenish colour of FeSO4 do not change. That means no reaction take place.
Conclusion : These activities show that iron metal is more reactive than copper.
Similarly,
Reaction of copper with silver nitrate solution :
When a strip of copper metal is placed in a solution of AgNO3. The solution becomes gradually bule and a shining
coating of silver metal gets deposited on the copper strip. The reaction may be written as :
2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s)  Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
Silver nitrate Copper nitrate Silver
(colourless solution) (blue colour)
However, if we place silver wire in a copper sulphate solution no reaction occurs. This means copper can displace silver
from its salt solution but silver cannot displace copper from its solution. i.e. copper is more reactive metal than silver.
The reactivity series :
The arrangment of metals in order of decreasing reactivities is called reactivity series or activity series of metals. After
performing displacement experiments the following series has been developed.
REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS
Potassium K Most reactive metal

Sodium Na
Barium Ba
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Metal more Aluminium Al
Reactivity Decreases
reactive Zinc Zn
Reactivity Increases
hydrogen Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Metal less Mercury Hg
reactive than Silver Ag
hydrogen Gold Au
Platinum Pt Least reactivity metal
In this table the most reactive metal is placed at the above of hydrogen and the less reactive metal is placed below of hydrogen. It may
be noted that hydrogen is not a metal but even then it has been placed in the reactivity series. Due to hydrogen can also lose electron
and form positive ion (H+)
Reaction of metals with non-metals :
Atoms of elements combine to form stable molecules. The combining power of an atom is expressed as valency. Each atom has a
tendency to attain a completely filled valance shell. The noble gases, which have a completely filled valence shell or outermost shell,
so they are very stable. The electronic configuration of noble gases and some metals and non-metals are given in the following table.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OFSOME ELEMENTS :
Types of element Element Atomic number Number of electrons in shells
K L M N
Noble gases Helium (He) 2 2
Neon (Ne) 10 2 8
Argon (Ar) 18 2 8 8
Metals Sodium (Na) 11 2 8 1
Magnesium (Mg) 12 2 8 3
Aluminium (Al) 13 2 8 3
Potassium (K) 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium (Ca) 20 2 8 8 2
Non-Metals Nitrogen (N) 7 2 5
Oxygen (O) 8 2 6
Fluorine (F) 9 2 7
Phosphorus (P) 15 2 8 5
Sulphur (S) 16 2 8 6
Chlorine (Cl) 17 2 8 7
It is clear from the above table that except helium, all other noble gases have 8 electrons (octet) in their outermost shell.
Which represent a highly stable electronic configuration. Due to this stable configuration, the noble gases have no any
tendency to lose or gain electrons. So they exist monoatomic, sodium atom has one electron in its outermost shell. If it
loses the electon from its M shell the its L shell becomes the outermost shell. which has stable octet like noble gases. The
nucleus of this atom still has 11 protons but the number of electrons has 10. Therefore, if becomes positively charged
sodium ion or cation (Na+).
Na lose 1 . electron
  Na+ + e–
2, 8, 1 2, 8 Sodium cation

On the other hand chlorine has seven electrons in its outer most shell and it require one more electron to complete its
octet. The nucleus of chlorine atom has 17 protons and the number of electrons become 18. This makes chloride ion, Cl–
as negatively charged
Cl gain 1 . electron
  Cl–
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 Chloride ion

So, Na+ and Cl– ions being oppositely charged atoms which attract each other and are held by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction to exist as NaCl. In other words, Na+ and Cl– ions are held together by electrovalent or ionic bond.
–
Na + Cl   [Na+] [ Cl ]
or NaCl
The formation of one more ionic compound magnesium chloride :
The electronic configuration of magnesium (Mg) and chlorine atoms are :
Mg12 : 2, 8, 7
Cl17 : 2, 8, 7
Magnesium atom has two electrons in its valence shell. It has a tendency to lose both of its electrons to attain the nearest
2
noble gas configuration (i.e. Ne). Mg  Mg .
2, 8, 7 2,8
On the other hand, chlorine has only one electron less than the nearest noble gas (i.e. Ar) configuration. The magnesium
loses its both the valence electrons to two chlorine atoms, each of which is need of one electron to form Cl– ion.
Mg  Mg2+ , Cl  2Cl–
2, 8, 2 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
–
Mg + Cl    [Mg2+] [ Cl ]2
Cl or MgCl2
Magnesium Chloride
The compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known as ionic compound or
electrovalent compounds. The structure of some common ionic compounds are given below :
Structure of some common ionic compounds :
1. Magnesium Mg + O  Mg2+[O]2– or MgO
oxide 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 6
2. Magnesium Mg + 2F  Mg2+2[F]– or MgF2
fluoride 2, 8, 2 2, 7
3. Calcium Ca + O  Ca2+[O]2– or CaO
oxide 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 6
4. Aluminium Al + O  2A3+3[O]2– or Al2O3

oxide 2, 8, 3 2, 6
5. Magnesium Mg + 2Cl  Mg2+2[Cl]– or MgCl2
Chloride 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 7
6. Aluminium Al + N  Al3+N3– or AlN
nitride 2, 8, 3 2, 5
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
To learn about the properties of ionic compounds. Let us perform the following activity.
Activity : 1.10 :
1. Take the samples of NaCl, KCl, BaCl2 and CaCl2.
Dissolve small quantity of each solid one by one (a) in water (b) in kerosene and observe.
Observations & conclusion :
(a) Each salt is soluble in water. (b) Each salt is insoluble in kerosene.
2. Take small quantity of each salt one by one on a metallic spatula and heat carefully in the top flame of a bunsen burner.
Observations : These salts do not melt on heating in the flame of bunsen burner.
NaCl salt shows yellow colour flame of burner. KCl salt shows violet colour flame, CaCl2 salt shows brick colour flame
and BaCl2 salt shows apple green colour flame of burner.
Spatula
containing
sample
Burner
Figure
heating a salt sample on a spatula
3. Aim : To show that aqueous solution of ionic compounds conduct electricity.
Procedure : Dissolve a salt (NaCl) in water and make the experimental set up as shown in figure below :
Battery Bulb
Switch
Beaker
Graphite rod
Salt solution
under test
Testing the conductivity of

a salt solution
Observations : When the key is pressed it is observed that the bulb glows :
Result : This activity shows the current is passing through the circuit as well as through the aqueous solution.
Ionic Compound Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K)

NaCl 1074 1738
LiCl 878 > 1570
KBr 1007 1708
KI 953 1600
CaCl2 1055 1870
Cao 2845 3123
MgCl2 987 1685
From the above observations the following general properties are present in the ionic compounds.
Physical state : Ionic compounds are solids and relatively hard because of the strong force of attraction between the
positive and negative ions. This attraction of force is also known as strong electrostatic force of attraction. These
compounds are generally brittle and break into pieces when pressure is applied.
Solubility : Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble in solvents such as Kerosene, Petrol,
etc.
Melting and boiling points : Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, due to the strong electrostatic force
of attraction between the oppositely charged ions. Therefore, large amount of energy is needed to break these bonds.
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because movement of ions in the solid is not possible due
to their rigid structure. But ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten state. In the molten state, the ions become free
and therefore, they conduct electricity due to mobility of ions.
OCCURRENCE OF METALS
The earth's crust is the major source of metals. They are present in nature in the free state as well as in combined state.
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust. The second most abundant metal is iron and third one is
calcium.
NATIVE AND COMBINED STATES OF METALS
Metals occur in the crust of earth in two states : native state and combined state. A metal is said to occur native or free
state when a metal is found in nature in the elementary or in combined form or metallic state. The metals at the bottom of
the activity series are the least reactive. They are often found in a free state.
For example : Gold, Silver, Copper and Platinum are found in free state because they are very unreactive metals due to
they have no tendency to react with oxygen and not attacked by moisture, CO2 of air or other non-metal. Copper and
Silver are also found in the combined state as their suphide or oxide ores.
D is tinctio n be twe e n Me tals and No n-me tals

Pro pe rtie s Me tals No n-me tals
Metals are solids at ordinary
Non-metals exist in all the three states, that is,
1 State temperature. Exception. Mercury is
solid, liquid and gas.
a liquid
They possess no lustre.
2 Lustre They possess lustre or shine.
Exceptions : Iodine and graphite.
Metals are generally malleable and
3 Malleability and Ductility Non-metal are neither malleable nor ductile.
ductile.
Non-metal possess varying hardness.
Metals are generally hard. Alkali
4 Hardness Diamond is an exception. It is the hardest
metals are exceptions.
substance known to occur in nature.
5 Density They have high densities. They generally possess low densities.
Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
Metals are good conductors of heat
6 Conductivity electricity. The only exception is graphite
and electricity.
which is a good conductor of electricity.
Their melting and boiling points are usually
They usually have high melting and
7 Melting and boiling points low. The only exceptions are boron, carbon
boiling points.
and silicon.
Che mical Pro pe rtie s
Metal are generally react with
Non-metal do not displace hydrogen or
1 Action with mineral acids dilute mineral acids to liberate H 2
reaction with dilute minerals acids.
gas.
Non-metal form acidic or neutral oxides. For
They form basic oxides. For
example, SO 2 , CO 2 , P 2 O 5 , etc. are acidic
2 Nature of oxides example, Na 2 O, MgO, etc. These
whereas CO, N2 O, etc. are neutral. These
oxides are ionic in nature.
oxides are covalent in nature.
Metals generally do not combine
with hydrogen. However, Li, Na,
Non-metal combine with hydrogen to form
Ca, etc. form unstable hydrides.
3 Combination with hydrogen stable hydrides. For example, HCl, H 2 S, CH 4 ,
For example, LiH, NaH, CaH 2 etc.
NH 3 , PH 3 , etc. These hydrides are covalent.
These hydrides are ionic in
character.
They combine with halogens to
Non-metals form halides which are unstable
form well defined and stable
4 Combination with halogens and undergo hydrolysis readily. For example
crystalline solids. For example,
PCl5 , PCl3 , etc.
NaCl, KBr, etc.
Non-metals are electronegative in character.
Metals are electropositive in
They form anions in solution and are liberated
character. They form cations in
at the anode when their salt solutions are
5 Electrochemical behaviour solution and are deposited on the
subjected to electrolysis. Hydrogen is an
cathode when electricity is passed
exception. It usually forms positive ions and is
through their solution.
liberated at cathode.
Metals behave as reducing agents. Non-metal generally behave as oxidising
This is because of their tendency to agents since they have the tendency to gain
6 Oxidising or reducing behaviour
lose electrons. electrons.
Na  Na e + –
1/ 2 Cl2 + e –  Cl–
COMBINED STATE
A metal is said to occur in a combined state if it is found in nature in the form of its compounds.The very reactive metals
which have a tendency to react with moisture, oxygen, sulphur, helogens etc. occur is the crust of the earth in the form
of their compounds. Such as : oxides, sulphides, halides, silicates, carbonates, nitrates, phosphates etc.
For example : Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Aluminium, Magnesium etc. are very reactive metals. All of these are laying
at the top of activity series. These are never found in the free state. The metals in the middle of the activity series such
as zinc, iron, lead etc. are moderately reactive. They are found in the earth crust mainly as oxides, sulphide or carbonates.
On the basis of reactivity metals are divided into the following three categories:-
K
Na
Ca Electrolysis
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe Reduction using
Pb carbon
Cu
Ag
Found in native
Au state
Fig. Activity Series and related metallurgy
MINERALS AND ORES

The natural substances (elements or compounds) in which metals are their compound occur either in native state ore
combined state are called minerals.
For example : Aluminium occur in the earth's crust in the form of two will known mineral, bouxite
(Al2O3, 2H2O) and clay (Al2O3 . 2SiO2 . 2H2O). At some places, minerals may contain a large percentage of metal where
as others may contain only a small percentage of the metal. The mineral from which metal can be conveniently and
profitably extracted, is called an ore. All ores are minerals but all the minerals are not ores.
For example : Copper occurs in nature in the form of several mineral like copper pyrites, copper glance (Cu2S) and cuprite
(Cu2O). But copper can be conveniently extracted from copper pyrites (CuFeS2). Therefore, ore of copper is copper
pyrites. Some common ores ore listed below.
Na ture o f o re Me ta l Co m po s itio n
O xide O re s Alum inium Ba uxite Al2 O 3 .2 H 2 O
Cop p e r Cup rite Cu 2 O
Iron Ma gne tite Fe 2 O 4
S ulphide o re s Cop p e r Cop p e r p yrite s CuFe 2 O 2
Cop p e r gla nce Cu 2 S
Zinc Zinc ble nde ZnS
Le a d Ga le na P bS
Me rcury Cinna ba r HgS
Ca rbo n a te O re s Ca lcium Lim e stone Ca CO 3
H a lide O re s Zinc Ca la m ine ZnCO 3
S odium Rock sa lt Na Cl
Ma gne sium Ca rna llite KCl MgCl2 .6 H 2 O
Ca lcium Fluorsp a r Ca F2
S ilve r Horn silve r AgCl
S ulpha te o re s Ca lcium Gyp sum Ca SO 4 .2 H 2 O
Ma gne sium Ep son Sa lt MgSO 4 .7 H 2 O
Ba rium Ba ryte s Ba SO 4
Le a d Angle site P bSO 4
Since, ores of many metals are oxides due to highly reactivity of oxygen and it is very abundant on the earth crust.
METALLURGY
EXTRACTION OF METALS
The process in which a pure metal is extrated from its ores is known as extraction of metals. The various processes
involved in the extraction of metals from their ores and refining for use are known as metallurgy. Various steps involved
in the extraction of metals or metallergical process :
1. Crushing and grinding of the ore.
2. Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore.
3. Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore.
4. Refining or purification of the impure metal.
1. Crushing and grinding of the ore :
Most of the ores in nature occur as big rocks. They are broken into small pieces with the help of crushers. These pieces
are then reduced to fine powder with the help of a ball mill or a stamp mill. This process is known as pulverization.
Large pieces of ore
Crushed ore
Crushed ore Finely divided powder
(A) Crusher (B) Stamp mill
Figure : Grinding of ore
2. Enrichment of ore or concentration of ore.
The ores mined from the earth's crust contains a number of impurities, such as soil, sand etc. called gangue and matrix.
The process of removal of impurities (gangue) from the ore is called enrichment of ore or concentration of ore. Enrichment
of an ore is carried out by the following methods :
LEVIGATION
This method is based upon the difference in the densities of the ore particles and impurities (gangue). The powdered are
is washed in a jet of water. The lighter, rocky and earthy impurities are washed away by water, while heavier ore particles
ore left behind to settle down at the bottom. This process is also called hydraulic washing.
Powdered ore
Gangue
Setting of
the ore
Water
Conc entrated ore

This method of concentration is usually applicable to oxides ore.
For example : ores of iron, tin and lead are very heavy and therefore they are concentrated by this method.
FROTH FLOATATION
This method is based on the principle of difference in the wetting properties of the ore and gangue particles with water
and oil. This method is commonly used for sulphide ores (such as copper zinc and lead). In this method, the finely
powdered ore is mixed with water and a small amount of oil (pine oil or eucalyptus oil) tank. Air is blown into the mixture.
The ore particle floats in the froth on the surface. So, this process is known a froth floatation process. The heavier
impurities (gangue) settle to the bottom. The froth at the surface is transferred into another tank and some acid is added
to break up the froth. The concentrated ore particles are separated by filtration and dried.
Froth or scum
containing ore Air
particles
Ore + water
+ oil
Gangue
Figure : Froth floatation

LIQUATION
This process is used to concentrate the ore whose melting point is lower than that of the impurities stibnite an ore of
antimony, is concentrated by this method. The impure ore is heated. The ore melts and flows along the surface. The
impurities are left behind.
Crude Metal
Heat
Purer metal
Liquation
MAGNETIC SEPARATION
This method depends upon the difference in the magnetic properties of the ores and gangue. The ores which are
attracted by a magnet can be separated from the non-magnetic impurities with the help of magnetic separation method.
It consists of a leather belt moving over two rollers.
Powdered ore
Magnetic roller
Non-magnetic
Magnetic ore Leather belt
impurities
Magnetic Seperation
The powdered ore is dropped over the moving belt at one end. At the other end, the magnetic portion of the ore is
attracted by the magnetic roller and falls nearer to roller while the non-magnetic impurities fall further off.
For example : This method is used for concentration of iron ores (Haematite)
LEACHING OR CHEMICALSEPARATION METHOD
It is based on the difference in some chemical property of the metal and the impurities. This method of concentration is
also known as leaching. In chemical method, the powdered ore is treated with a suitable solvent. The ore dissolve in it
while the impurities are not soluble.
For Example : Bauxite ore contains Fe2O3, SiO2 etc as impurities. Bayer's method is used to obtained pure aluminium

oxide from bauxite ore. This process of chemical separation of aluminium by chemical method is known as Bayer's
process. This method involves the following steps.
(i) The finely powdered ore is treated with hot sodium hydroxide solution. Which react with Al2O3 present in
bauxite ore to form sodium meta aluminate. (soluble in water).
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O()
Aluminium oxide Sodium meta aluminate
(From bouxite ore) (Soluble)
(ii) The filtrate (containing NaAlO2 and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3)) is then stirred with small amount of freshly
prepared Al(OH)3.
The aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is added to induce the precipitation of Al(OH)3. It acts as seeding
agent and helps in quick precipitation.
NaAlO2(aq) + 2H2O()  Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH
Sodium meta aluminate Aluminium hydroxide
(From bouxite ore) (white ppt.)
(iii) The precipitate is separated by filtration. It is dried and heated to get pure aluminium oxide. Which is
also known as alumina.
2Al(OH)3 Heat
  Al2O3(aq) + 3H2O
Aluminium oxide Aluminium oxide
Extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore or enriched ore. The metal is extracted from the concentrated ore by the
following steps :
(a) Conversion of the concentrated ore into its oxides.
The production of metal from the concentrated ore mainly involves reduction process. This can be usually done by two
process known as calcination and roasting process. The method depends upon the nature of ore. A carbonate ore is
converted into oxide by calcination while a sulphide ore is converted into oxide by roasting.
These two method are discussed briefly as below.
CALCINATION :
The process in which concentrated ore is heated in the absence of air is called calcination. This process is used for the
following changes :
(i) To convert carbonates ores into metal oxide.
(ii) To remove water from the hydrated ores.
(iii) To remove volatile impurities from the ore.
For example : Calamine (ZnCO3) is the ore of zinc which calcined i.e. heated strongly in the absence of air to convert into
zinc oxide. During calcination, carbon dioxide gas is expelled.
ZnCO3(s) Calcination
  ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Zinc carbonate Zinc oxide
(Calamine ore)
Similarly, in case carbonate ore of Fe, siderite (FeCO3), and ore of calcium and magnesium, is :
Dolomite (CaCO3 . MgCO3)
Calcined converts into oxide
FeCO3(s) Calcination
  FeO(s) + CO2(g) + 2CO2
Siderite iron (II) oxide
CaCO3.MgCO3 Calcination
  CaO(s) + MgO(s) + 2CO2(g)
(Dolomite) Calcium oxide Magnesium oxide

ROASTING
The process in which concentrated ore is heated strongly in the presence of excess air is called roasting. This process
is used for converting sulphide ores to metal oxide. In this process, the following changes take place :
1. (i) The sulphide ores undergo oxidation to their oxides.
(ii) Moisture is used.
(iii) Volatile impurities are removed.
For example : (i) Zinc blende (ZnS) is the ore of zinc which heated strongly in the presence of excess of air to
convert zinc oxide and sulphur dioxide gas is expelled.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 Roasting

  2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Zinc sulphide Zinc oxide
(Zinc blende ore)
2. Iron pyrite (FeS2) is converted into ferric oxide (Fe2O3) by roasting.
4FeS2(s) + 11O2  2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
Iron pyrites (Ferric oxide)
3. Galena (PbS) is converted into litharge (PbO) by roasting.
PbS(s) + 3O2  2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Lead oxide
4. Cinnabar (HgS) is roasted to convert it directly into mercury.
HgS(s) + O2  Hg + SO2(g)
Mercury
Extraction of metal from metal oxide or conversion of metal oxide to metal.
The metal oxide formed after calcination or roasting is converted into metal by reduction. The method used for reduction
of metal oxide depends upon the nature and chemical reactivity of metal.
The different metals are extracted by different techniques. The different steps are discussed below:
Extracting the metals low in the activity series –
The metals which are low in the activity series are very unreactive. The oxides of these metals can be reduced to metal
by heating alone.
For example : Copper is obtained from its copper sulphide (Cu2S) are by this method. This involves the following steps
:
(i) The concentrated copper sulphide is roasted in air to form copper oxide.
2Cu2S(s) + 3SO2(g) Roasted

  2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)
(ii) Copper oxide is again heated with Cu2S to reduced copper and SO2 gas is evolved.
2Cu2O(s) + Cu2S(g) Heat

  6Cu(s) + SO2(g)
Similarly, when cinnabar ore (HgS) is heated in air it is first converted into mercuric oxide (HgO), which is then reduced
to mercury on further heating.
HgS(s) + 3O2(g) Roasting

  HgO(s) + SO2(g)
HgO(s) Heat
  2Hg() + O2(g)
Extracting metals in the middle of the activity series :
The metals in the middle of the activity series such as iron, zinc, lead etc are moderately reactivve. There are usually
present as sulphides or carbonates and which are must be converted to oxides by roasting or calcination. The oxides of
these metals can not be reduced by heating alone. Therefore, these metal oxides are reduced to free metal by using
suitable reducing agents such as carbon, carbon monoxide, aluminium, sodium or calcium. This is known as smelting.
Reduction with carbon :
When zinc oxide is heated with carbon, zinc metal is produced
ZnO(s) + C(s)  Zn(s) + CO(g)
Carbon Zinc metal Carbon monoxide
(Reducing agent)
Similarly, Iron and lead are obtained from their oxides by heating with carbon.
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) Heat
 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
PbO(s) + C(s) Heat
 Pb(s) + CO(g)
Reduction with CO
Iron is obtained from ferric oxide by heating with CO.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) Heat
  2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Reduction with Aluminium
Certain metal oxides are reduced by aluminium to metals. This method is known as aluminothermy or thermite process.
For example : Chromium, manganese, titrium, vanadium metal are obtained by the reduction of their oxides with Al
powder. The following reaction takes place.
Heat
3MnO2(g) + 4Al(s)   3Mn(s) + 2Al2O3(s)
Heat
Cr2O3(g) + 2Al(s)   2Cr(s) + Al2O3(s)
These displacement reactions are highly exothermic, so, the large amount of heat is evolved and metals are produced in
the molten state. In fact the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium. The mixture of iron oxide and aluminium
powder is called thermite is used to railway trakes or cracked machine parts. This reaction is known as thermite reaction.
Heat
Fe2O3(g) + 2Al(s)   2Fe() + Al2O3(s) + Heat
Note : Al is an expensive metal and so, it is not used to reduce metals which are less expansive than aluminium.
Extracting metals towards the top of the activity series : Electrolytic reduction or reduction by electrolysis.
The reactive metals (which are high up in the activity series) can not be produced by any of the above methods. They
are obtained by electrolytic reduction of their molten oxides or chlorides. During electrolysis, the cathode supplies
electrons to metal ions for their reduction to the metal. The process of metals by electrolysis process is called electro
metallurgy.
For example :
(i) Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is reduced to aluminium by the electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide.
Al2O3  2Al3+ + 3O2–
The aluminium ions present in aluminium oxide go to the cathode and are reduced there to aluminium atoms.
Al3+ + 3e  Al
(ii) Sodium metal is obtained by the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Fused
2NaCl   2Na+ + 2Cl–
2Cl–  Cl2 + 2e (at anode)
2Na + + 2e  2Na (at cathode)

Electrolysis
2NaCl   2Na + Cl2
PURIFICATION OR REFINING OF METALS
The metal obtained by any of the above methods is usually impure and is known as crude metal. The process of purifying
the crude metal is called refining. The method of refining depends upon the nature of the metal and the impurities which
are present in the metal. Some of the methods generally applied for refining metals are discussed below :
LIQUATION
This process is used for refining the metals having low melting points. Such as tin, lead, bismuth. etc : This is based on
the principle that the metal to be refined is easily fusible (melt easily) but the impurities do not fuse easily. In this process,
the impure metal is placed on the sloping hearth of the furnace and is gently heated. The hearth is maintained at a
temperature slightly above the melting point of the metal. The metal melts and flows down to the bottom of sloping
hearth and the impurities are left behind. The pure metal is collectd to the bottom of the sloping hearth.
Crude Metal
Heat
Purer metal
Liquation
Distillation :
This method is used for the purification of volatite metals (which form vapours readily). Such as mercury and znic. In this
method the impure metal is heated strongly in a vessel (called retort). The pure metal distills over and its vapours are
condensed separately in a receiver to get pure metal. The non-valatile impurities are left behind in the retort.
Oxidation method (Oxidative refining) :
This method is used for the refining of metal in those cases in which the impurities have greater tendency to get oxidised
than metal itself.
For example : Impure iron (Pig or cast iron) is refined by oxidative refining method. Pig iron contains carbon, Sulphur,
phosphorous, silicon and manganese as impurities. When a blast of air is blown over molten pig iron these impurities are
oxidised to their oxides (CO2, SO2, P2O5 etc.) and get removed. The pure iron is left behind.
Similarly, Silver is refined by this method.
Electrolytic refining :
This is the most widely used method for the refining of impure metals. Many metals such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel,
silver, gold etc. are refined electrolytically. It is based upon the phenomenon of electrolysis. In this process, the impure
metal is made of the anode and a thin strip of pure metal is made of the cathode. A solution of the metal salt is used as an
electrolyte. On passing the electric current through the electrolyte, the pure metal from the anode dissolves into electrolyte.
An equivalent amount of pure metal gets deposited on the cathode. The soluble impurities go into the solution, where
as, the insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode and are known as anode mud.
For example : In the electrolytic refining of copper (The apparatus is set up as shown in figure as below) crude copper
is Key
– – + –e
e
– +
Cathode Anode
Acidified
Tank
copper
sulphate
Impurities solution
(anotd mud)
Electrolytic refining of copper. The electrolyte is a

solution of acidified copper sulphate. The anode is
impure copper, whereas the cathode is a strip of
pure copper. On passing electric current, pure
copper is deposited on the cathode.
made the anode, a thin sheet of pure copper is made the cathode. The electrolyte is a solution of copper sulphate
containing a small amount of dilute H2SO4 acid. On passing the electric current copper dissolve from the anode into the
electrolyte. An equivalent amount of copper is deposited at the cathode in the form of pure metal. The following
reactions occurs at the electrodes.
At anode :
Oxidation
Cu – 2e–   Cu2+
Copper Copper ion
(from impure anode) (goes into solution)
At cathode :
Oxidation
Cu2+ + 2e–   Cu
Pure copper
The summary or flow sheet of different stepts involved for three types of extraction of metals is given below :
Ore
Metals Metals Metals

of high of medium of low
reactivity reactivity reactivity
Electrolysis of Sulphide
molten ore carbonate sulphate ores
ore ore
Pure Roasting
metal Calcination Roasting
Metal
Oxide of metal Refining
Reduction to
metal
Purification
of metal
CORROSION OF METALS
Slow destruction of metals due to chemical reactions on their surface by oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide etc. of the atmosphere, is known as coarrosion of metals. In corrosion, the metal atoms give
up electrons and are converted into ions, which
M  M + e
move from one part of the metal to another more easily in the presence of moisture (because moisture provides the
medium through which ions can flow easily).
Almost all metals (except noble metals such as gold, platinium and palladium) get corroded.
conduction for rusting :
(i) Presence of oxygen or air.
(ii) Presence of water or moisture.
Activity : 1.12 : To show that rusting of iron requires both air and water.

Experiment : Take there test tubes and put one clean nail in each of three test tubes. Lebel these test tubes A, B and C.
Pour some water in test tube so that about 2/3 of the nail is immersed in water and cork the test tube.
Pour some boiling distilled water in test tube 'B'. Then pour 1 mL of oil and cork it.
Air Dry
Air Air
Layer
of oil
(prevents
air
dissolving
Rusty in the water)
iron
nails
Water Boiled distilled
water(boiled to Anhydrous calcium
remove any chloride
dissolved air) (drying agent)
Put some anhydrous CaCl2 in test tube 'c' and cork it. Now, have these test tubes for a few days and then observe.
Observation :
(i) The nail in test tube 'A' will rust due to nail is exposed to both air and moisture.
(ii) The nail in test tubes 'B' and 'C' are does not rust. Because test tube 'B' contain boiling distalled water and oil which
prevents air dissolving in the water.
(iii) In test tube C, the anhydrous CaCl2 is drying agent which absorbed any moisture air.
Conclusion : This activity clearly shows that both air and water must be necessary for rusting.
The process of rusting is continuous.
Thus, Strength of iron decreases gradually and finally the metal is damage to buildings, bridges, ships and may other
articles especially which are made of iron.
Prevention of rusting : The rusting of iron can be prevented by the following methods :
(i) Iron is protected from rusting by coating it with a thin layer of another metal which is more reactive that iron. Zinc is
commonly used for covering iron surfaces. The process of covering iron with zinc is called galvanization.
(ii) The iron pipes which are in contact with water such as ground water pipes are protected from rusting by connecting
these with more reactive metals like Mg or Zn.
(iii) To decrease rusting of iron, certain antirust solution are used.
For example :
(i) When iron is exposed to moisture for a long time, its surface acquires a brown flaky substance called rust and the
process is known as rusting. Rust is a mixture of Fe2O3 and Fe(OH)3.
(ii) Copper reacts with CO2 in the air and slowly loses its shiny brown surface and acquires a green coating of basic copper
carbonate in moist air.
(iii) Silver articles becomes black after sometime when exposed to air. (Due to react with sulphur in the air to form a black
coating of silversulphide)
(iv)Lead or stainless steel lose their Lusture due to corrosion.
Factors determining the rate of corrosion :
The process of corrosion is speeded up in the following circumstances.
(i) The corrosion of a more electropositive metal is speeded up when it is in contact with a less electropositive metal.
(ii) The process of corrosion is speeded up in presence of polluting materials in air (such as CO2, SO2, H2S etc.)
Prevention of corrosion :
(i) By painting : The corrosion of a metal can be prevented simply by painting the metal surface by grease or varnish that
forms a protective layer on the surface of the metal which protect the metal from moisture and air.
(ii) Self prevention : Some metals form their own layer of protection.
For example : When zinc is left exposed to the atmosphere, it combines with the oxygen of air to form a layer of zinc oxide
over its surface. The oxides layer does not allow air to go into the interior of the metal. Thus, Zinc is protected from
corrosion by its own protective layer.
Similarly, aluminium combines with oxygen to form a dull layer of aluminium oxide on its surface which protect the
aluminium from further corrosion and aluminium loses its shine very soon.
(iii) Cathodic protection : The more reactive metal are more corrosion-prone which connect to a bar of another metal (which
is less reactive) that is even more prone to corrosion. In this process electron flow from the more reactive metal to the less
reactive metal. The metal to be protected becomes the cathode and the more reactive metal becomes the anode. In this
way, the two metals form an electrochemical cell and oxidation of the metal is prevented.
For example : The pipelines (iron) under the surface of the earth are protected from corrosion by connecting them to a
more reactive metal (Magnesium or Zn) which buried in the earth and connected to the pipelines by a wire.
Iron pipe (cathode)
Electrons
Magnesium
(anode)
(iv)By alloying : It is a very good method of improving the properties of a metal.
For example : Iron is the most widely used metal. But it is never used in its pure state. This is because pure iron is very
soft and stretches easily when hot. But, if it is mixed with a small amount of carbon (about 0.05%) it becomes hard and
strong. When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium to form stainless steel which is hard and does not rust, i.e.
properties of its changes. In fact, the properties of any metal can be changed, if it is mixed with some other substances.
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or non-metal. It can be prepared by first melting the metal and
then dissolving the other elements (metal or non-metal) in proper proportions. The properties of an alloy are different
from the properties of the constituent metals (from which it made).
If have the following characteriestics properties :
(i) Alloys are stronger than the metals from which they are made.
(ii) They are harder than constitutent metals.
(iii) They are more resistant to corrosions.
(iv)They have lower melting points than the constitutent metals.
(v) They have lower electrical conductivity than pure metals.
Some of the common alloys are :
(i) Duralumin : It is an alloy of aluminium. It contains 95% of aluminium, 4% of copper, magnesium is 0.5% and 0.5% of
manganese. It is stronger and lighter than aluminium. Duralumin is used for making bodies of air crafts, helicopters. Jets,
Kitchen ware like pressure cooker. It is also used for making bodies of ships (due to it resistant to sea water corrosion).
It is also known as duralium.
(ii) Amalgam : It is an alloy of mercury and one or more other metals is known as an amalgam. It may be solid or liquid. A

solution of sodium metal in liquid mercury metal is called sodium amalgam. Which is used for reducing angent. Amalgam
of silver, tin and zinc is used by dentists for filling in teeth.
(iii) Brass : Brass is an alloy of copper (Cu) and Zn. It contains 80% copper and 20% zinc. It is more malleable and more
stronger than pure copper. Brass is used for making cooking utensils, condenser sheets, pipe, screws, bolts, wire,
scientific instruments, ornaments etc.
(iv)Bronze : It is also the alloy of copper. It contain 90% of copper and 10% tin. It is highly resistant to corrosion and used
for making utensils, statues, cooking pipes, coins, hardware etc.
(v) Solder : It is an alloy of lead (50%) and tin (50%). It is used for soldering (or welding) electrical wires together.
(vi)Alloys of Gold : The purity of gold is expressed is terms of 'carats'. Pure gold is known as 24 carats gold. It is very soft
due to which it is not suitable for making jewellery. It is alloyed with either silver or copper to make it hard and it more
suitable for making ornaments. In India, gold ornaments are usually made of 22 carats gold. It is an alloy of gold with
silver or copper.
THE WONDER OFANCIENT INDIAN METALLURGY
The iron pillar wrought iron which is a low near the qutub minar in Delhi was made around 400 BC by the iron workers of
India. They had developed a process which prevented the wrought iron pillar from rusting even after thousands of
years. This is likely because of formation of a thin film of magnetic oxide (Fe3O4) on the surface as a result of
finishing treatment given to the pillar, painting it with a mixture of different salts then heating and quenching (rapid
cooling). The iron pillar is 8 metres high and 6000 kg (6 tones) in weight. Which till us that ancient Indians had good
knowledge of metals and their alloys carbon steel.
EXERCISE # 1 QUESTIONS FOR COMPETATIVE EXAM.

(A) OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS :
1. The non-metal which is a liquid at room temperature–
(A) Oxygen (B) Fluorine (C) Sulphur (D) Bromine
2. Non-metal generally form –
(A) Anions (B) Cations (C) Ions (D) None of these
3. Which is the least conductor of heat –
(A) Gold (B) Platinum (C) Silver (D) Lead
4. Which of the following metal can we cut with the knife –
(A) Gold (B) Potassium (C) Iron (D) All of these
5. Metal have ............no. of electrons in their outer most shell –
(A) 1 to 8 (B) 7 to 9 (C) 1 to 3 (D) 10 to 12
6. Which oxide is neutral ?
(A) NO2 (B) MgO (C) H2O (D) None of these
7. Which hydride commercially known as hydrolith –
(A) MgH2 (B) CaH2 (C) NaH (D) KH
8. Which of the following elements is metalloid –
(A) Si (B) Sb (C) A and B (D) Zn
9. Which metal does not react with oxygen –
(A) Cu (B) Au (C) A and B (D) Fe
10. Which non metal have shining surface –
(A) Graphite (B) Phosphorus (C) Sulphur (D) None of these
11. Which non-metal have semi conductor property–
(A) Boron (B) Carbon (C) Silicon (D) Magnesium
12. Which metal has high melting point –
(A) Sn (B) W (C) Sb (D) Pb
13. Al2.O3 2SiO2.2H2O is the chemical formula of –
(A) Bauxite (B) Haemetite (C) China Clay (D) Monazite
14. An alloy is –
(A) A element (B) A mixture (C) An isomer (D) A metalloid
15. Which chemical is known as king of chemicals –
(A) H2CO3 (B) HCl (C) CH3COOH (D) H2SO4
16. Which non-metal is the best conductor of electricity –
(A) Phosphorus (B) Fluorine (C) Graphite (D) Bromine
17. Which compound is used in photography –
(A) AgNO3 (B) AgO (C) AgBr (D) AgCl
18. NaHCO3 is chemical formula of –
(A) Sodium bicarbonate (B) Sodium carbonate (C) Sodium hydroxide (D) Sodium Chloride
19. Carnallite is the mineral of –
(A) Na (B) Ca (C) Mg (D) All of these
20. The sodium metal can be stored in –
(A) Benzene (B) Alcohol (C) Kerosine (D) Toluene
21. The magnesium is used in –
(A) Flash bulb (B) Grignard reagent (C) Electron alloy (D) All of these
22. In the reaction M + O2  MO2 (super oxide) the metal is -
(A) Li (B) Na (C) K (D) Ba
23. The most malleable metal is –
(A) Sodium (B) Silium (C) Gold (D) Lead
24. Cinnabar is an ore of –
(A) Mercury (B) Copper (C) Calcium (D) Lead
25. The constituent of haemoglobin is –
(A) Iron (B) Sodium (C) Copper (D) Magnesium
26. Pure gold is equal to –
(A) 24 carat (B) 10 carat (C) 22 carat (D) 23 carat
27. Which of the following metals is less reactive than hydrogen–
(A) Cu (B) Ba (C) Mg (D) Pb
28. Which of the following metal react vigorously with oxygen–
(A) Zinc (B) Magnesium (C) Sodium (D) Copper
29. Which metal is used for making foils used in packing of food materials –
(A) Copper (B) Platinum (C) Aluminium (D) Sodium
30. The most abundant metal in the earth crust is –
(A) Al (B) Fe (C) O (D) Cu
31. The second most abundant metal present in the crust of the earth is–
(A) Ca (B) Al (C) Cu (D) Fe
ANSWER KEY
Objective type questions
1. D 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. C 6. C 7. B 8. C 9. B 10. A
11. C 12. B 13. C 14. B 15. D 16. C 17. C 18. A 19. C 20. C
21. D 22. C 23. C 24. A 25. A 26. A 27. A 28. C 29. C 30. A
31. D
EXERCISE # 2 FOR SCHOOL / BOARD EXAM.

1. Which of the following reactions cannot occur –
(A) 2AgNO3(aq.) + Fe(s)  Fe(NO3)2(aq.) + 2Ag(s)
(B) CuSO4(aq.) + Zn(s)  ZnSO4(aq.) + Cuq (s)
(C) CuSO4(aq.) + 2Ag(s)  Cu(s) + Ag2SO4(aq)
(D) 2AgNO3(aq.) + Zn  ZnSO4 (aq) + 2Ag(s)
2. Which of the following is the sulphide ore of copper –
(A) Azurite (B) Copper glance (C) Cuprite (D) Malachite
3. Because of high electropositively, the atom of metals can easily form –
(A) Positive ions (B) Negatively ions (C) Neutral ions (D) Covalent bonds
4. Metals above hydrogen in activity series –
(A) React with acids to liberate hydrogen ions (B) React with acids to liberate hydrogen gas
(C) React with water at ordinary temperature (D) None of these
5. Volatile metals are purified by –
(A) Oxidation (B) Distillation (C) Liquation (D) Electrolytic refining
6. Which of the following gas is lighter –
(A) H2 (B) SO2 (C) O2 (D) NO2
7. Amalgam is the homogeneous mixture of –
(A) Metal and metal (B) Metal and mercury (C) Metal and non-metal (D) All of these
8. Duralumin is an alloy of–
(A) Cu (B) Zn (C) Al (D) None of these
9. Which of the following is a ferrous alloy–
(A) Solder (B) Brass (C) Magnalium (D) Steel
10. Which of the following statements is correct–
(A) All minerals are ores (B) All ores are minerals (C) Some ores are minerals (D) None is correct
11. Which metal is used in thermiet process –
(A) C (B) Co (C) Al (D) A & B
12. The steps involved in metallurgical process–
(A) Crushing & grinding of the ore
(B) Concentration of the ore or enrichement of the ore
(C) Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore
(D) All of these
13. Which metal is higher in the activity series –
(A) K (B) Ca (C) Fe (D) Pt
14. Food cans are coated with tin and not zinc because –
(A) Zinc is costlier than tin (B) Zinc has a higher melting point than tin
(C) Zinc is more reactive than tin (D) Zinc is less reactive than tin
15. When element M of IA group reacts with water, it gives –
(A) MOH + O2 (B) MOH + H2O (C) MOH + H2 (D) MH + H2
ANSWER KEY
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. B 6. A 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. A
11. C 12. D 13. A 14. C 15. C

(B) FILL IN THE BLANKS :
1. The minerals from which metals can be extracted economically are called.....................
2. The processes involved in the production of a metal from the ore are collectively known as..................
3. The rocky material found with ores is known as.................
4. Cinnabar is an ore of....................
5. .....................is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust.
6. The reactive metals occur in nature in the..................state.
7. Electromagnets are used to concentrate ................ores.
8. .....................is the best conductor of electricity
9. Sodium amalgam is a mixture of sodium and .......................
10. Out of Al, Zn and Ag, only............cannot displace hydrogen from dil. HCl.
(C) TRUE OR FALSE :
1. Mercury is a liquid non-metal.
2. Magnelium is an ore of magnesium.
3. In electrorefining of copper, impure copper is made anode.
4. Sodium is less reactive than copper.
5. Iron can liberate H2 form dil. H2SO4 but copper cannot liberate H2 from dil. H2SO4.
6. Silver metal acts as non-conductor of electric current.
7. Van Arkel method is used for refining copper metal.
8. Oxygen is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust.
9. The reactive metal do not occur in nature in the free state.
10. Froath floatation process is used to concentrate magnetic ores.
(D) MATCH THE COLUMN :
1. Which one of the methods given in column -I is applied for the extraction of the metal given in column II.
Column-I Column-II
(A) Electrolytic reduction (i) Aluminium
(B) Reduction with carbon (ii) Zinc
(C) Reduction with aluminium (iii) Sodium
(iv) Iron
(v) Manganese
(vi) Chromium
2. Match the entries of column-I with appropriate entries of column -II.
Column-I (Metal to be extracted) Column-II (Method used for reduction of oxide)
(A) Iron or zinc (i) Reduction with aluminium
(B) Manganese or chromium (ii) Reduction with carbon
(C) Mercury (iii) Electrolytic reduction
(D) Aluminium (iv) Reduction of heating alone
ANSWER KEY
1. Ore 2. Metallurgy 3. Gangue 4. Mercury
5. Aluminium 6. Combined 7. Magnetic 8. Silver
9. Mercury 10. Ag
 True or False
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. T
6. F 7. F 8. F 9. T 10. F
 Match the following
1. A–(i) & (iii) B–(ii) & (iv) C–(v) & (vi)

(E) VERY SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS :
1. What would happen to copper vessel if it is left for a few days in humid atmosphere without being
cleaned ?
2. Which chemical element is alloyed with copper to make bronze ?
3. Why do shopkeepers apply oil on tools made of iron while storing them ?
or Why do we apply oil on iron tools kept in storage ?
4. Name the metal used for making the body of aircraft.
5. Which one of the following is (a) the most reactive (b) the least reactive ?
Au, Na, Cu, Ca
6. Name one non-metal and one metal which are liquid at room temperature
7. Name an ore of zinc other than zinc oxide. By what process can this ore be converted to zinc oxide ?
8. Select the metalloids/ from amongst the following elements.
(i) Bismuth (ii) Copper (iii) Zinc (iv) Iron
9. Name a metal that offers high resistance to the passage of electricity than copper.
10. A green layer is gradually formed on a copper plate left exposed to air for a week in bath room. What could
this green susbtance be ?
11. Name two metals both of which are very ductile as well as very malleable.
12. What type of reaction is involved in rusting ?
13. From amongst the metals sodium, calcium, aluminium, copper and magnesium, name the metal
(i) which reacts with water only on boiling and
(ii) another which does not react even with steam.
(F) SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS :

1. An element reacts with oxygen to form an oxide which dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid. The oxide also turns
a solution of red litmus blue. Is the element a metal or a non-metal ? Explain with the help of a suitable example.
2. What is activity series of metals ? Rearrange the following metals in an increasing order of reactivity :
Aluminium, Zinc, Mercury.
3. Choose the metal (from the list given below) which can displace zinc from zinc sulphate solution. Lead, Copper,
Magnesium, Silver. Write the equation of the chemical reaction involved.
4. State two ways to prevent the rusting of iron.
5. What chemical process is used for obtaining a metal from its oxide ?
6. Explain why metals replace hydrogen from acids, whereas nonmetals do not.
7. Sodium hydroxide should not be stored in aluminium containers. Why ?
8. Explain why sodium is not found in the native state.
9. Name three nonmetallic oxides which are acidic.
10. What do you mean by corrosion of metals ?
(G) LONG TYPE QUESTIONS :
1. Describe two methods for the concentation of ores.
2. Explain the following terms.
(a) Mettallurgy (b) Flux (c) Calcination (d) Roasting
3. Explain the method used for the extraction of aluminium from its ore. Illustrate your answer with the help of a
neat, labelled diagram.
4. How does aluminium react with the following substances ?
(a) Water (b) Sulphuric acid (c) Carbon monoxide (d) Ferric oxide
5. Name the chief ore of iron. What are the three raw material used in the production of iron from its ore? With
the help of a labelled diagram of a blast furnace, describe the extraction of iron from its ore. Write the chemical
equation of the reactions involved in the furnace.
6. What is allotropy ? Name any four allotropic modifications of sulphur. Describe the action of heat on shulphur.
7. Draw a labelled diagram of Frasch process for mining sulphur. State the function of the following in the Frasch
process.
(a) Superheated water (b) Air at high pressure.
CARBON & ITS COMPOUND IIT-JEE/Medical/Boards
CARBON & ITS COMPOUND

INTRODUCTION :
The compounds obtained from 'Carbon' are widely used as clothes, medicines, books,food, fertilizer, fuel etc. all living
structures are carbon based.
The amount of carbon present in the earth's crust and in the atmosphere is quite merge. The earths crust
has only 0.02% carbon in the form of mineral (like carbonates, hydrogen-carbonates, coal and petroleum) and the
atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide. In spite of this small amount of carbon available in nature, the importance of
carbon seems to be immense.
Carbon forms a large number of compounds with hydrogen which are known as hydrocarbons. In addition
to hydrogen, carbon compound may also contain some other element such as oxygen, halogen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
sulphur etc.
The number of compounds of carbon is more than three million which is much larger than the compounds
formed by all other element put together.
BONDING IN CARBON COMPOUNDS :
Carbon forms covalent bonds in its compounds with other atoms. In each compound the valency of carbon is four. That
is, carbon has tetravalent character. But what is covalent bond and what is meaning of tetravalent ?
Why does a carbon atom form only covalent bond ?
 The atomic number of carbon is 6 and first shell contains just two electrons and second shell (Outermost shell) contains
four electrons.
 Carbon atom can attain the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with
atoms of other elements and form covalent bond.
COVALENT BOND :
A chemical bond formed between two atoms of the same element or two atoms of different elements by sharing of
electron is called a covalent bond.
Necessary conditions of the formation of covalent bond :
 The combining atoms should have nonmetallic character.
 The combining atoms should contain 4 to 7 electrons in their respective valence shell.
 In hydrogen there is only 1 valence electron, but it also forms covalent bond.
 The combining atoms need 1, 2, 3 or 4 electrons to complete their octet (hydrogen completes its duplet)
 The combining atoms should contribute equal number of electrons to form pair of electrons to be shared.
 After sharing the pair of electrons each combining atoms should attain stable electronic configuration like its nearest
noble gas.
CLASSIFICATION OF COVALENT BOND :
On the basis of the number of electrons shared by two combining atoms, the covalent bond are of three types.
 Single Covalent Bond : A single covalent bond is formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons between the two atoms.
It is represented by one short line (–––) between the two atoms.
Example : H–H, Cl –Cl, H–Cl, CH3–CH3.
 Double Covalent Bond : A double covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of electron between the two
combining atoms. It is represented by putting (=) two short lines between the two bonded atoms.
Examples : O = O (O2), CO2 (O = C = O), H2C = CH2
 Triple covalent bond : A triple bond is formed by the sharing of three pair of electrons between the two combining atoms.
It is represented by putting three short line () betwen two bonded atoms.
Example : N2 (NN), CHCH.
FORMATION OF SINGLE COVALENT COMPOUNDS :
 Formation of hydrogen molecule (H2) :
A molecule of hydrogen is composed to two H-atoms. The electronic configuration of H-atom is.
Shell - K 
incomplete
 duplet (unstable)
Electron-1 
Electronic configuration of He atom
Shell - K 
 complete duplet (stable)
Electrons-2 
H• + •H  H : H  H – H  H2
K(1) K(1) Shared electron Covalent Hydrogen
Atom Atom Pair Bond molecule
H – H Bond in terms of energy shells (orbits)
H + H — H H
H Atom H Atom H2 molecule

 Formation of chlorine molecule (Cl2). The atomic number of chlorine is 17, thus there are 17 electrons in an atom of
chlorine.
Electronic configuration of Cl atom –
Shells K L M
 Incomp lete octet
Electrons 2 8 7
Electronic configuration of Ar atom –
Shells K L M
 Com plete octet
Electrons 2 8 8
Chlorine atom needs one electron more to complete its octet –
Cl + Cl  Cl Cl  Cl — Cl  Cl2
Atom Atom Shared electrons Covalent Bond Chlorine molecule
Cl – Cl bond in terms of energy shell orbits
Cl + Cl — Cl Cl
Cl Atom Cl Atom Cl2 Molecule
Formation of hydrochloric acid (HCl) :
 H atom has one valence electron. It needs 1 electron more to complete its duplet and chlorine atom has 7 valence
electrons. It need 1 electron more to complete its octet and acquire stable electronic configuartion
(2, 8, 8) like noble gas argon.
H + Cl H Cl H – Cl HCl
Shared pair Covalent bond Hydrogen chloride
of electrons molecule
 Formation of oxygen (O 2) :
The atomic number of O atom is 8. There are 6 electron in the valence shell of oxygen atom it needs 2 more
electrons to attain the nearest stable inert gas Neon (2, 8) configuration :
Two pairs of
shared electrons
O O Double bond
K L KL
2 6 + 2 6  O O  O=O

Oxygen atom Oxygen atom O2 molecule
2, 8
 Formation of nitrogen molecule (N 2 ) :
The atomic number of nitrogen is 7 and its electronic configuration is K(2), L(5). It needs 3 electrons more to
complete its octet like noble gas neon (2, 8).
Three pairs of
shared electrons
N. .N
KL KL
2 5 + 2 5  ..  NN
Nitrogen atom Nitrogen atom N N 
N2 molecule
 Formation of ammonia molecule (NH 3 ) :
The atomic number of N is 7. It's electronic configuration is 2, 5 there are 5 electrons in its valence shell. It needs
3 electrons more to complete its octet like noble gas neon (2, 8).
unshared electron
pair
•• ••
3H• + ••N
•
••
 H•• N•• H
••
 H –N–H
H
H
Three hydrogen Nitrogen Shared electron Ammonia molecule
atom atom pair in ammonia
 Formation of H 2 O molecule :
The electronic configuration of hydrogen is K (1) and that of oxygen is K(2) L(6) thus each hydrogen require one
and oxygen required two electrons to achieve the stable electronic configuration.
two unshared
pair of electron
H + O + H  H O  H O  H2O (water molecule)
Hydrogen Oxygen H
atom atom H
Shared pair
of electron
 Formation of CO2 molecule :

The atomic number of C is 6 and the electronic configuration of C is K(2), L(4) and that of oxygen is K(2), L(6)
thus each carbon require 4 and oxygen require two electrons to achieve the stable electronic configuration.
O + C + O  O C O
K L K L K L
2 6 2 4 2 6 Shared pair
of electron
CO 2  O=C=O
molecule Double covalent bond
 Formation of CH 4 molecule :
Methane is a covalent compound containing 4 covalent bond. It contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen
atom covalently bonded to central carbon atom.
H H
C + 4H  H C H  H —C —H
Hydrogen H
Carbon H
atom Covalent bond
atom Shared electron
in methane
pair in methane

CH4 molecule
 Formation of carbon tetrachloride molecule (CCl 4) :
The electronic configuration of carbon and chlorine atoms are (2, 4) and (2, 8, 7) respectively. Carbon atom
needs four electrons and chlorine atom needs one electron to attain the stable electronic configuration.
Cl
 C + 4 Cl  Cl C Cl
Carbon Four Chlorine
atom Cl
atom
Shared electron pair

Cl
CCl4 molecule    Cl —C —Cl
Cl
Covalent bond in
Carbon tetra chloride
 Formation of ethylene or ethene molecule (C 2 H 4) :
The electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2, 4. There are 4 valence electrons in one C atom. Each H atom
contains 1 valence electron. Thus, there are 12 valence electrons present in ethene molecule.
H H H H
+ +
H + C + C + H  H C C H
Carbon and hydrogen with
Shared pairs of electrons
their valence electrons

H H
H2C = CH2  C= C
Ethylene / Ethene H H
molecule Double Covalent bond
in ethene molecule
 Formation of Acetylene or ethyne molecule (C2H2) :
H + C + C + H H C C H H–C C–H
two carbon and two hydrogen atoms Triple covalent bond
with their valence electrons Shared pairs of electrons in ethyne molecule
Q. What would be the electron dot structure of carbon dioxide which has formula CO2 ?
Q. What would be the electron dot structure of a molecule of sulphur which is made up of eight atoms of sulphur?
Ans. The eight atoms of sulphur are joined together in the form of a puckered ring.
S
S S
S S
S
S S
Electron dot structure of sulphur

Q. Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in CH3Cl.
Q. Draw the electron dot structure for
(a) ethanoic acid (b) H2S (c) propanone (d) F2
NON POLAR AND POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS :
Non polar covalent bond :
A covalent bond formed between two atoms of the same element or same electronegativity is called a
non-polar covalent bond. Example : H2, N2, O2, Cl 2 etc.
H H O O
the shared pair electron lies
exactly midway between
the two atoms
Polar covalent bond :
The covalent bond between the atoms of two elements having different electronegativities is called a
polar covlaent bond. Molecule in which the atom are bonded by a polar covalent bond are called polar
molecules.
Note : In a polar covalent bond, the shared pair of elctrons lies more toward the atom which is more
electronegative.
Example : HCl, H2O & NH3
 
H + Cl H Cl H C
Shared pair of electrons
lie nearer to Cl because
Cl is more electronegative
Note :  means partial
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BOND AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS :
Characteristics of covalent bond :
 Covalent bond are formed by mutual sharing of electrons
Note : Shared pair of electrons is also called bonding pair of electrons.

 Covalent bond is directional in nature because shared pair of electrons remain localized in a definite space between the
two atoms.
Characteristics of covalent compounds :
Physical State : The covalent compounds are generally gases or liquids, but compounds with high molecular masses are
solids.
Example : Solid : Urea, Glucose, Naphthalene.
Liquids : Water, ethanol, benzene.
Gases : Methane, chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen
 Melting and boiling points : Covalent compounds have low melting and low boiling points because intermolecular
forces (cohesive forces) in covalent compounds are weaker than those in ionic compounds.
Note : Some exception like diamond and graphite which are covalent solids have very high M.P. & B.P.
 Solubility :
Covalent compounds generally dissolve readily in organic solvents but they are less soluble in water.
For example : Napthalene which is an organic compound dissolves readily in organic solvents like ether but is
insoluble in water. However some covalent compounds like urea, glucose, sugar etc. are soluble in water. Some
polar covalent compounds like ammonia and hydrochloric acid are soluble in water.
 Conductivity :
Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because they contain neither the ions nor free electrons
necessary for conduction, So they do not conduct electricity
For example : Covalent compounds like glucose, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride do not conduct electricity.
Differences between ionic and covalent compounds :
S .N. Electro va lent (Io nic) Co mpo unds Co va lent Co mpo unds
Formed by transfer of electrons, (only single Formed by sharing of electrons, (single, double
1
bond network exist) & trip le bond are formed).
Usually gases or liquid only a few of them are
2 Usually crystalline solid
solid
Generally have high melting and boiling
3 Generally have low M.P. and B.P.
p oints
Soluble in water but insoluble in organic Soluble in organic solvent but insoluble or
4
solvents soluble in water
5 Conduct electricity in solution or molten state Usually non conductor of electricity
Usually Non-p olar and do not ionise in water

Highly p olar and ionise in water
6 + – but few comp ounds are p olar in nature and
eg. NaCl  Na + Cl + –
ionise in water eg. HCl  H + Cl
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS :
The chemical compounds which are present in living organisms (plant and animal) are called organic compounds. The
belief that formation of organic compounds was possible only in plants and animals led the scientists of early days to
propose that Vital Force was necessary for the formation of such compounds. But the experimental work of Friedrich
Wohler (German chemist) denied the idea of vital force when he prepared urea in his laboratory. (urea is an organic
compound and waste product of urine).
Q.Name the organic compound which was prepared by Wohler in his laboratory.
Allotropy / allotrops of carbon :
The phenomenon of existance of allotropic forms of an element is called allotropy. Allotrops are the different forms of the
same element having different physical properties but almost similar chemical properties. There are three allotrops of
carbon these are diamond, graphite and fullerene.
DIAMOND : Diamond is a crystalline allotrope of carbon. Its atomic symbol & empirical formula is 'C'.
Structure of Diamond
Structure : In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement.
This tetrahedral arrangement of carbon atoms gives a rigid, three dimensional structure to diamond It is due to this rigid
structure that diamond.
 Is very hard crystalline structure.
 Has high melting point.
 Is non conductor of heat and electricity.
Properties : Pure diamond is a transparent and colourless solid.

 Polished diamond sparkles brightly because it reflects most of the light (referactive index of diamond is 245)
 Diamond are not attacked by acids, alkalis and solvents like water, ether, benzene or carbon tetrachloride but diamond is
attacked by fluorine at 750°C.
750 ºC
C (Diamond) +2 F2 
 CF4
Carbon Fluorine Carbontetrafluoride
 The density of diamond is 3.51 g per cm3 at 20°C.
Uses :
 A saw fitted with diamond is used for sawing marbles.
 A chip diamond is used for glass cutting.
 Black diamonds are used in making drill.
 Diamonds are used for making dice for drawing very thin wires of harder metals.
 Diamonds are also used for making high precision tools for use in surgery such as, for the removal of cataract.
 Diamond are used for making precision thermometers and protective windows for space crafts.
GRAPHITE :
Graphite is also known as black lead it marks paper black. The name graphite has been taken from the greek word
''graphein" (which means to write) in reference to its uses as 'lead' in lead pencils.
Structure :
Graphite is an opaque and dark grey solid. In a crystal of graphite the carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal patterns
in parallel planes. In a layer of graphite each carbon atom is strongly bonded to three carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
Thus, one valence electron of each carbon atom is free in every layer of graphite crystal. The free electron makes graphite
a good conductor of electricity.
Each layer is bonded to the adjacent layers by weak forces. As a result, each layer can easily slide over the other.
Properties :
 Graphite is greyish -black, opaque material having metallic (shiny) lustre.
 It is soft and has a soapy (slippery) touch.
 Graphite is lighter than diamond. The density of graphite is 2.26 g per cm3 at 20°C.
 Graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Graphite has a very high melting point.
 Graphite is insoluble in all common solvent.
Uses :
 For making electrodes in dry cells and electric arc furnaces.
 Graphite is a good dry lubricant for those parts of machines where grease and oil cannot be used.
 For making crucibles for melting metals.
 For manufacturing lead pencils.
 Graphite is used as neutron moderator in nuclear reactors.
 For the manufacture of gramophone records and in electrotyping.
 For the manufacture of artificial diamond.
Fullerene :
 Fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Robert F. Curl Jr, Harold Kroto and Richard E. Smally.
 This molecule containing sixty atoms of carbon has been named Buckminster fullerene. Fullerens has been named after
American architect and engineer R. Buckminster-fuller whose geodesic domes follow similar building principles.
Types of fullerene :
C60, C70, C74 and C78 are the members of the fullerene family. But C60 is the most stable and most studied form of
fullerenes.
Structure of fullerene :
Structure of fullerene
 Buckminster fullerene molecule (C60) is nearly spherical.
 It consists of 12 pentagonal faces and 20 hexagonal faces giving it 60 corners. Thus, Buckminster fullerene has a hollow,
cage-like structure.
 In figure, ball like molecules containing C atoms.
Preparation :
 By electrically heating a graphite rod in atmosphere of helium.
 By vaporising graphite by using laser.
Properties :
 Fullerene is soluble in benzene and forms deep violet colour solution.
 Crystalline fullerene has semiconductor properties.
 Compounds of fullerene with alkali metals are called fullerides and they are superconductors.
Uses :
 As a superconductor.
 As a semiconductor.
 As a lubricants and catalyst.
 As fibres to reinforce plastics.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON :
About three million (or thirty lakh) compounds of carbon are known. The existence of such a large number of organic
compounds is due to the following characteristic features of carbon.
(1) CATENATION : Tendency to form Carbon-Carbon bond :
"The property of forming bonds with atoms of the same element is called catenation".
Carbon has the maximum tendency for catenation in the periodic table. This is because of strong carbon carbon bonds
as compared to other atoms.
 When two or more carbon atoms combine with one another, they form different types of chain such as
(i) Straight chains
(ii) Branched chains
(iii) Closed chain or ring chains
C
C C
–C–
C–C C
–C–C–C–C–C– C
–C–C–C– –C– C C
Straight chain Branched chain (Minimum 3C required in closed chain structure) Closed chain
(2) Tetravalency of Carbon :
 The atomic number of carbon is 6.
 The electronic configuration of carbon atom is 1s2,2s2,2p2.
 It has four electrons in the outermost shell, therefore its valency is four. Thus carbon forms four covalent bonds in its
compounds.
H
C + 4H HCH
H
Forms4 Forms1 Methane
covalent covalent molecule
bond bond
(3) Tendency to form multiple bonds :
Due to small size, carbon can easily form double or triple bonds (called multiple bonds) with itself and with the atoms of
other elements as nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur etc.
H
H H
H–C–H C=C , C=0,
H H H H–C C–H, –C N
Single Bond Double Bond Triple Bond
(4) Isomerism :
Compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formulae are known as isomers and the phenomenon
of existance of isomers is termed as isomersism.
Example :
C2 H6 O (Same Molecular Formulae)
Two Isomers
C2H5OH CH3–O–CH3
Ethyl alcohol Dimethyl ether
C5H12(Pentane)
Three Isomers
CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH–CH2–CH3 CH3

n-pentane H3C–C–CH3
CH3
Iso-pentane CH3
Neo-pentane
HYDROCARBON :
Compounds formed from combination of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbon. Hydrocarbon on the basis of
chain are mainly classified into two parts.
Hydrocarbon
Acyclic or Cyclic
open chain hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon
–C–C–C–C–
C
C C
C C
Saturated Unsaturated C
Alkane
Single Bond
Alkene Alkyne
(double bond) (triple bond) Heterocyclic Homocyclic
Aromatic Alicyclic
(Benzene) (Cycloalkane)
Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon :
(1) Saturated Hydrocarbon :
 The hydrocarbons which contain only single carbon-carbon covalent bonds are called saturated hydrocarbons.
 They are also called alkanes.
 General formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms.
General formula of saturated hydrocarbon (C n H 2n+2 )
No. of 'C' atoms Na me Formula Structure
H
1 Methane CH 4 H–C–H
H
H H
H–C––C–H
2 Ethane C2H6
H H
H H H
3 Propane C3H8 H–C––C––C––H
H H H
H H H H
H–C––C––C––C––H
4 Butane C4H10
H H H H
H H H H H
5 Pentane C5H12 H–C––C––C––C––C––H
H H H H H
H H H H H H
6 Hexane C6H14 H–C––C––C––C––C––C––H
H H H H H H
(2) Unsaturated hydrocarbons :
The hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are bonded to each other by a double (=) or a triple () bond is called an
unsaturated hydrocarbon.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types viz. alkenes and alkynes.

(I) Alkenes : ( –C=C–)
 The hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are bonded by a double bond are called alkenes.
 Their general formula is CnH2n where "n" is the number of carbon atoms.
General formula of alkenes : CnH2n

No. of C atoms Name Formula Structure
H H
2 Ethene or C2H4 C=C
H H
Ethylene CH2=CH2
H H H
3 Propene or C3H6 H–C––C=C––H
Propylene CH3–CH=CH2 H
4. Butene or C4H8 H H H H
H—C—C=C—C—H
Butylene CH3–CH=CH–CH3
H H H H
or or
H H H H
CH2=CH–CH2–CH3 H—C=C—C—C—H
H H
(II) Alkyne (–CºC–)

 The hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are bonded by a triple bond are called alkyne.
 Their general formula is CnH2n–2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms.
General formula of alkynes : CnH2n–2
No. of 'C'atoms Name Formula Structure
2 Ethyne or C2H2 or H–CC–H
Acetylene HCCH
H
3 Propyne or C3H4 or H––C––CC––H
H
Methyl acetylene H3C–CC–H H H
4 Butylene or C4H6 or H––C––CC––C––H
H H
Dimethyl acetylene H3C–CC–CH3
Q. Give a test that can be used to differentiate chemically between butter and cooking oil.
CHAINS, BRANCHES AND RINGS :
The hydrocarbons may also have branched, closed chains or ring or cyclic structures.
Branched structure :
The alkanes containing three or less carbon atoms do not form branches.
CH4 CH3–CH3 CH3–CH2–CH3
Methane Ethane Propane
 The alkane containing four carbon atoms (C4H10) has two types of arrangement of carbon atoms.
CH3
H3C–CH
H3C–CH2–CH2–CH3 CH3
Continuous chain Branched chain
Isomers
 Closed chains or cyclic hydrocarbon :
These hydrocarbons contains closed chain or rings of atoms in their molecules. These are of two types :
(A) Alicyclic hydrocarbon :
 These hydrocarbons contain a ring chain of three or more carbon atoms.
 These cyclic compounds are named by prefixing cyclo before the name of corresponding straight chain hydrocarbon.
H H
H H
H C H
C
H H H H C C H
H
H–C––––C–H H H C C
H H H H
H
C
H C C
H–C––––C–H H C––C H H C H
C––––C
H H H H H H H H
Cyclobutane (C4H8) Cyclopropane (C3H6) Cyclopentane (C5H10) Cyclohexane (C6H12)
(B) Aromatic hydrocarbon :

 These have at least one benzene ring in their molecules.
 It is a special type of ring of six carbon atoms with three double bonds in alternate positions.
H H
1 1
H 6 C H H 6 C H
C C2 C C2
or
3 3
C C H C C H
H 5 H 5
C C
4 4
H H
Will you be my friend ? (functional group) :
 Carbon forms many compounds with hydrogen. But carbon also forms bonds with other atoms such as halogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and sulphur. Therefore, carbon is said to be very friendly element.
These compounds are obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms such that the valency of
carbon remains satisfied. The atom replacing the hydrogen atom is called heteroatom or Functional group.
 Different organic compounds having same functional group have almost same properties these are called families.
Example :
H H H
H–C– OH H–C–––C– OH
H H H Functional
Functional
Methanol group Ethanol group
 Properties of CH3–OH and CH3–CH2OH are similar and it is due to the presence of –OH (hydroxyl) group.
 This group is known as alcoholic group.
 Family of compounds having –OH group is called alcohols.
SOME FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN CARBON COMPOUNDS
Hetero atom Functional Group Formula of Functional Group
Halogen atom Halo –X
(F, Cl, Br, I) (Fluoro, Chloro, Bromo, Iodo) (–F, –Cl, –Br, –I)
Oxygen 1. Alcohol –OH
H
2.Aldehydes –C or –CHO
O
3.Ketones C=O or –CO
O
4. Carboxylic acid
–C–OH or –COOH
Nitrogen 1. Nitro –NO2
2. Amines –NH2
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES :
"A series of organic compounds having similar structures and similar chemical properties in which the successive
members differ in their molecular formula by –CH2 group".
The different members of the series are called homologous.
Characteristics of Homologous Series :
 All the member of a homologous series can be described by a common general formula.
Example : All alkane can be described by the general formula CnH2n+2.
 Each member of a homologous series differ from its higher and lower neighbouring members by a common difference of
–CH2 group.
 Molecular masses of the two adjacent homologues differ by 14 mass units, because molecular mass of –CH2 group is 12
+ 2 = 14.
 All the members of a homologous series show similar chemical properties.
 All the members of the series can be prepared by similar methods known as the general method of preparation.
Table : Some members of alkane, alkene and alkyne homologous series.
Alkane Alkene Alkyne
CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n–2
Homologous series Homologous series Homologous series
Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula
Methane CH4 – – – –
Ethane C2H6 Ethene C2H4 Ethyne C2H2
Propane C3H8 Propene C3H6 Propyne C3H4
Butane C4H10 Butene C4H8 Butyne C4H6
Pentane C5H12 Pentene C5H10 Pentyne C5H8
Hexane C6H14 Hexene C6H12 Hexyne C6H10
Activity : Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular masses for (a) CH3OH and C2H5OH (b) C2H5OH and
C3H7OH and (c) C3H7OH and C4H9OH
Q. It there any similarity in these three ?
Q. Arrange these alcohols in the order of increasing carbon atoms to get a family. Can we call this family a homologous
series ?
Q. What is homologous series? Explain with an example.
Solution :
Formula Molecular Mass Difference In
(Calculated) Formula Molecular mass
(a) CH3OH 12 + 3 + 16 + 1 = 32 –CH2 14
C2H5OH 24 + 5 + 16 + 1 = 46
(b) C2H5OH 24 + 5 + 16 + 1 = 46 –CH2 14
C3H7OH 36 + 7 + 16 + 1 = 60
(c) C3H7OH 36 + 7 + 16 + 1 = 60 –CH2 14
C4H9OH 49 + 9 + 16 + 1 = 74
Conclusion :
(i) Yes, all these compounds are the members of a homologous series for alcohols.
(ii) CH 3OH, C 2H 5 OH, C 3 H 7 OH and C 4 H 9 OH -increasing carbon atoms. These four compounds form a
homologous series.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES CONTAINING FUNCTIONAL GROUPS.
 Aldehydes :
HCHO, CH3CHO, CH3CH2CHO, CH3CH 2CH 2CHO
 Carboxylic acids : HCOOH, CH 3COOH, CH 3CH 2COOH,CH 3CH 2CH 2COOH
 Amines : CH 3 NH 2 , CH 3CH 2NH 2,CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 NH 2 .
 Ketones : CH 3COCH 3, CH 3COCH 2CH 3, CH 3COCH 2 CH 2CH 3
 Haloalkanes : CH 3X, CH 3CH 2X, CH 3CH 2CH 2X, CH 3CH 2CH 2–CH 2X
How do physical properties change in a homologous series of hydrocarbons.
The physical properties of the various members of a homologous series change regularly with an increases in
the molecular mass.
(i) Melting and boiling points : Melting point and boiling point of hydrocarbon in a homologous series increases
with an increase in molecular mass.
(ii) Physical State :
 Hydrocarbons containing lesser number of carbon atoms are gases.
 Hydrocarbons containing large number of carbon atoms are solids.
 Hydrocarbon containing intermediate number of carbon atoms are liquid.
Example : Hydrocarbon containing 1-4 carbon atoms are gases, these containing 5–13 carbon atoms are liquid
and those containing more than 14 carbon atoms are solids.
Nomenclature of carbon compounds :

Carbon compounds can be called by their common names, but, then remembering millions of compounds by
their individual names may be very difficult. Due to this reason, the International Union of Pure and Applied
chemistry (IUPAC) has devised a very systematic method of naming these compounds.
Naming a carbon compound can be done by the following methods.

 The number of carbon atoms in the molecule of a hydrocarbon is indicated by the following stems.
No. of carbon atom : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stem Meth Eth Prop But Pent Hex Hept Oct Non Dec.
Example : Saturated hydrocarbon.
Alkane  Meth + ane = Methane
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Alkene  Eth + ene = Ethene
Alkyne  Eth + yne = Ethyne
 In case of functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of compound with either a prefix or a suffix.
 Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. This gives the name of parent hydrocarbon.
 In the case of any substituent appropriate prefix is added before the name of parent hydrocarbon.
 In the case of a functional group, the ending 'e' in the name of the parent hydrocarbon is replaced by the appropriate
suffix.
Functional Group :
"Functional group may be defind as an atom or a group of atoms which is responsible for most of the characteristic
chemical properties of an organic compound".
The prefixes and suffixes of some substituents/functional group
Substituents/ Prefix Suffix Example
Functional group Structure Na me

1. Halogen : Chlorine Chloro – CH 3–CH 2–CH 2–Cl Chloropropane
Bromine Bromo – CH 3–CH 2 –CH 2–Br Bromopropane
Iodine Iodo – CH3–CH2–CH2–I Iodo propane
2. Alcohol – ol CH 3 –CH 2–CH 2 –OH propanol
H
3. Aldehyde – al CH3–CH2–C=O propanal
4. Ketone – one H3C–C–CH3 Propanone

O
O
5. Carboxylic acid – oic acid H3C–CH2–C–OH Propanoic acid
6. Single bond (alkane) – ane CH 3–CH 2 –CH 3 Propane
7. Double bond (Alkene) – ene CH3–CH = CH2 Propene
8. Triple bond (Alkyne) – yne CH3–CHCH Propyne
Q. How many structure isomers can you draw for pentane ?
Q. What will be the formula and electron dot structure of cyclopentane ?
Q. Draw the structure for the following compounds :
(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Bromopentane (iii) Butanone (iv) Hexanal
Q. Draw the possible structural isomers for bromopentane.
Q. How would you name the following compounds ?
H
(i) CH3–CH2–Br (ii) H–C=O
HHHH
(iii) C–C–C–C–C C–H
H–
HHHH
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUND :
All carbon compounds show some common characteristic properties. As most of the fuels we use are either carbon or its
compounds. Some such properties are described here :
COMBUSTION :
Combustion is a chemical process in which heat and light (in the form of flame) are given out
The process of combustion, is a rapid oxidation reaction of any substance in which heat and light are produced.
Combustion of some common substance :
 Combustion of Carbon : Carbon (or charcoal) burn in air or oxygen to give CO2 producing heat and light.
Combustion
C(s) + O2(g)   CO2(g) + Heat + light
Carbon Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Q.Why carbon and its compounds are used as fuels for most applications?
 Combustion of Hydro Carbon : Hydrocarbons burn to produce carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and heat
and light.
Combustion
CH4(g) + O2(g)   CO2(g) + H2O(g) + Heat + Light
Methane
Note : Natural gas and biogas contain methane. So, burning of natural gas and biogas are also combustion
reactions.
Burning of LPG (Butane) produces CO2, H2O heat and light.
13 Combustion
C4H10(g) + O (g)   4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)+ Heat + Light
2 2
Butane/LPG
 COMBUSTION OF CELLULOSE :
Combustion of cellulose (like wood, cotton cloth and paper) gives CO 2, H2O heat and light. Cellulose is a
carbohydrate and can be described by the formula (C6H10O5)n.
(C6H10O5)n(s) + 6nO2(g) 

burn
 6nCO2(g) + 5n H2O(g) + Heat + light
Cellulose
 Combustion of alcohol :
C2H5OH() + 3O2(g) burn

  2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) + Heat + light
Ethanol oxygen (in air)

Activity : To observe the combustion of given organic compounds.
Materials : Benzene, naphthalene, Camphor, alcohol (ethanol). Spirit, acetone.
Procedure :
1. Take each compound on iron spatulla and burn them in bunsen burner.
2. Record the type of flame produced.
3. Put a metal plate above the flame and observe whether or not there is black carbon deposition.
Observation :
Compound used Flame Produced Deposit
Benzene Smoky flame Carbon deposited
Naphthalene Smoky flame Carbon deposited
Camphor Smoky flame Carbon deposited
Alcohol Non-Luminous flame No Carbon deposited
Spirit Non-Luminous flame No Carbon deposited
Acetone Non-Luminous flame No Carbon deposited
Conclusion :
Benzene, naphthalene, camphor burn with smoky flame and carbon particles get deposited they undergo
incomplete combustion due to excess of carbon content.
 Alcohol, spirit and acetone burn with non-Luminous flame and no carbon gets deposited. They under go complete
combustion, therefore produce more heat.
Activity : To study the different types of flames / presence of smoke.
Material required : Bunsen burner.
Procedure :
1 . Light the bunsen burner.
2 . Close the air hole and observe the colour of the flame.
3 . Put a metal plate over it and observe the nature of deposit.
4 . Open the air regulator to allow flow of air.
5 . Observe the colour of flame.
6 . Put a metal plate and observe the nature of deposit.
Observation :
Air Regulator Colour of flame Nature of deposit Nature of flame Temperature
Closed Yellow sooty flame Black carbon deposited Reducing flame low
Open Bluish flame No black carbon deposited Oxidising flame High
Conclusion : Keep the air regulator open to get oxidising, non-sooty flame which has high temperature and
does not lead to black deposits.
COMBUSTION AND THE NATURE OF FLAME :
(i) Saturated hydrocarbon such as, methane, ethane, propane, butane and natural gas and LPG burn with a
blue flame in the presence of sufficient / excess of air / oxygen.
(ii) In the presence of limited amount of air / oxygen, saturated hydrocarbon, such as, methane, butane. etc
give smoky flame.
(iii) Unsaturated hydrocarbon such as ethene, ethyne etc. burn with a luminous / yellow smoky flame.
(iv) The gas / kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a sufficiently oxygen rich mixture is burnt to
give a clean blue flame. If you carefully observe the bottoms of vessels getting blackened, it is clear indication
that the air holes are blocked and the fuel is getting wasted.
(v) Fuels, such as coal and petroleum, have some amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them. Combustion of coal
and petroleum results in formation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen (such as sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide,
nitrogen peroxide) which are major pollutants in the environment.
FORMATION OF COAL AND PETROLEUM :
Coal and petroleum have been formed from biomass which has been subjected to various biological and geological
processes.
Coal is a naturally occurring black mineral and is a mixture of free carbon and compounds of carbon containing
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. It is not only a good fuel but is also a source of many organic compounds.
It is found in coal mines deep under the surface of earth.
Coal is believed to be formed from fossils which got buried inside the earth during earthquakes and volcanoes
which occurred about 300 million years ago. Due to huge pressure and temperature inside the earth and in the
absence of air, the fossils fuels (vegetable matter or wood, etc.) were converted into coal. The slow chemical
processes of the conversion of wood into coal is called carbonisation. Since coal is formed by slow carbonisatiion
of plants and fossils, it produces many important carbonisation products like peat, lignite, bituminous and
anthracite etc. and is itself known as fossil fuel. Coal is also a non-renewable source of energy.
Petroleum is a complex mixture containing various hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen) in addition
to small amounts of other organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. It is a dark coloured,
viscous and foul smelling crude oil. The name petroleum is derived from latin words : "petra" meaning rock and
"oleum" meaning oil. Since petroleum is found trapped between various rocks, it is also known as rock oil.
OXIDATION :
Carbon and its compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion (or burning). During combustion / burning, the
compounds gets oxidised completely to different products, depending upon the nature of the oxidising agents.
 Carbon gives carbon monoxide or carbondioxide depending upon the oxygen available.
2C(s) + O2(g)  2CO(g)
Carbon Oxygen(limited) Carbon monoxide
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
(excess) Carbon dioxide
 Hydrocarbon when oxidised give different product as follows :
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) Complete oxidation CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
 

Methane Oxygen(excess)
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) Incomplete oxidation 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)

 
Methane Oxygen(Limited)
 Alcohols also give different products on oxidation depending upon the reaction conditions.
Example :
Alcohols on oxidation with certain oxidising agents such as chromic anhydride in acetic acid, yield corresponding
aldehydes, where as on oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate (or acidified potassium dichromate)
corresponding carboxylic acid is formed, as given below :
3CrO in
CH3CH2OH() + [O] 
CH COOH CH3CHO + H2O
3
Ethanol Nascent oxygen Ethanal (an aldehyde)
Alkaline
CH3CH2OH() + 2[O] 
KMnO 4 , Heat
 CH COOH + H2O
3
Ethanoic acid
Activity : To study the reaction of ethanol with alkaline potassium permanganate :
Material required : Ethanol, alkaline KMnO4, test tube.
Procedure :
 Take about 3 ml of ethanol in a test tube.
 Add 5% solution of alkaline KMnO4 drop by drop into this solution.
 Observe the colour of alkaline KMnO4 after adding initially as well as finally.
Observation : The colour of KMnO4 gets discharged in the begining. When excess of KMnO4 is added, the colour of
KMnO4 does not disappear because whole of ethanol gets oxidised to ethanoic acid.
Alkaline, KMnO , Heat

4
CH3CH2OH 
or K Cr O / H SO , Heat) CH3COOH + H2O
2 2 7 2 4
ADDITION REACTION :
All unsaturated hydrocarbons (unsaturated carbon compounds) react with a molecule like H2. X2. H2O etc. to form
another saturated compounds are called addition reactions.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen, in the presence of catalysts, such as nickel or palladium to give saturated
hydrocarbons.
Note : Catalysts are substance that cause a reaction to occur or proceed at a different rate without the
reaction it say being affected.
 Addition of hydrogen to ethene :

H H
H H Ni, 250°C
C= C + H2(g) H–C–C–H
H H
H H
Ethene Ethane
(Double bond containing (Saturated hydrocarbon)
unsaturated carbon compound)
Q. Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions : C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4.
 Addition of hydrogen to ethyne :
H H
Ni, Heat H H Ni, Heat
H – C  C – H + H2(g) C= C + H2(g) H–C–C–H
H H
H H
Ethyne (acetylene) Ethene (ethylene) Ethane
 Addition of hydrogen to a unsaturated carbon compound is called hydrogenation reaction.
Certain vegetable oils such as ground nut oil, cotton seed oil and mustard oil, contain double bonds (C = C) and
are liquids at room temperature. Because of the unsaturation, the vegetable oils undergo hydrogenation, like
alkenes, to from saturated products called vanaspati ghee. Which is semi-solid at room temperature.
Ni, Heat
Vegetable oils (Unsaturated oil) + Hydrogen  Vanaspati Ghee (Saturated ghee)
Q. What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
Q. If a molecule Y contain two – C = C – double bonds, then how many moles of H2 are required for complete
hydrogenation of one mole of Y?
Q. Write the industrial application of hydrogenation.
SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS :
The reactions in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon are replaced by some other atoms or groups are
called substitution reaction.
Example :
Methane reacts with chlorine (or bromine) in the presence of sunlight and undergo substitution reaction. It is called
photochemical reaction because it takes place in presence of sunlight.
Sunlight
CH4(g) + Cl2(g)   CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
Chloromethane
Sunlight
CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g) 
 CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)
Dichloromethane
Sunlight
CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g) 
 CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)
Trichloromethane(chloroform)
Sunlight
CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) 
 CCl4() + HCl(g)
Tetra chloromethane
(carbon tetra chloride)
Q. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?

Q. A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of ethyne and air is not used?
SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS :

ETHANOL (ETHYLALCOHOL, C2H5OH) :
Ethanol is the second member of the homologous series of alcohols.
Preparation : By the fermentation of carbohydrates (sugar or starch).
Ethanol is prepared on commercial scale by fermentation of sugar. Fermentation is allowed to take place at
298 – 303 K in the absence of air. This is ethanol (ethyl alcohol) gets oxidised to ethanoic acid
(acetic acid) in the presence of air.
Invertase
C 12 H 22 O 11 + H2O   C 6 H 12 O 6 + C6 H 12 O 6
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
Zymase
C 6 H 12 O 6   2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO2(g)
Glucose/Fructose Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) Carbon dioxide
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
 Physical state / colour and odour : Pure ethanol is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell and a burning
taste.
 Boiling and Freezing points : It is a volatile liquid with a boiling point of 78.1°C, and freezing point is –118°C.
 Density : Ethanol is lighter than water as its density is 0.79 g ml–1 at 293 K.
 Solubility : Ethanol is miscible with water in all proportions, due to the formation of hydrogen bonds with water
molecules.
 Conductivity : Ethanol is a covalent compound and does not ionise easily in water, hence it is a neutral compound.
 Action on Litmus : Ethanol is a neutral compound. So, it has no effect on the colour of litmus.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL :
 Combustion (or burning) : Ethanol is highly inflammable liquid and readily burn in air with blue flame to form
water vapour, carbon dioxide and evolving heat. Thus, combustion of ethanol is an exothermic reaction.
C6H5OH () + 3O2(g) Combustion

  2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) + Heat
Q. Carbon and its compounds are used as fuels. Give its main reason.
 Reaction with sodium metal : Ethanol reacts with sodium metal to produce sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas is
evolved.
2C2H5OH () + 2Na(s)  2C2H5ONa + H2(g)
Ethanol Sodium metal Sodium ethoxide Hydrogen

Activity : To study the reaction of ethanol with sodium metal.
Materials : Ethanol, dry piece of sodium metal test tube.
Procedure :
 Take ethanol in a test tube.
 Add a dry piece of sodium metal.
 Bring a burning matchstick near the gas evolved to test it and record observation.
Observation : The gas burns in air with a pop sound which is the characteristics of hydrogen gas.
Conclusion : Alcohol react with sodium metal to liberate hydrogen gas.
 Reaction with ethanoic acid (Esterification reaction) :

The reaction in which an alcohol reacts with acetic acid in the presence of conc. H2SO4 to form an ester is called
esterification.
Conc. H2SO4, Heat
CH3COOH() + C2H5OH() CH3COOC2H5() + H2O()
ethanoic acid ethanol ehtyl ethanoate

(acetic acid) (ethyl acetate)
sweet smelling compound
Note : Ester are sweet-smelling compounds and are used for making perfumes.
 Reaction with conc. sulphuric acid (Dehydration) :
Ethanol when heated with excess of concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K, gets dehydrated to give ethene.
C2H5OH() + H2SO4(Conc.) 

443 K
 H2C = CH2(g) + H2O()
ethanol excess ethene
Note : The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent which remove water from
ethanol.
Uses of ethanol :
 Ethanol is present in alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, whisky.
 As a solvent for paints, varnishes-dyes, cosmetics, perfumes, soaps and synthetic rubber etc.
 Ethanol is used in cough syrups, digestive syrups and tonics.
 A mixture of 80% rectified spirit and 20% petrol is called power alcohol. It is used as fuel in cars and
aeroplanes.
 A mixture of ethanol and water has lower freezing point than water this mixture is known as antifreezing and
is used in radiators of vehicles in cold countries and at hill stations.
 As an antiseptic to sterilize wounds and syringes in hospitals.
 For the manufacture of terylene and polythene.
 As a preservative for biological specimens.
 Ethyl alcohol is used as hypnotic (induces-sleep).

Harmful effects of Alcohols :
 Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness. Even though this practice is condemned,
it is a socially widespread practice. However, intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute
alcohol) can be lethal. Also long-term consumption of alcohol leads to many health problems.
 When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to slow metabolic processes and to depress the central nervous
system. This results in lack of coordination, mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of normal inhibitions and finally
stupor (unconscious state of wild)
 Drinking of alcohol over a long period of time damages liver.
Denatured Alcohol :
Ethanol to which certain poisonous and nauseating substances like methyl alcohol, pyridine etc. have been added is
termed denatured alcohol.
Note : To prevent the misuse of ethanol (Alcohol), industrial alcohol is coloured blue so that it can be recognised easily.
Harmful effects of denatured alcohol :
 Methanol is highly poisonous compound for human beings. Methanol when taken, even in small amount, can cause
death.
 Methanol gets oxidised to methanal in the liver, which causes coagulation of protoplasm.
 Methanol also effects the optic nerve and cause blindness.
ETHANOIC ACID (ACETIC ACID) CH3COOH :
 Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to the homologous series of carboxylic acid and is represented
as CH3COOH.
 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used for preservating foods like sausage, pickles.
Physical properties :
 At ordinary temperature, ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a strong pungent smell and sour taste.
 Its boiling point is 391 K and its density at 273 K is 1.08 (heavier than water).
 It is miscible with water due to the formation of hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
 On cooling at 289.6 K, it turns in ice-like crystals, hence named as glacial acetic acid.
 It dissolves sulphur, iodine and many other organic compounds.
 It dimerise when dissolved in benzene.
 2CH3COOH (CH3COOH)2
Ethanoic acid Dimer

Activity : To determine pH of acetic acid and hydrochloric acid.
Material : Acetic acid (1M), HCl (1M), blue litmus paper, universal indicator.
Procedure : Take two strips of blue litmus paper.
 Put a few drops of HCl on one of them and few drops of acetic acid on the other.
 Observe the change in colour.
 Take 1 ml of acetic acid in a test tube and add a few drops of universal indicator.
 Take 1 ml of HCl in a test tube and add few drops of universal indicator.
Observation : Both acetic acid and HCl turn blue litmus red showing that they are acidic in nature. pH of acetic acid and
HCl are not equal.
Conclusion : HCl is strong acid than CH3COOH, therefore, pH of HCl will be lower than that of acetic acid.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :
 Reaction with alcohols (Esterification reaction) :
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of conc. H2SO4 to form ethyl ethanoate which is an ester.
CH3COOH() + C2H5OH() Conc. H 2 SO 4 ,heat

  CH3COOC2H5
 + H2O
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate (ester)

the reaction of carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester is called "estrification".
Note : Ester can be hydrolysed in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the parent carboxylic acid and the
alcohol.
Example :
(i) Ethyl ethanoate on acid hydrolysis gives ethanoic acid and ethanol.
CH3COOC2H5() + H2O()  CH3COOH(aq.) + C2H5OH
(ii) Hydrolysis of ester in the presence of base (alkali) is called "Saponification reactions".
CH3COOC2H5() + NaOH(aq)  CH3COONa + C2H5OH

Ethyl ethanoate Sodium Hydroxide Sodium ethanoateEthanol
Note : Alkaline hydrolysis of higher esters is used in the manufacture of soaps.
Activity : To study the esterification process using ethanol and acetic acid.
Materials : Beaker, water, test tube, ethanol, acetic acid. Test tube
containing
Conc. H2SO4 etc. reaction Beaker
mixture
Procedure : Take 2ml of ethanol in a test tube. Yellow
 Add 2ml of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in to it. Beaker
 Add few drops of conc. H2SO4. Tripod stand
 Warm it in a beaker containing water.

Burner
Observation : Pleasant fruity smelling compound (called ester) is formed.
Conclusion : Acetic acid reacts with alcohol in presence of conc. H2SO4 which act as a dehydrating agent to form ester.
Reaction with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate :
Ethanoic acid decomposes sodium hydrogen carbonate and sodium carbonate with a rapid evoluation of carbon-dioxide
gas.
NaHCO3(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)  CH3COONa(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
Sodium Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

hydrogen carbonate
Na2CO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq)  2CH3COONa(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
Sodium carbonateEthanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

Note ; Reactions of ethanoic acid with NaOH, NaHCO3, Na2CO3 and active metals show that the hydrogen present in the
carboxyl (–COOH) group is acidic in nature.
Activity : To study the reaction of carboxylic acid with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Material : Ethanoic acid, Sodium carbonate, Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Procedure :
 Take 1g of Na2CO3 and add 2ml of ethanoic acid into it.
 Pass the gas formed through lime water and note down the observation.
 Repeat the same procedure with sodium hydrogen carbonate and record observation.
Observation : Brisk effervescence due to carbon dioxide formed which turns lime water milky.
Conclusion : Acetic acid react with Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 to liberate CO2 gas.
USES OF ETHANOIC ACID :
 Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of various dyes, perfumes and rayon.
 It is used for making vinegar.
 It is used for making white lead [2PbCO3 . Pb(OH)2] which is used in white paints.
 Its 5% solution is bactericidal (destroys bacteria).
 It is used in preparation of cellulose acetate which is used for making photographic film.
 It is used for coagulation of the latex.
 It is used for preparation of 2, 4-dichloro phenoxy ethanoic acid which is used as herbicide.
 Aluminium acetate and chromium acetate are used as mordants in dyeing and water proofing of fabrics.
Q. How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid?
Q. What are oxidising agents?
Q. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and chemical properties?
SOAP AND DETERGENTS :

Soap and detergents are substances whcih are used for cleaning. There are two types of detergents :
1. Soap 2. Synthetic detergents
Soap : A soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long-chain fatty acids (carboxylic acid or glycerol).
Activity :
Na+
+
Na oil
droplet
+
Na
+
Na
Formation of micelles
Take about 10mL of water each in two test tubes.
Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both the test tubes and label them as A and B.
To test tube B, add a few drops of soap solution. Now shake both the test tubes vigourously for the same period
of time.
Can you see the oil and water layers separately in both the test tubes immediately after you stop shaking them.
Leave the test tubes undisturbed for some time and observe. Does the oil layer separate out ? In which test tube
does this happen first ?
This activity demonstrate effect of soap in cleasing as we know that most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does it
disolve in water.
But know the question arise what are soap ? What are the detergent which one is more effect. How the work. Soap is
sodium or potassium salt a long change fatty acid (Carboxylic acid or Glycerol)
A soap has large non ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic group. COONa.
Ex.of soap are :
(1) Sodium stearate (C17H35COONa)
(2)Sodium plamitate (C15H31COONa)

Soap are basic in nature so soap solution turn red litmus to blue.
Preparation of Soap :
The soap is prepared by heating animal fats or vegetable oils (olive oils, castor oil or palm oil) with sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide.
The process of formation of soap by the hydrolysis of fat or oil with alkali is called saponification.
Oil or Fat + Sodium hydroxide  Soap + glycerol
Structure :
 A soap molecule contains two parts that interact differently with water, one part is a long hydrocarbon (non-polar)
chain, and other belongs to the –COONa group (Hydrophillic).
A soap molecule may be represented as :
– +
R–C–O Na
O
Cleansing action of soap :

The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylix acids. The ionic end of soap dissolves in
water while the carbon chain dissolves in oil. The soap molecules, thus form structures called micelles where one end of
the molecules is towards the oil droplet while the ionic end faces outside. This form an emulsion in water. The soap
micelle thus helps in dissolving the dirt in water and we can wash out clothes clean.
Hydrophilic end
Hydrophobic end
Hydrophilic end Hydrophobic end
Grease or dirt
Soap molecule
+
Na +
Na+ Na
+
Na Na+
oil droplet
+
Na
+ Na
+
Na
Micelle +
Na +
Na Na
+
Formation of micelles
Effect of soap in cleaning
Q. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water? Will a micelle be formed in other solvents
such as ethanol also?
Q. Explain the mechansim of the cleaning action of soaps.
Activity : Take two clean test tubes and label them as 'A' and 'B'. Now put 10ml of hard water in each of the two test tubes. Add
five drops of soap solution in test tube 'A' and five drops of detergent solution in test tube 'B'. Shake the two test tubes
for the same period and observe if both the test tubes have the same amount of foam. Find out in which of the two test
tubes a curdy white mass is formed.
In which test tube do you get more form ?
We get more foams in test tube .................... .
A white curdy precipitate is formed in test tube...............
Result (Conclusion) : Soaps are not effective in acidic medium.
When soaps is used for washing clothes with hard water, a large amount of soap is wasted in reacting with the calcium
and magnesium ions of hard water to form an insoluble precipitate called scum, before it can be used for the real purpose
of washing soap. A large amount of soap is needed for washing clothes. When the water is hard.
Activity :
Take two test tubes with a about 10 mL of hard water in each.
Add five drops of soap solution to one and five drops of detergent solution to the other.
Shake both test tubes for the same period
Do both test tubes have the same amount of foam ?
In which test tube is a curdy solid formed ?
Observation :
Test tube in which ............................is present contain more amount of foam.
Curdy solids is form in the test tube containing ....................
Conclusion : Detergents have better cleasing action than soap. Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of long
chain carboxylic acids. The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and
magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in hard water. Detergents are usually used to make shampoos
and products for cleaning clothes.
Q. What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)?
Q. Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergents ?
Q. People use a variety to methods to wash clothes. Usually after adding the soap, they 'beat' the clothes on a stone,
or beat it with a paddle, scrub with a brush or the mixture is agitated in a washing machine. Why is agitation necessary
to get clean clothes ?
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOAPSAND SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS :
Soaps Synthetic detergents
1. Soaps are sodium salts of long chain fatty acid 1. Synthetic detergents are the sodium salts of long-chain
(carboxylic acids) benzene sulphonic acids or the sodium salt of a long -

chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate
2. The ionic part of soap is –COO–Na+ 2. The ionic part in a synthetic detergents is
–SO3–Na+
3. They are prepared from animal fats 3. The are prepared from hydrocarbons
or plant based oils. extracted from coal or petroleum.
4. Their efficiency decreases in hard water 4. Their efficiency is unaffected in hard water.
5. Soaps take more time to dissolve in water. 5. Synthetic detergents dissolve faster than soaps in water
6. They are biodegradable 6. Some synthetic detergents are not biodegradable.
7. Examples : Sodium sterate, sodium palmitate 7. Example : Sodium lauryl sulphate, sodium dodecyl
benzene sulphonate.
SOAP :
C17H35COO–CH2
C17H35COO–CH + 3NaOH  3C17H35COONa
C17H35COO–CH2 Sodium hydroxide Sodium stearate(soap)
Glycerol stearate
(fatty acid)
Structure :
 The hydrocarbon chain is non-polar and water -hating (hydrophobic), while the other part is polar or water
loving (hydrophilic).
 Hydrophilic part makes the soap soluble in water and hydrophobic part makes the soap insoluble.
O
–
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2–C–O–Na+
Hydrophobic "Tail" Hydrophilic "head"
(Non-polar part) (Polar part)
 When soap is added to water, the soap molecules assume a configuration which increases the interaction of the
water loving heads with the water molecuels, and decreases the interaction between the water hating tails with
the water molecules.
 The hydrophobic part of the soap molecules traps the dirt and the hydrophilic part makes the entire molecules
soluble in water. Thus, the dirt gets washed away with the soap.
 The water-hating, non polar tails clump together in a radial fashion with the water-loving, polar heads remaining
at the periphery of the clump, these clumps or droplets of soap molecules are called micelles.
Disadvantage of soap :
 Soaps are not effective in hard water : Hard water contains calcium ions (Ca2+) and magnesium ions (Mg2+). These ions
react with the carboxylate ions (RCOO–) of the soap forming an insoluble precipitate called scum. For example, soap like
sodium stearate (C17H35COONa) reacts with calcium and magnesium ions as per the following chemical equation.
2C17H35COONa + Ca2+(aq)  (C17H35COO)2 Ca  + 2Na+ (aq)
Sodium stearate (In hard water) Calcium stearate Sodium ion
2C17H35 COONa + Mg2+(aq)  (C17H35COO)2 Mg  + 2Na+ (aq)
Sodium stearate (In hard water) Magnesium stearate(scum) Sodium ion
The scum gets attached to the clothes, utensils and even skin and thus, interferes with the cleansing ability of the
additional soap and makes the cleansing of clothes difficult. Moreover, large amount of soap is wasted in
reacting with calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water.
Q. Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
 Soaps are not effective in acidic medium : In presence of hydrogen ions (H+ ions), i.e. in acidic medium, the carboxylate
ions of soap (RCOO– ion) interact with hydrogen ions (H+) to form undissociated (free) fatty acid as represented below
:
 C17H35COOH
C17H35COO–(aq) + H+ 
carboxylate ion Carboxylic acid (Unionised)
As the fatty acids are weak acids, so they do not get ionised and hence, micelle formation is hindered, thus, adversely
affecting the cleansing property of soaps.
You will observe that the amount of foam in the two test tubes in different. The foam is formed to a greater extent in test
tube 'B' (containing detergent solution), while formation of a curdy white mass will be observed in test tube 'A'. This
activity clearly indicates that detergents can be used for cleansing purpose, even with hard water.
SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS :
 Synthetic detergents are called soapless soap because they are not prepared from fatty acid and alkali.
 Synthetic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic acids, i.e. detergents contain a sulphonic acid group (–SO3H),
instead of a carboxylic acid group (–COOH), on one end of the hydrocarbon chain.
O
–
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2C6H4––S–O–Na+
O
Hydrophobic "Tail"
(Non-polar part) Hydrophilic "head"
(Polar part)
Properties of synthetic detergents :
 Synthetic detergents do not react with the ions present in hard water. Hence, synthetic detergents have no problem in
forming lather with hard water, i.e. their efficiency is not affected by hard water.
 Synthetic detergents can be used even in acidic solution and sea water, whereas soap cannot be used in the acidic
solution (due to precipitation of free acids)
 Synthetic detergents do not form insoluble salts of calcium or magnesium with hard water. Hence, lesser amounts of
synthetic detergents are required for washing.
Washing powder :
 Washing powders used for washing clothes contain only about 15 to 30 percent detergents by mass. The remaining part
is made of the following.
(i) Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate which keep the powder dry.
(ii) Sodium tripolyphosphate or sodium carbonate which maintains alkalinity for removing dirt.
(iii) Carboxymethylcellulose (CM-Cellulose) which keep the dirt particle suspended in water.
(iv) Sodium perborate (a mild bleaching agent) which impart whitenes to the materials (clothes, etc.) being washed.
PREVIOUS YEARS’ BOARD QUESTIONS :

1. An organic compound 'A' has molecular formula C2H4O2 and is acidic in nature. On heating with alcohol and conc.
sulphuric acid, vapours with pleasant or fruity smell are given out. What is this chemical compound 'A' and what
is the chemical equation involved in the reaction ?
Ans. The compound 'A' with molecular formula C2H4O2 is ethanoic acid (acetic acid). Upon heating with ethanol (ethyl
alcohol) and concentrated sulphuric acid, ethyl ethanoate (ethyl acetate) is formed as the product. It is an ester with
pleasant or fruity smell. The reaction is known as esterification reaction.
H 2 SO 4 (conc.)
CH3COOH + C2H5OH   CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Ethanoic acid ('A') Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate (Ester)
2. An organic compound 'A' is a constituent of antifreeze and has the molecular formula C2H6O. Upon reaction with
alkaline KMnO4, the compound 'A' is oxidised to another compound 'B' with formula C2H6O2. ldentify the compounds
'A' and 'B'. Write the chemical equation for the reaction which leads to the formation of 'B'.
Ans. The compound 'A' is ethanol and with alkaline KMnO4, it is oxidised to ethanoic acid 'B'. The chemical equation
for the reaction is :
Alkaline
C 2H 5 OH 
KMnO 4  CH 3COOH
Ethanol (A) Ethanoic acid (B)
3. Name the functional groups present in the following compounds :

(i) CH 3—CH 2—CH 2—OH (ii) CH 3—CH 2—CH 2—COOH
(iii) CH 3—CH 2—CHO (iv) CH 3—CO—CH 2—CH 3
Ans. (i) —OH (ol) (ii) —COON (oic acid) (iii) —CHO (al) (iv) —CO— (one)
4. Write the formulae of the compounds and name the functional groups present in each of them
(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Propanone (iii) Nitromethane

Ans. (i) Ethanoic acid : CH3COOH (oic acid)
(ii) Propanone : CH3COCH3 (one)
(iii) Nitromethane : CH3NO2 (nitro)

5. Name the enzyme which converts :
(i) milk into curd (yogurt)
(ii) cane sugar into glucose and fructose
(iii) glucose into ethanol.

Ans. (i) Lactase converts milk into curd
(ii) Invertase converts cane sugar (sucrose) into glucose and fructose
(iii) Zymase converts glucose into ethanol.
6. (i) Name the gas evolved during fermentation process.

(ii) List the two products formed when enzyme invertase acts on sugar present in molasses.
Ans. (i) CO2 gas is evolved accompanied by brisk effervescence.
(ii) Glucose and fructose are the products when enzyme invertase acts on sucrose (Cl2H22O11) present in molasses.
7. Complete the following equations and write the names of the products formed.
Alkaline
Heat
(i) CH3COOH + NaOH   (ii) C2H5OH + O2 
KMnO 4 
conc. H 2 SO 4
(iii) CH3COOH + C2H5OH  

Heat
Ans. (i) CH3COOH + NaOH   CH3COONa + H2O
Ethanoic acid Sod. ethanoate
Alkaline
(ii) C2H 5OH + O 2 
KMnO 4  CH 3COOH + H 2O
Ethanol Ethanoic acid
conc. H 2 SO 4
(iii) CH 3COOH + C 2H 5OH   CH 3COOC 2H 5 + H 2O

Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate
8. Name the organic compound present in vinegar. Write a chemical equation which represents the commercial
method for the preparation of this compound from methanol.
Ans. The organic compound present in vinegar is ethanoic acid also called acetic acid. For its commercial preparation.
9. (a) Why does carbon form compounds by covalent bonding ?
(b) An organic acid 'X' is a liquid which often freezes during winter time in cold countries. It has the molecular
formula C2H4O2. On warming with ethanol in the presence of a few drops of sulphuric acid, a compound
‘Y’ with sweet smell is formed.
(i) Identify X and 'Y'. (ii) Write chemical equation for the reaction involved.
Ans. (a) Carbon forms a large number of organic compounds due to the self linking property known as catenation.
(b) The available information suggests that the organic acid X with molecular formula C2H4O2 is ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH). It reacts with ethanol in the presence of a few drops of sulphuric acid on warming to give
ethyl ethanoate ester with a pleasant smell.
H 2 SO 4 (Conc.)
CH 3 COOH + C 2 H 5 OH Warm  CH 3COOC 2 H 5 + H 2 O
(C 2 H 4 O 2 ) Warm Ethyl ethanoate (Y)
Ethanoic acid (X)
10. Why do covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points ?
Ans. In covalent compounds, the atoms are linked by covalent bonds formed by electron sharing. Since no ions
are present in these, the attractive forces are quite weak. As a result, the covalent compounds have low
melting and boiling points.
11. (i) How are carboxylic acids different from mineral acids from ionisation point of view ?
(ii) Describe an activity to find how ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate. Name the gas evolved.
How can it be tested ?
Ans. (i) Carboxylic acids (organic acids) are less ionised in solution as compared to mineral acids
(HCI, HNO 3, H 2SO 4 etc.) Due to this reason, these are weaker acids than the mineral acids.
(ii) Take a small volume of ethanoic acid in a tube. Add a few drops of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) solution
prepared in water to the tube. A colourless gas with brisk effervescence will evolve. When the gas
is passed through lime water, it will become milky.
Na2CO3(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)  CH3COONa(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) )  CaCO3(s) + H2O()

Lime water (Milky)
12. (a) What is a functional group in a carbon compound ? Identify the functional group present in CH 3COOH
and C 2H 5 OH.
(b) State the principle on which the cleansing action of soap is based.
Ans. (a) Functional group may be defined as an atom or group of atoms upon which the properties of a particular
organic compound are based. Different families differ in the functional groups.
Functional group in CH3COOH : (—COOH)
Functional group in C2H5OH : (—OH)
(b) The cleansing action of soap is based on its tendency to act as a bridge between water and oil drops
containing dirt particles. As a result, oil and water get mixed. They form a stable emulsion also called
micelle. This helps in removing oil drops containing dirt particles from clothes. The clothes become clean.
13. (a) Draw the structure of the following compounds
(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Butanone.
(b) Why is conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid considered an oxidation reaction?
H O H H O H
| || | | || |
Ans. (a) H—C—C—O—H H—C—C—C—C—O—H
| | | |
H H H H
Ethanoic acid Butanone
(b) When ethanol (C2H 5OH) changes with ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
• There is a decrease in the number of hydrogen atoms by two.
• There is an increase in the number of oxygen atoms by one. Therefore, the conversion represents
an oxidation reaction.
14. (a) What are esters ? How are they formed ? (b) Write two uses of esters ?
Ans. (a) Esters are the group of organic compounds which contain the function group (–COOR) called ester group.
The value of R may change as —CH 3, —C 2H 5, —C 3H 7 etc. A few example of esters are :
O O
|| ||
H—C—OCH3 CH3—C—OCH3
Methyl methanoate Methyl ethanoate
Esters are formed as a result of chemical reaction called esterification.
Uses of esters
(i) Esters have pleasent smell. These are used as flavouring agents and also in perfumes.
(ii) Esters of glycerol known as triglycerides are used in the manufacture of soaps.This reaction is called
saponification reaction.
15. Distinguish between esterification and saponification reactions of organic compounds.
Ans. (a) In the esterification reaction an acid reacts with alcohol in the pressure of conc. H2SO4 to form an ester
with a pleasant or fruity smell. For example,
H 2 SO 4 (Conc.)
CH 3 COOH + C 2 H 5 OH   CH 3COOC 2 H 5 + H 2 O
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate (ester)
Saponification is quite different from esterification because in this case an ester reacts with an alkali
(NaOH or KOH) to form salt of acid and alcohol. For example,
C 3 COOC 2 H 5 + NaOH  CH 3 COONa + C 2 H 5 OH
Ethyl ethanoate Sod. ethanoate Ethanol
16. (a) In organic compounds, which part largely determines the physical and chemical properties.
(b) Write chemical equation to represent the reaction of ethanol with acidified solution of potassium dicromate.
Ans. (a) In organic compounds, it is the functional group which largely determines the physical and chemical properties
of compounds. Actually, an organic compound is made up of two parts. These are alkyl group and the
functional group. Whereas the alkyl group remains the same (size may change) but the functional groups
change. These are responsible for the characteristics of the compounds. For example, the properties of
alkanols (–OH is the functional group) are different from those of alkanoic acid (–COON is the functional
group). For more details, consult text part.
(b) Acidified solution of potassium dichromate (K 2O2O7) forms chromic acid (H2CrO4). It releases oxygen to
bring about the oxidation of ethanol first to ethanal and then to ethanoic acid.
H OH
(O )
| (O )
|
CH 3 — CH 2 — OH 
– H2 O  CH 3 — C = O   CH 3 — C = O
Ethanol Ethanal Ethanoic acid
17. Give reason for the following:
(a) Air holes of the gas burners have to be adjusted when heated vessels get blackened by the flame.
(b) Use of synthetic detergents causes pollution problems.
Ans. (a) In case the vessel where cooking is done gets blackened from outside, this means that combustion is incomplete.
As a result, the carbon particles in the form of soot get deposited and the vessel becomes black from
outside. In order to check this, oxygen or air supply must be increased. This can be done only by adjusting
the air holes of the gas burner.
(b) The pollution problems caused by the synthetic detergents is due to their non-biogradable nature. These
are actually long chain organic compounds which do not break or decompose in water. Naturally, this
will result in pollution problems. Some of the detergents are even of toxic nature and will make water
unfit for drinking.
EXERCISE # 1 QUESTIONS FOR COMPETATIVE EXAM

1. Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has
(a) 6 covalent bonds (b) 7 covalent bonds (c) 8 covalent bonds (d) 9 covalent bonds
2. Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional group
(a) Carboxylic acid (b) aldehyde (c) ketone (d) alcohol
3. While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it means that
(a) the food is not cooked completely (b) the fuel is not burning completely
(c) the fuel is wet (d) the fuel is burning completely
4. A covalent bond is formed by
(A) complete transfer of electrons (B) one sided sharing of electron
(C) mutual sharing of electron (D) all of the three above.
5. Which of the following compounds does not contain a multiple bond?
(A) Ethane (B) Ethene (C) Ethyne (D) Benzene
6. Which of the following is not a saturated hydrocarbon?
(A) Cyclohexane (B) Benzene (C) Butane (D) Isobutane
7. Benzene with molecular formula, C6H6, has
(A) 6 single bonds and 6 double bonds (B) 12 single bonds and 3 double bonds
(C) 18 single bonds only (D) 12 double bonds only
8. The functional group in methanol and methanal respectively are :
(A) –OH, –CHO (B) –CHO, –OH (C) –OH, –COOH (D) –CHO, –COOH
9. Which of the following is not an allotropic form of carbon?
(A) Coal (B) Fullerene (C) Diamond (D) Graphite
10. Graphite is a soft lubricant extremely difficult to melt. The reason for this anomalous behaviour is that graphite
(A) has carbon atoms arranged in large plates of rings of strongly bound carbon atoms with weak interplate
bonds
(B) is a non-crystalline substance
(C) is an allotropic form of carbon
(D) has only single bonds between carbon atoms
11. Which of the following represent the correct order of unsaturation?
(A) Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes (B) Alkanes, alkynes, alkenes
(C) Alkenes, alkynes, alkenes (D) Alkynes, alkanes, alkenes
12. The general formula of alcohol is
(A) CnH2n+2OH (B) CnH 2n+1 OH (C) CnH2n–1 OH (D) C n H 2n+4 OH
13. Wine contains
(A) CH3OH (B) C6H5OH (C) C2H5OH (D) CH3COOH
14. The acid present in vinegar is
(A) CH3COOH (B) HCOOH
(C) CH3CH2COOH (D) CH3CH2CH2COOH
15. The reaction 2C2H5OH + 2Na  2C2H5ONa + H2 suggests that ethanol is
(A) Acidic in nature (B) Basic in nature (C) Amphoteric (D) Neutral
16. Which of the following substance is added to denature ethanol?
(A) Methanol (B) Benzene (C) Copper nitrate (D) Poision
17. Which of the following substances cannot be used to distinguish ethanol from ethanoic acid?
(A) Na metal (B) NaHCO3
(C) hot alkaline KMnO4 solution (D) hot acidified K2Cr2O7 solution
18. An example of soap is
(A) CH3COONa (B) CH3ONa (C) C17H35COONa (D) C17H35COOC2H5
19. Detergents are sodium or potassium salts of long chain
(A) aldehydes (B) ketones (C) carboxylic acids (D) sulphonic acids
20. Which of the following salts when dissolved in water produce hard water?
(A) Calcium sulphate (B) Magnesium bicarbonate
(C) Calcium chloride (D) Any of the above
21. Which of the following represents Lewis structure of N2 molecule?

×× ×× ×× ××
(A) ××N N×× (B) ×××× ××
N N×× (C) ×××× N××
N ×× (D) ×××× N××
N ××
22. Which of the following has the shortest carbon-carbon bond length?
(A) C2H2 (B) C2H4
(C) C2H6 (D) All have the same bond length
23. Which of the following has the weakest carbon-carbon bond strength?
(A) C2H2 (B) C2H4
(C) C2H6 (D) All have the same bond length
24. The hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n+2 is an -
(A) Alkane (B) Alkene
(C) Alkyne (D) unsaturated compounds
25. Which of the following is an alkyne ?
(A) C6H6 (B) C6H12 (C) C6H10 (D) C6H14
EXERCISE # 2 FOR SCHOOL/BOARDS EXAM
1. Which of the following will not decolourise bromine water?
(A) C4H8 (B) C3H4 (C) C3H8 (D) C4 H6
2. Compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen only are called
(A) Alkanes (B) Alkenes (C) Alkynes (D) Hydrocarbons
3. Open-chain saturated hydrocarbons are called
(A) Paraffins (B) Alkenes (C) Alkynes (D) Alkyl groups
4. The characteristic reaction of alkanes is
(A) Addition (B) Substitution (C) Polymerization (D) Isomerization
5. The major constituent of biogas is
(A) Propane (B) Acetylene (C) Methane (D) Benzene
6. n-butane and isobutane are
(A) Alkenes (B) Alkynes (C) Isomers (D) None of these
7. Methane is a major constituent of
(A) Coal gas (B) Water gas (C) Petroleum (D) Biogas
8. The major constituent of natural gas is
(A) Butane (B) Methane (C) Propane (D) Ethane
9. Ethanol on oxidation gives
(A) Ethane (B) Formalin (C) Ethanoic acid (D) Methane
10. The functional group present in carboxylic acids is
(A) –OH (B) –CHO (C) –COOH (D) –CO
11. A dilute solution of ethanoic acid in water is called
(A) Tincture of iodine (B) Fehling's solution (C) Vinegar (D) Tollen's reagent
12. Which of the following will undergo addition reactions?
(A) C2H4 (B) C2H6 (C) CH4 (D) C3 H8
13. Which of the following formula represents alkenes?
(A) CnH2n (B) CnH2n+2 (C) CnH 2n–2 (D) C n H 2n+1
14. The general formula of cyclic alkanes is
(A) Cn H2n+2 (B) CnH2n–2 (C) CnH 2n–1 (D) CnH2n
15. A carboxylic group is present in
(A) Ethylene (B) Methanoic acid (C) Formaldehyde (D) Ethanol
16. The functional group in an alcohol is
O O H
(A) –C–O– (B) –C–OH (C) –OH (D) –C=O
17. Which of the following will react with sodium metal?
(A) Ethanol (B) Ethanal (C) Ethene (D) Ethane
18. Which of the following will give a pleasant smell of ester when heated with ethanol and a small quantity of
sulphuric acid?
(A) CH3COOH (B) CH2CH2 OH (C) CH3OH (D) CH3CHO
19. The functional group in aldehydes is
(A) –CHO (B) –C=O (C) –COOH (D) –COOR
20. Ethanol on complete oxidation gives
(A) CO2 and water (B) Acetaldehyde (C) Acetic acid (D) Acetone
21. Which class of organic compounds give effervescence with NaHCO3 solution ?
(A) Esters (B) Alcohols (C) Carboxylic acids (D) Aldehydes
22. Carboxylic acids are obtained from alcohols by -
(A) Oxidation (B) Reduction (C) Hydrolysis (D) Pyrolysis
23. Soaps are prepared by alkaline hydrolysis of -
(A) Carboxylic acids (B) Lower esters (C) Higher esters (D) None of these
EXERCISE # 3 FOR SCHOOL/BOARDS EXAM

FILL IN THE BLANKS TYPE QUESTION :
1. The ability of carbon atom to link with other carbon atom is known as ..............
2. The hydrocarbons containing only single bonds are known as ..............
3. Aliphatic hydrocarbons have been classified as alkanes, .............. and alkynes.
4. .............. hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction.
5. Isomers have same molecular formula but different .............. formula.
6. Hydrocarbons are insoluble in ..............
7. The next homologue of ethene is ..............
8. During the formation of hydrogen molecule from its atoms, energy is ..............
9. Bond between hydrogen and chlorine in HCl is ..............
?
10. CH2 = CH2 + H2  CH3 – CH3
11. The general formula of the homologous series of alcohols is ..............
12. The functional group present in ethanol is ..............
13. When ethanol is warmed with alkaline potassium permanganate, the product formed is ..............
14. When a piece of sodium metal is added to ethanol, the gas formed with effervescence is ..............
15. Ethene and ethyene are examples of .............. hydrocarbons.
16. The ..............group in a soap molecule is hydrophilic.
TRUE & FALSE :
1. Methane belongs to the homologous series of alkanes.
2. The compound having the molecular formula C4H10 does not show isomerism.
3. The methane molecule has a pyrmidal shape.
4. Methane undergoes substitution reaction.
5. The consumption of ethanol increases the activity of the body.
6. Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of textiles.
7. Alkenes as well as alkynes decolourise bromine water.
8. Vanaspati ghee is obtained by the hydrogenation of vegetable oil.
9. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions.
10. Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated compounds.
11. Ethanol is oxidised by alkaline KMnO4 to oxalic acid.
12. Detergents give scum with hard water.
13. The polar end in soap is called hydrophilic end.
14. Methanol is safe to be used for drinking purpose.
15. The reaction of ethanol with conc. H2SO4 gives ethane.
16. Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form esters.
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS :
1. Name an allotrope of carbon which has 60 carbon atoms.
2. What is combustion?
3. What is the nature of substances that produce a flame?
4. The molecular formula of a compound is C2H6O. Name its homologous series.
5. What type of reactions are given by alkanes?
6. What is the composition of natural gas used for cooking?
7. Which of the following open chain compounds can have a double bond?
8. Name an allotrope of carbon which contains both single and double bonds between carbon atoms.
9. Write the name and molecular formula of alcohol derived from butane.
10. What is rectified spirit?
11. Give the name and structural formula of one homologue of HCOOH.
12. Why does hard water not produce foam with soap easily?
13. Name the hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends of a soap.
14. What is a detergent?
15. An organic compound burns with a sooty flame. Is it saturated or unsaturated compound?
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION :
1. Name any four substance obtained from organic compounds which are used in our daily life.
2. Hydrogen and chlorine react to form hydrochloric acid. Will they form an ionic or covalent bond?
3. How many electrons a carbon atom shares with other carbon atom in the formation of acetylene molecule?
4. Give examples of covalent compounds which contain :
(a) one unshared pair of electron (b) two unshared pairs of electrons.
5. What is meant by the term functional group?
6. What is meant by homologous series? Give its three important characteristics.
7. Name the functional group present in : (i) CH3CH2OH, and (ii) HCOOH.
8. The molecular formula of a hydrocarbon is C5H10. Name its homologous series.
9. Write structural formulae of the following compounds.
(i) Ethyl alcohol (ii) Acetaldehyde (iii) Propionic acid (iv) Butanone
10. What is the IUPAC name of fourth member of alcohol series? Draw its two structural isomers.
11. Write the general formulae of the following homologous series.
(i) Aldehydes (ii) Ketones (iii) Alkyne
12. How do alcohols differ structrually from alkanes?
13. Give the common and IUPAC names of the following alcohols :
(i) CH3OH (ii) CH3CH2OH (iii) CH3CHOHCH3
14. Identify the functional group in CH3CH2OH. Give IUPAC name of the compound.
15. Ethanol can be oxidised to ethanoic acid. Write the equation involved in the reaction.
16. Name the oxidising agent which can oxidise :
(i) Ethanol to enthanal (ii) Ethanol to ethanoic acid.
17. How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid?
18. A neutral organic compound 'A' having molecular formula C2H6O, undergoes oxidation with acidified potassium
permanganate to give an acidic compound 'B'. The organic compound 'A' reacts with compound 'B' on warming and
in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid to form a sweet-smelling substance 'C'. Identify A, B and C.
19. An organic compound 'A' having molecular formula C2H4O2 turns blue litmus red and gives brisk effervescence with
sodium hydrogencarbonate. Give the name and formula of 'A'.
20. What happens when (Give equations of the chemical reaction)
(i) Sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime.
(ii) Ethanoic acid is warmed with methanol in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid.
(iii) A pinch of sodium hydrogencarbonate is added to ethanoic acid.
(iv) Ethanol is oxidised with acidified potassium dichromate.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION :
1. What is covalent bond ? Draw electron dot structure for the following :
(i) Methane (ii) Carbon dioxide (iii) Ammonia (iv) Water
2. Explain the following reaction with one example each :
(i) Substitution reactions (ii) Addition reactions
(iii) Combustion reactions (iv) Oxidation reactions
3. (i) What are alcohols ? What is functional group ?
(ii) Write names and formulae of first four members of alcohols family.
(iii) How does the second member of alcohol family react with
(i) Sodium metal (ii) Ethanoic acid
4. What are soaps and synthetic detergents ? How do they differ ? Discuss their cleaning actions.
5. Which properties of carbon make it a versatile element. Discuss its bonding in saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon.
6. What are harmful effect of drinking alcohol ?
7. Write short not on :
(i) Catenation (ii) Glacial acetic acid (iii) Power alcohol (vi) Saponification
8. Give chemical test to detect the presence of (i) ethanol, (ii) ethanoic acid and (iii) an ester.
9. Discuss briefly two physical and three chemical properties of ethanol.
10. Discuss briefly the physical and chemical properties of ethanoic acid.
CARBON & COMPOUND ANSWER KEY ALL EXERCISE
EXERCISE # 1
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . B C B C A B B A A A
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans . A B C A A A A C D D
Qus . 21 22 23 24 25
Ans . A A C A C
EXERCISE # 2
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . C D A B C C D B C C
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans . C A A D B C A A A A
Qus . 21 22 23
Ans . C A C
EXERCISE # 3
1. Catenation 2. Alkanes/saturated hydrocarbon 3. Alkenes
4. Unsaturated 5. Structural 6. Water 7. Propene
8. Released 9. Covalent 10. Ni catalyst 11. C nH 2n+1 OH.

12. Hydroxy 13. Ethanoic acid 14. Hydrogen 15. Unsaturated
16. Polar / COONa +
 True or False
1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T
5. F 6. T 7. T 8. T
9. T 10. T 11. F 12. F
13. T 14. F 15. F 16. T
SOLVED QUESTIONS
1. Write the chemical formula of simplest ketone.
H O H
| || |
Ans. H—C—C—C—H
| |
H H
2. What will be the formula and electron dot structure of cyclopentane ?
CH2
Ans. Formula for cyclopentane is C5H10. Its electron dot structure can be represented as C5H10 CH3 CH3
| |
CH2 — CH2
3. Propanone.
H :..
O: H
O .. .. ..
H :..: C: .. : H
||
Ans. Propanone CH3 —C —CH3
H H
4. What will happen if a piece of diamond is dropped in fire ? Write chemical equation for the reaction.
Ans. Diamond will burn in fire because it is an allotrope of carbon. On combustion, it will produce carbon dioxide.
C + O2  CO2
Diamond Oxygen Carbon dioxide
5. Write two main difference between the nature of diamond and graphite.
Ans. Two maln difference between diamond and graphite are
(i) Diamond is very hard whereas graphite is a soft substance.
(ii) Diamond is a poor conductor of electricity whereas graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
6. Write the formulae for the given compounds and name the functional groups present in each of them.
(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Propanone
Ans. (i) Compound : Ethanoic acid
Formula : CH 3 – COOH
O
||
Functional group : – C – OH
(Carboxylic acid group)
(ii) Compound : Propanone
O
Formula : ||
CH3 – C – CH3
O
||
Functional group : —C —
(Ketone group)
7. Mention any two tests which can be used of defect carboxylic acid group in an organic compound.
Ans. (i) Litmus test :- Carboxylic acids turn blue litmus paper red.
(ii) Sodium bicarbonate test : Carboxilic acids give brisk effervescence due to the formation of carbon
dioxide, when treated with sodium bicarbonate solution.
CH 3 COOH + NaHCO 3  H 2 O + CO 2 + CH 3 COONa
8. What is hydrogenation ? What is its industrial application ?
Ans. Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of palladium or nickel. This reaction is called
hydrogenation.
R R H H
| |
Pd or Ni
C= C + H2  R—C—C—R
R R | |
R R
This reaction is industrially used in the conservation of vegetable oils into vegetable ghee.
9. Define the following giving one example of each :
(i) Esterification
(ii) Addition reaction
Ans. (i) The reaction of carboxylic acid with an alcohol in presence of sulphuric acid yields esters and the reaction
is known as esterification.
O
||
CH3 —C —OH + CH3 —CH2 —OH
H2SO4 heat
O
||
CH3 —C —O + CH2 —CH3 —H2O
(ii) Reactions in which two or more atoms are added across a double or triple bond, are called addition reactions.
Pd. Pt or Ni
CH 3 = CH 2 + H 2  CH 3 – CH 3
10. An organic compound 'X' is a constituent of wine. This compound on heating with acidified potassium dichro-
mate forms another compound 'Y'. Name the compound 'X' and 'Y' and write the chemical equation of the
reaction involved.
Ans. Compound 'X' is ethanol.
Compound 'Y' is ethanoic acid.

O
||
K2 Cr2 O 7
CH3CH2OH 
heat 
CH3 —C —OH
Ethanol Ethanoic acid
11. (a) Identify the compounds A and B in the following reactions :
H 2 SO 4
(i) C2H5OH + CH3COOH   (ii) CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH  B + C2H5OH
(b) Name the type of reaction taking place in the above cases.
O O
|| ||
Ans. (a) (i) CH3 —C —O —CH2 —CH3 (ii) CH3 —C —ONa
Ethyl ethanoate Sodium ethanoate
(b) (i) Esterification (ii) Hydrolysis or Sapnoification
12. Differentiate between a soap and a detergent on the basis of their chemical constituents. For cleansing action why
is a detergent preferred to a soap ?
Ans. Soaps are sodium salts of long chain fatty acids whereas detergents are sodium salts of alkyl benzenesulphonic acids.
Basically, the structure soap is COONa whereas that of detergents is SO3Na. If water is hard i.e.,
it contains calcium or magnesium chlorides then detergent is preferred to a soap.
13. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water ? Will a micelle be formed in other solvents
like ethanol also ?
Ans. A molecule of soap has two dissimilar ends. At one end is the hydrocarbon chain which is water repellent. At the
other end carboxylate anion is present which is water soluble end. When soap is dissolved in water, many molecules
come together and form a group called micelle, these micelles are formed because their hydrocarbon chains come
together and the polar ends are projected outward. Micelle formation in ethanol will not occur because the hydrocarbon
chain end of the soap will also dissolve in ethanol.
14. Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
Ans. Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions. When soap comes is contact with hard water, these ions form
calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids which are insoluble in water. These calcium or magnesium salts precipitate
out in the form of scum.
15. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and chemical properties?
Ans. Property Ethanol Ethanoic acid
(i) Melting point 156 K 290 K
(ii) Action on litmus No action Turns blue litmus into red
(iii) Reaction with No reaction Effervescence due to the formation of CO2
NaHCO3 solution
16. Explain the mechanism of the cleansing action of soaps.
Ans. A molecule of soap has two dissimilar ends. At one end is the hydrocarbon, chain which is water repellent and the
other end is carboxylate anion which is polar end.
— +
COO Na
Carboxylate
Hydrocarbon chain anion
When soap is dissolved in water, many molecules come together and from a group called micelle. These micelles
are formed because their hydrocarbon chains come together and the polar ends are projected outward.
When a cloth with a spot of oil is soaked into a soap solution, soap dissolves tiny oil droplets by the hydrophotic
end in the middle of the micelle. Due to the outer polar ends, these micelles dissolve in water and are washed
away. In this way cloth gets cleaned.
17. What is soap ? How would you make soap in the laboratory ? State one advantage and one disadvantage
of soap over synthetic detergents.
Ans. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. Soap can be prepared in laboratory by heating
the naturally occuring, oil or fat with sodium hydroxide. On heating, sodium salt of the fatty acid soap is formed
along with glycerol. This process is known as saponification.
Oil or fat + NaOH  Soap + Glycerol
The soap is precipitated by adding common salt to the above solution. Soap being lighter, floats on water
and is filtered. It is cooled and then cut into pieces.
Soaps have the advantage over detergents that they are biodegradable and do not cause water pollution.
The disadvantage of soaps over detergents is that, they cannot be used in hard water.
18. What happens when a small piece of sodium is dropped into ethanol ?
Ans. Hydrogen gas is evolved when a piece of sodium metal is dropped into ethanol.
1
C 2 H 5 OH + Na  C 2 H 5 ONa + H
2 2
19. Give reasons for the following observations :
Ans. (a) The element carbon forms a very large number of compounds.
(b) Air holes of a gas burner have to be adjusted when the heated vessels get blackened by the flame.
(c) Use of synthetic detergents causes pollution of water.
Ans. (a) The two main properties of carbon responsible for a large number of compounds are catenation and
tetravalency of carbon.
(b) When the heated vessel is blackened by the flame, it shows that complete combustion of the gas is not
occuring due to the less supply of oxygen or air. So air holes are adjusted to increase the supply of air.
(c) Use of synthetic detergents causes pollution of water because most of them are non-biodegradable.
Important Notes
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IIT-JEE/Medical/Boards
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

INTRODUCTION :
Before the beginning of the eighteenth centuray when there are only 30 elements were known, it was earier to study
and rember their properties. In later years when number of elements discovered were increased then it became difficult
to study them. So scientist fell the need of simple method to facilitale the study of the properties of various elements
and their compounds. After numerous attempts they got sucess & elements were arranged in such manner that similar
elements were grouped together and different elements were separated. This arrangement of elements is known as
classification of elements which led to the formation of periodic table.
Periodic table may be defined as the arrangement of all the known elements according to their properties in such
way that the elements of similar properties are grouped together in a tabular form.
Earlier attempts of classification of elements (development of periodic table) :
Earlier attempts to classify the elements resulted in grouping as metals and non-metals. Later on they were classified
on the basis of their atomic masses.
DOBEREINER TRIADS RULE :
In 1817, Johann walfgang dobereiner. A German chemist, arranged the elements is group of three elements and in
a manner that the atomic mass of middle element was roughly the average of the atomic masses of the other two
elements of the triad.
Example : Element : Lithium, Sodium and Potassium.
Atomic mass 7 23 39
7  39
Average of the atomic masses of Lithium and Potassium is  23 only three triads could be arranged in this
2
manner at that time. They were :
Triads Elements Atomic masses Average of the atomic masses of first and third element
1 Li 7
7  39
Na 23  23
2
K 39
2. Ca 40
40  137
Sr 87.5  88.5
2
Ba 137
3. Cl 35.5
35.5  127
Br 80  81.2
2
I 127
SHORT COMING OF DOBEREINER'S TRIADS RULE :
This classification was not found satisfactory as it could be applied to the limited number of elements. Now a days
some more triads have been made they are
(i) Potassium Rubidium Cesium

K Rb Cs
(ii) Phosphours Arsenic Antimony
P As Sb
(iii) Sulphur Selenium Tellurium
S Se Te
(iv) Hydrogen Fluorine Chlorine
H F Cl
(v) Scandium Itrium Lanthanum
Sc Y La
For a Debereiner's triad all the three elements should belong to the same group and the difference in atomic
number should be 8 or 18.
New lands law of octave : In 1866, J.A.R. Newlands correlated the chemical properties of the elements
with the increasing order of atomic masses. i.e. to arrange the element having lowest atomic mass (H) firstely
and ended to at secondly the element having highest atomic mass. (Thorium which was 56th known element
at that time).
Definition : When the elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic masses, every eighth element
has the properties similar to those of the first elements like the eighth note of an octav in music. Thus according
to this law, the physical & chemical properties are repeated after an interval of eight elements and this is similar
to eight notes of an octave on a musical scale shown below :
S a (do ) re (re ) g a (m i) m a (fa ) p a (s o ) d a (la ) n i (ti)
H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
Co a nd N i Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce a nd La Zr – –
The properties of Lithium are similar to that of 8th element i.e. Na, Be is similar to Mg and so on.
Limitations :
1. Law of octaves was applicable only up to calcium. It worked well with lighter elements only.
2. At that time only 56 elements were existed in nature, but later several elements were discovered which can not be kept
in periodic table as per this law. Their properties were not in accordance with the law of octaves.
Law of octaves :
3. (i) In order to fit element in to his table New lands adjusted two elements in the same column. For example cobalt and
nickel were placed in the same position and in the same column as fluorine, chlorine and bromine.
(ii) Iron which resembles cobalt and nickel in properties were placed far away from these elements.
4. After the discovery of inert gases & included in the periodic table it becomes the eighth element from alkali so this
law has to be dropped out.
Mendeleev's Periodic table :
In the year 1861, D Mitri Ivanovich Mendeleev arranged all the known elements (63 elements) in the form of a table in
which elements were arranged in the increasing order of their atomic mass and also on the similarities of chemical properties.
Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Oxide R2O RO R2O3 RO2 R2O5 RO3 R2O7 RO4

Hydride RH RH2 RH3 RH3 RH3 RH2 RH
Period A B A B A B A B A B A B A B Transition
series
H
1.
1.008
Li Be B C N O F
2.
6.939 9.012 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3. 22..99 24.31 29.98 28.09 30974 32.06 35.453
4. First K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
series 39.102 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.94 50.20 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.71
second Cu Cu Ga Ge As Se Br
series 63.54 65.37 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.909
5. First Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Rh
series 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 99 102.91
Ru Pd
second Ag Cd ln Sn Sb Te I
114.82 101.07 106.4
series 107.87 112.40 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.90
6. First Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ir
series 132.90 137.34 138.91 178.49 183.85 183.85 Os 192.2 Pt
second Au Hg Ti Pb Bi
190.2 195.09
series 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.98
 The arrangement of element was based on the physical and chemical properties of the elements and also the
formulae of the compounds they formed with oxygen and hydrogen. He selected hydrogen and oxygen as they
are very reactive and formed compounds with most elements.
The table which classifies the elements in such a way that elements having similar properties are placed in same
vertical column or group in known as periodic table. The term periodic means repetition of elements having
similar properties after a certain regular interval. The periodic table consists of vertical columns which are called
as groups and horizontal rows called as periods. Mendeleev's periodic table had six periods and eight groups
as shown in the table, he arranged all the elements horizontally in the order of their increasing atomic masses
and vertically according to their similarities in properties. Each group was further sub divided into two sub groups
A & B.
Achievements of the Mendeleev's periodic table :
1. Systematic study of the elements : All the elements in general were arranged systematically in increasing
order of their atomic masses. This arrangement helped to study the properties of various elements. If the nature
of the element present in a group is known, it become easier to predict or guess the expected properties of
other elements.
2. Prediction of new elements : Mendeleev predicted the properties of some unknown elements and left gaps
for these elements to be filled as and when discovered. For eg. Scandium, Gallium and Germanium were not
known at that time but Mendeleev already named these elements as eka-boron, eka-aluminium and
eka-silicon. When these elements were later on discovered, they were found to have more or less similar properties
as predicted by Mendeleev.
3. Position of Noble gases : When noble gases were discovered they were placed in a new group without disturbing the
existing order.
4. Correction of atomic masses : Atomic masses of several elements were corrected on the basis of periodic table. eg.
Atomic mass of Beryllium was corrected from 135 to 9. Mendeleev predicted that atomic mass of gold is incorrect. Later
on it was found to be so. similarly atomic masses of Indium, Uranium and Platinum were also corrected.
Drawbacks of Mandeleev's periodic table :
Position of Hydrogen is uncertain becomes it resemble with IA group alkali metals elements and VII A (halogens)
group elements.
(i) Isotopes : Isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties but different atomic masses.
(ii) Position of isotopes : Since basis of periodic table was increasing atomic mass. So isotopes should be placed
separately but no separate place was given to isotopes.
(iii) Anamolus pairs of certain elements : Certain elements were not arranged according to their increasing atomic
mass eg.
(a) Argon (Atomic mass 39.9) was placed before potassium (atomic mass 39.0)
(b) Cobalt (58.95) before Nickel (58.70)
(c) Tellurium (127.6) before Nickel (126.9)
(d) Thorium (232) before Protactimum (231)
(iv) Similar elements were placed in different groups. eg.
(a) Silver and thallium
(b) Barium and lead
(c) Copper and mercury
(d) Platinum and gold.
(v) Dissimilar elements were placed in same group eg. silver and gold were placed in a same group while there
is little similarity in physical and chemical properties.
(vi) Cause of periodicity : Mendeleev did not explain the cause of periodicity in the physical and chemical properties
of the elements.
(vii) Metals have not been separated from non-metals.
(viii) Position for elements of group (VIII) : There is no proper position for the elements of group (VIII) consisting of
elements in three triads. These elements are placed out side the main structure of the periodic table.
The modern periodic table :
In 1913 Henry Moseley showed that properties of the elements are determined by atomic numbers instead
of the atomic mass. It formed the basis of modern periodic law. The law is -
"The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers". Since
atomic mass is a nuclear property where as atomic number implies for the no. of electrons in neutral atom or
no. of protons in nucleus. Nucleus is deep seated in the atoms and does not take part in chemical reactions.
Therefore the physical and chemical properties depends upon the no. of electrons and their electronic configuration
which in turn depends upon atomic number (Z). So when elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic
numbers, after an regular interval elements have similar no. of valence electrons therefore chemical properties
are repeated i.e. periodicity in the chemical properties of the elements occurs.
Modern periodic table or long form of the periodic table :
 It is also called as Bohr, Bury & Rang, Werner periodic table
(1) It is based on the Bohr-Bury electronic configuration concept and atomic number.
(2) This model is proposed by Rang and Werner.
This table is based on modern periodic law, the elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic numbers
in such a way that elements having the same number of valence electrons are placed in the same vertical column.
It consists of 18 vertical colums and seven horizontal rows. Vertical columns of periodic lable are known as groups
while horizontal rows are known as periods.
The co-relation between the groups in long form of periodic table and in modern form of periodic table are given below
:-
IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8,9, 10 11 12
III A IV A VA VIA VIIA 0
13 14 15 16 17 18
Elements belonging to same group having same number of electrons in the outer most shell so their properties
are similar.
Description of periods :-
Description of periods :
Period n Sub shell No. of elements Element Name of Period

1. 1 1s 2 1
H, 2 He Shortest
2. 2 2s, 2p 8 3
Li – 10
Ne Short
3. 3 3s, 3p 8 11
Na – 18
Ar Short
4. 4 4s, 3d, 4p 18 19
K – 36
Kr Long
5. 5 5s, 4d, 5p 18 37
Rb – 58
Xe Long
6. 6 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p 32 55
Cs – 86
Rn Longest
7. 7 7s, 5f, 6d, 26 87
Fr – 112
Uub Incomplete
Description of Groups :
1 st /IA/Alkali metals
H = 1s1
Li = 1s2 , 2s1
Na = 1s2 , 2s2 2p6 , 3s 1
K = 1s2 , 2s2 2p 6 , 3s2 3p6 , 4s1
General electronic configuration = ns1(n = Number of shell)
Number of valence shell e– = 1
2nd/IIA/Alkali earth metals :
Be = 1s2 , 2s 2
Mg = 1s2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2
Ca = 1s 2 , 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 6, 4s 2
General electronic configuration = ns2
th
13 /IIIA/Boron Family :
B = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 1
Al = 1s2, 2s 2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p1
Ga = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6 , 3s 2, 3p 6 , 3d 10 ,4s 2,4p 1
General electronic configuration = ns2 np1
Number of valence shell e– s = 3
th
14 /IVA/Carbon Family :
C = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 2
Si = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 2
Ge = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 6, 4s 2, 3d 10, 4p 2
Number of valence e– s= 4
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
GROUP NUMBER
Metals
(1) (18)
Period 1 GROUP NUMBER 2
H Non metals He
1 1.0 4.0
Hydrogen (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) Helium
Metalloids
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.9 9.0 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluonne Neon
GROUP NUMBER
11 12 tku 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg lkbUl Vhpj fofurk d`iykuh eu QS dks fu D;w tykrh Al Si P S Cl Ar
23.0 24.3 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
Sodium Magnesium (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) gS
(10) (11) (12) Aluminium Silicon Phosporus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.1 40.1 45.0 48.8 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.9 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 27.0 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chrominum Manganese Iron Cobolt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 99 101.1 102.3 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 181.0 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 210 210 222
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114
7 Fr Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub – Uuq – Uuh – –
223 226 227 261 262 263
Francium Radium Actinium
l i u i l bZ ?k V n g bZ V ;k yq
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanide Series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 145 150.4 152.00 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.5
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dyspro- Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
sium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
**Actinide Series Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Sanshiksha Academy, 2nd Floor,Zameer Compound,Above SBI city branch,Canal Road ,Raebareli. Ph.7705002074/75
232.0 231 238.1 237 242 243 247 245 251 254 253 256 254 257
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Califonium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
V i ;w u i bZ l c d b Q e uk yw
IIT-JEE/Medical/Boards
125
th
15 /VA/Nitrogen family/Pnicogen : (Used in fertilizer as urea)
N = 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
P = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 3
As = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 6, 4s 2, 3d 10, 4p 3
16 th/VIA/Oxygen family/Chalcogen : (Ore forming)
O = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 4
S = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 4
Se = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2 , 3p 6,3d 10, 4s 2, 4p 4
General electronic configuration : ns2 np4
Number of valence shell e– s= 6
17 th/VIIA/Fluorine family/Halogens : (Salt forming)
F = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 5
Cl = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 5
Br = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 6, 4s 2, 3d 10, 4p 5
Number of valence shell e– s= 7
18 th/Zero group/Inert gases / Noble gases :
Ne = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6
Ar = 1s 2, 2s 2, 2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 6
Kr = 1s 2, 2s 2, 3p 6, 3s 2, 3p 6, 3d 10,4s 2, 4p 6
General electronic configuration = ns2 np6 ( except. He)
Elements of group 16 are known as chalocogens Elements of group 17 are known as halogens.
–
Classification on the basis of subshell in which last electron (e ) enters
Periodicity in properties :
The electronic configurations of atoms display a periodic variation with increase in atomic number. Since the properties
of elements depends upon the electronic configurations. So the elements exhibits periodic variation of physical & chemical
properties. Some properties of elements are :-
(A) Valency :- It is defined as the combining capacity of the element. Valency is determined by the number of electrons
present in outer most shell. These electrons are known as valence electrons.
Variation of valency across a period :- The number of valency electrons increases from 1 to 8 on moving
across a period. The valency of an element with respect to hydrogen and halogen increases from 1 to 4 and
then decreases from 4 to zero. With respect to oxygen valency increases from 1 to 7.
Variation of valency along a group :- On moving down a group. The no. of valence electrons remains same
so the valence of all the elements of a group is same.
Group (1) elements have valency - 1
Group (2) elements have valence - 2
Atomic size :- Atomic size means atomic radius of an atom which is defined as the distance between the centre of the
nucleus of an atom and the valence shell containing electrons in an isolated atom since it is very difficult to measure the
atomic radius because -
(i) The isolation of single atom is very difficult.
(ii) There is no well defined boundary for the atom.
So the more accurate definition of atomic radius is -
(Half the internuclear distance between the two atoms in a homatomic molecule is known as atomic radius)
This internuclear distance is also known as bond length. It depends upon the type of bond by which two atoms combine.
Based on chemical bonds, atomic radius is divided in to four categories.
(a) Covalent radius (Single bonded covalent radius) For homoatoms
It is half of the internuclear distance between two singly bonded homoatoms.
(b) Covalent radius for hetero atoms.
(i) In case of hetero atomic molecule (A – B), if the electronegativity difference is less. Then covalent
radius of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon is taken from the compound H 2O 2 , N 2 H 4 and C 2 H 6
respectively.
This radii is subtratied from the bond length of A–B molecules.
eg. C–I (electronegativity is almost same 2.5)
Internuclear distance C–I is 2.13Å, covalent radius of carbon in compound C2H6 is 0.77Å covalent radius
of I– will be.
dC–I = rC + rI (covalent radius of iodine)
(covalent radius of carbon)
i.e. 2.13 = 0.77 + r I
rI = 2.13 – 0.77 = 1.36Å
(ii) When electronegativity difference is more. Then bond length is determined by the schole maker and
Stevenson law –
dA–B = rA + rB – 0.09(XA – XB)
where dA–B = Bond length of dA–B molecule
XA = Electronegativity of A
XB = Electronegativity of B
Example – Bond length of F2 = 1.44 Å
1.44
i,e. d F–F = 1.44Å rF = = 0.72Å
2
0.74
d H–H = 0.74Å rH = = 37Å
2
Electronegativity of Fluorine is 4.0 and Electronegativity of Hydrogen is 2.1
dH–F = rF + rH + 0.09(XF – XH)
= 0.72 + 0.37 – 0.09(4 – 2.1)
= 1.09 – (0.09 × 1.9) = 1.09 – 0.171 = 0.919Å
(B) Ionic Radius –
(i) Cationic radius (ii) Aniotic radius
(i) Cationic Radius –
1
Size of cation  magnitude of the ch arg e or z eq. Fe > Fe+2 > Fe+3
eff
(ii) Anionic radius –

Anionic radius is always greater than atomic radius because in an anion electrons are more than the protons so
effective nuclear charge reduces and inter electronic repulsion increases so size of anion also increases.
(C) Metallic Radius –
Half of the inter nuclear distance between two adjacent metallic atoms.
1
Metallic radius 
Metallic bond strength
(D) Vander Waal's radius –

Those atoms which are not bonded with each other experiences a weak attractive force to come nearer. Half of
the distance between the nuclei of adjacently placed atoms in solid state of a noble gas is vander waal's radius.
Vande r wall radius = 2 × Co vale nt Radius
Variation of Atomic size in a group :

On moving down a group of periodic table, the size of the atom increases.
Group-1 Atomic Radii Smallest atom

Elements (pm)
Atomic size goes on increasing

Li
Lithium (Li) 152
Sodium (Na) 186 Na
Potassium (K) 231 K
Rubidium (Rb) 244 Rb
Cesium (Cs) 262 Cs
Francium (Fr) – Fr
Biggest atom
When we move from top to bottom in a group a new shell of electron is added in each period. This addition increases the
size.
Variation of atomic size in period :
In general atomic radii decreases across a period from left to right eg. In IInd period.L atom is largest and Fluorine is the
smallest atom because nuclear charge increases with increase in atomic number. Electrons are also increasing but these
are added to the same shell.
Ele m e n t Li Be B C N O F
A to m ic N u m be r 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
N u c le a r c ha rg e +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
Ee le c tro n ic c o n fig u ra tio n 2, 1 2, 1 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7
R a dius (p m ) 152 111 88 77 74 66 64
Li Be B C N O F
Atomic Radius Decreases
Atomic Size :- Decreases along the period. Increases down the group.
Metallic and Non-metallic character :
l Metallic character is the tendency of atoms of the elements to lose electrons and form positive ions. It can be expressed
as M  M+ + e–
Therefore metals are also called as electropositive elements.
The metallic character increases from top to bottom in a group the metallic character of the element goes on increasing
eg. Li is least metallic element while caesium is most metallic element.
Elements Metallic charcter
Metallic or electropositive
Lithium (Li) Least Metallic
character increases
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
Rubidium (Rb)
Cesium (Cs) Most Metallic
If we use the term electropositive in place of metallic character, we can say that electropositive character goes on
increasing as we move from top to bottom in the periodic table. If we consider the electronegative character, it goes on
decreasing as we move down in a group of the periodic table.
Ionization Enthalpy :
The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most losely bounded electron from an isolated gaseous neutral atom
to form gaseous electropositive ion called Ionization enthalpy. Its unit is kilo joules per mole (kJ/mol)
M(g) + Energy  M+(g) + e–
It is a measure of tendency to lose electrons by atoms. The tendency to lose electron increases from top to bottom in a
group and it decreases on moving left to right in a period.
Electron gain enthalpy :
It is defined as the amount of energy released when an isolated gaseous atom in the ground state accepts an electron to
form gaseous negative ion i.e. and anion. It is a measure of tendency of an atom to accept an extra electron to form an
anion. Its unit is kilo joule mole (kJ/mole). Electron gain enthalpy of elements goes on increasing as we move from left to
right in a period. In group it decreases from top to bottom.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS FOR COMPETATIVE EXAM

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS :–
1. According to IUPAC recommondations, the number of groups in the long form of the periodic table is :-
(A) 7 (B) 8 (C) 16 (D) 18
2. The law of modern periodic table was proposed by :-
(A) D.I. mendeleev (B) Dobereincer (C) H.G.I moselly (D) Newlands
3. the least metallic element of group 1 is :-
(A) Lithium (B) Sodium (C) Potassium (D) Caesium
4. Which of the following properties generally increases on moving from top to bottom ?
(A) Ionisation energy (B) Non-metallic character
(C) Atomic size (D) Valency
5. Which of the following statement is not correct about the trends when going from left to right across the
periodic table ?
(A) The elements become less metallic in nature (B) The number of valence electrons increases
(C) The atoms lose their electrons more easily (D) The oxides becomes more acidic
6. The law of octaves was proposed by :-
(A) New lands (B) Lother Meyer (C) Dobereiner (D) Mendeleev
7. The number of periods in the long form of the periodic table is :-
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 10 (D) 18
8. Which of the following has the maximum non-metallic character ?
(A) F (B) Cl (C) Br (D) I
9. Which of the following sets of elements do not belong to the same group ?
(A) F, Cl, Br (B) Na, K, Rb (C) P, S, Cl (D) C, Si, Ge
10. Which of the following has lowest number of electrons in the valency shell ?
(A) O (B) C (C) N (D) B
11. Which of the following pairs of elements does not belong to same group ?
(A) Cl, Br (B) N, P (C) Mg, Ca (D) Al, Si
12. Which of the following has largest atomic size ?
(A) Be (B) C (C) O (D) F
13. Which of the following belongs to group 18 ?
(A) Sr (B) I (C) Ar (D) Rb
14. What is the basis of long form of the periodic table ?
(A) Atomic mass (B) Atomic number
(C) Atomic size (D) Metallic and Non-metallic character
15. Which one is more metallic element ?
(A) Na (B) Mg (C) Al (D) Si
16. Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl2, Which is a solid with a high metingpoint, X would most likely
be in the same group of the periodic table as :-
(A) Na (B) Mg (C) Al (D) Si
FILL IN THE BLANKS :-
1. The horizontal rows in the periodic table are known as ....................
2. The vertical columns of in the periodic table are known as ...............
3. A very short period contains ........ elements.
4. The element having electronic configuration (2, 8, 3) belongs to ............ group.
5. In a group atomic radii ............. from top to bottom and in a period atomic radii ............ from left to right.
6. Size of Na+ is ............... than sodium atom.
7. Size of Cl– is .............. than Cl atom.
8. An element 'B' belongs to the seocnd period and group 13, formula of its oxide is ....................
9. Elements in the same group have similar .................
10. Elements in the same group have similar ................ in their outer most shell.
11. The alkaline earth metal with the smallest atomic number is ...................
12. A, B & C are the elements of the Doberiner's triads. If the atomic mass of A is 7 and that of B is 23, then the atomic
mass of 'C' will be .................
13. When Mendeleev made the periodic table the number of elements discovered till then were ...........
14. Among alkali metal.....................has the smallest atomic radius.
15. Among halogens.....................has the smallest atomic radius.
16. The amount of energy released when a neutral gaseous atom gains one electron is called .....................
17. The energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom is called .....................
18. Non-metallic character ..................... from left to right in a period.
19. Metallic character ..................... down a group.
20. Ionisation energy ..................... down a group and ..................... along a period.
21. Atomic size ..................... from left to right in a period.
GIVE THE ANSWER FOLLOWING QUESTIONS :-
1. Why did Mendeleev leave some gaps in the periodic table of elements ? Give your answer with examples.
2. Explain why the properties of the 8th element are repeated in case of elements arranged in 2nd and 3rd
period of the long from of the periodic table.
3. Where in period 3 of the modern periodic table do we find :
(a) non-metals (b) elements forming negative ions
(c) elements with high melting points (d) elements forming positive ions
(e) metals
(f) elements with low boiling points ?
Mention their atomic numbers only.
4. If you look at the long form of periodic table, you will find that the elements Li, B, C, N, O, F and Ne are
present in the second period. Write down their electronic configurations.
5. Examine elements of the third period and classify them as metals and non-metals.
6. Nitrogen (atomic number 7) and phosphorus (atomic number 15) belong to Group 15 of periodic table. Write
the electronic configuration of these elements. Which of these will be more electronegative ? Why ?
7. How could the modern Periodic Table remove various anomalies of Mendeleev's Periodic Table ?
8. Name two element you would expect to show chemical reactions similar to magnesium. What is the basis for
your choice ?
9. Name
(a) Three elements that have a single electron in their outermost shells.
(b) Two elements that have two electrons in their outermost shells.
(c) Three elements with filled outermost shells.
10. (a) Lithium, sodium, potassium are all metal that react with water to liberate hydrogen gas is thre any similarity
in the atoms of these atoms.
(b) Helium is an unreactive gas and neon is a gas of extremely low reactivity. What, if anything, do their atoms
have in common ?
11. In the Modern Periodic Table, which are the metals among the first ten elements ?
12. By considering their position in the periodic table, which one of the following elements would you expect to have
maximum metallic characteristic.
Ga Ge As Se Be
13. Which of the following statements is not a correct statement about the trends when going from left to right across
the periods of periodic table.
(a) The elements become less metallic in nature.
(b) The number of valence electrons increase
(c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily
(d) The oxides become more acidic
14. Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl2, which is a solid with a high melting point X woud most likely
be in the same group of the periodic table
(a) Na (b) Mg (c) Al (d) Si
15. (a) What property do all elements in the same column of the periodic table as boron have in common ?
(b) What property do all elements in teh same column of the periodic table as fluorine have in common ?
16. An atom has electronic configuration 2.8.7
(a) What is the atomic number of this element ?
(b) To which of the following elements would it be chemically similar ? (Atomic number are given in parenthese)
N(7) F (9) P(15) Ar(18)
17. The position of three elements A , B and C in the periodic table are shown below :
Group 16 Group 17
- -
- A
- -
B C
(a) Nitrogen whether A is a metal or non-metal
(b) State whether C is more reactive or less reactive than A.
(c) Will C be larger or smaller in size than B ?
(d) Which type of ion, cation or anion, will be formed by element A
18. How does the electronic configuration of an atom relate to its positions in the Modern Periodic Table ?
19. In the Modern Periodic Table, calcium (atomic number 20) is surrounded by elements with atomic numbers 12,
19, 21 and 38. Which of these have physical and chemical properties resembling calcium ?
20. Compare and contrast the arrangement of element in Mendeleev periodic table and the Modern Periodic Table.
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ANSWER KEY EXERCISE
 Objective type questions

1. D 2. A 3. A 4. D 5. C 6. A 7. B 8. A 9. C 10. D
11. B 12. A 13. C 14. B 15. A 16. B
1. Periods 2. Groups 3. 2 4. 13 5. Increases, decreases
6. Smaller 7. Larger 8. B 2 O 3 9. Properties 10. electrons
11. 4 12. 15 13. 63 elements 14. Li
15. F 16. Electron affinity 17. Ionisation energy 18. Increases
19. Increases 20. Decreases, Increases 21. Decreases

Chemical Reaction & Equation Explained

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Chemical Reaction & Equation Explained

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1. Chemical reaction & equation 1

2. Acids, bases & salts 14

3. Metals & non-metals 37

4. Carbon & It's Compound 38

5. Periodic classification of Elements 120

CHEMICAL REACTION & EQUATION

S.No. Phys ical change Che mical c hange

3 No new substance is produced. A new substance is always produced.

So the partly balanced equation is

Now the equation becomes as

Now the equation is

Reversible reaction is represented by (  ) symbol and irreversible reaction by () symbol.

(ii) Combination of an element and a compound to form a new compound.

(a) 2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g)

(iii) Combination of two compounds to form a new compound :–

(a) Decomposition reactions by heat (Thermal decomposition)

(iii) 2FeSO4(s) Heat

(i) 2H2O() E

(i) 2 AgCl(s) Sunlight

Decomposition reaction is called opposite of combination

(ii) Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(iii) 2KBr + Cl2  2KCl + Br 2

(iv) Copper displaces silver from silver nitrate.

(A) Precipitation reaction :– Any reaction that produces a precipitate, (the

(i) Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  BaSO4(s) () + 2NaCl(aq)

(Sodium sulphate) (Barium chloride) (Barium sulphate) (Sodium chloride)

 SO2 is reduced to sulphur, so it is oxidising agent.

B + ne– Bn– – Reduction

A + B A+B– AB Redox

It has been observed that Iron nail Iron nail

(B) FILL IN THE BLANKS

CHEMICAL REACTION & EQUATION ANSWER KEY EXERCISE-1

 Ob jective typ e q uestio ns

11. A 12. D 13. B 14. A 15. A 16. D

 Fill in the blanks

5. Reducing 6. loss 7. combination 8. Nitrogen

9. Endothermic 10. Exothermic 11. Combustion

(C) VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

(D) MATCH THE FOLLOWING

(E) SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS :–

(F) LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

(i) H2 + Cl2 2HCl

(iv) 2Pb(NO3)2 Heat

 Very sho rt answer type

4. No, because iron is more reactive metal than copper.

7. Hydrogen gas 8. No, H2 : O2 (2 : 1)

9. Photochemical reaction takes place.

2AgBr 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)

ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

Name Chemical Formula Where found or used

Name Where found or used

(II) On the Basis of their Basicity :-

Activity : To study the reaction of acids, with metals.

(III) Reaction with metallic oxide –

(IV) Reaction with metallic sulphites and hydrogen sulphites –

(VI) Reaction with metal chlorides –

Metal chlorides react with concentrated acids to produce hydrogen

Sodium chloride Sodium sulphate

(VII) Reaction with metal nitrates –

Sodium nitrate Sodium sulphate

(VIII) Reaction of Acid and Base with each other –