2019/10/5

ESIME UPT IPN

AIRCRAFT CONTROL SYSTEMS

UNIDAD III
Frequency-Domain Analysis

Prof. Raymundo Hernández Bárcenas 2020A 3.1 Frequency Response

A Perspective on the Frequency-Response

Content in Unit III
3.1 Frequency Response (or Frequency
Characteristics)
3.4 Nyquist plot and Nyquist stability criterion
3.2 Bode plot and Bode stability criterion
Design Method
The design of feedback control systems in industry is
probably accomplished using frequency-response methods
more than any other.
Advantages of frequency-response design:
-It provides good designs in the face of uncertainty in the
plant model
-Experimental information can be used for design purposes.
Raw measurements of the output amplitude and phase of a plant
undergoing a sinusoidal input excitation are sufficient to design a
suitable feedback control.
-No intermediate processing of the data (such as finding
poles and zeros) is required to arrive at the system model.

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A ω ≤ ωc
M ( jω ) = 
Frequency response M ( jω )
0 ω > ωc
The magnitude of M(jω) is
A
The frequency response of a system is defined G ( jω )
M ( jω ) =
as the steady-state response of the system to a 1 + G ( jω ) H ( jω )
sinusoidal input signal. G ( jω )
=
G(s) 1 + G ( jω ) H ( jω ) 0 ωc ω
r (t ) = R sin ω0t − y (t ) = Y sin(ω0t + φ )
Gain characteristic ω
0
H(s) The phase of M(jω) is
For a LTI system, when the input to it is a sinusoid signal, ∠M ( jω ) = φM ( jω )
the resulting output , as well as signals throughout the = ∠G ( jω ) − ∠ [1 + G ( jω ) H ( jω ) ]
system, is sinusoidal in the steady-state;
The output differs from the input waveform only in φM ( jω )
Phase characteristic Gain-phase characteristics
amplitude and phase. of an ideal low-pass filter

The closed-loop transfer function of the LTI Example. Frequency response of a Capacitor
system: Consider the capacitor described by the equation
Y ( s) G( s) dv
M ( s) = = i =C
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s) dt
where v is the input and i is the output. Determine the
For frequency-domain analysis, we replace s
sinusoidal steady-state response of the capacitor.
by jω:
Y ( jω ) G ( jω ) Solution. The transfer function of the capacitor is
M ( jω ) = =
R ( jω ) 1 + G ( jω ) H ( jω ) I (s)
= M ( s ) = Cs
V ( s)
The frequency-domain transfer function M(jω)
may be expressed in terms of its magnitude and So M ( jω ) = Cjω
phase: Computing the magnitude and phase, we find that
M ( jω ) = M ( jω ) ∠M ( jω ) M ( jω ) = Cjω = Cω
magnitude phase
∠M ( jω ) = φM = 90

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Gain characteristic: M ( jω ) = Cjω = Cω Frequency response of a prototype

Phase characteristic: ∠M ( jω ) = φM = 90  second-order system
Closed-loop transfer function:
Output: I ( jω ) = M ( jω )V ( jω )
Y ( s) ωn2
M ( s) = =
For a unit-amplitude sinusoidal input v, the output i will be a R( s ) s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
sinusoid with magnitude Cω, and the phase of the output
will lead the input by 90°. Its frequency-domain transfer function:

Note that for this example the magnitude is proportional to Y ( jω ) ωn2

M ( jω ) = =
the input frequency while the phase is independent of R ( jω ) ( jω ) + 2ζωn ( jω ) + ωn2
2

frequency.
Define u = ω ωn
1
M ( ju ) =
1 + j 2ζ u − u 2

The magnitude of M(ju) is

Frequency-Domain Specifications 1
M ( jω ) M ( ju ) =
Resonant peak M r [(1 − u 2 ) 2 + (2ζ u ) 2 ]1/2
Mr Resonant frequency ωr The phase of M(ju) is
Cutoff Resonant peak
rate Bandwidth BW 2ζ u 1
0.707 ∠M ( jω ) = φM ( jω ) = − tan −1
Mr =
d M ( jω ) 1 − u2 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
=0
0 ωr ω dω The resonant frequency of M(ju) is
BW
ω  d M ( ju )
0 =0 ur = 1 − 2ζ 2
ωr du

With ur = ωr ωn , we have ωr = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2

φM ( jω ) Since frequency is a real quantity, it requires 1 − 2ζ 2 ≥ 0

So ζ ≤ 0.707
Typical gain-phase characteristic of a control system

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Correlation between pole locations, unit-step response and

the magnitude of the frequency response
According to the definition of Bandwidth
jω
1 1 r (t ) ωn2 y (t ) θ = cos −1 ζ
M ( ju ) = = ≅ 0.707 ωn
[(1 − u ) + (2ζ u ) 2 ]1/2
2 2
2 s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
2
θ
0 < ζ <1
0 σ
u 2 = (1 − 2ζ 2 ) ± 4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2
1−ζ 2
With u = ω ωn , we have y (t ) max overshoot = e −πζ / M ( jω )

1.0
BW = ωn [(1 − 2ζ 2 ) ± 4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2]1/2 0.9 0dB
0.3dB

0.1 t
0 0 BW ω
1 − 0.4167ζ + 2.917ζ 2
tr ≈
ωn BW = ωn [(1 − 2ζ ) + 4ζ − 4ζ + 2]1/2
2 4 2

For a prototype second-order system (ζ ≤ 0.707 ) Example. The specifications on a second-order unity-
feedback control system with the closed-loop transfer
M r depends on ζ only.
Resonant peak function Y ( s) ωn2
For ζ ≤ 0, the system is unstable; M ( s) = = 2
1 R ( s ) s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
Mr = For 0<ζ ≤ 0.707, ζ ↑ M r ↓;
2ζ 1 − ζ 2 are that the maximum overshoot must not exceed 10
For ζ ≥ 0.707, M r = 1
percent, and the rise time be less than 0.1 sec. Find the
Resonant frequency ωr depends on both ζ and ωn . corresponding limiting values of Mr and BW analytically.
Solution. Maximum overshoot:
For 0<ζ ≤ 0.707, ωn fixed, ζ ↑ ωr ↓;
ωr = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2
1−ζ 2
For ζ ≥ 0.707, ωr = 0. σ % = e −ζπ × 100% ≤ 10% ζ ≥ 0.6
1 − 0.4167ζ + 2.917ζ 2
Rise time: tr ≈ ≤ 0.1 (0 < ζ < 1)
Bandwidth BW = ωn [(1 − 2ζ 2 ) + 4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2]1/2 ωn
BW is directly proportional to ωn , ωn ↑ BW ↑ 2.917ζ 2 − 0.4167ζ + 1 − 0.1ωn ≤ 0
ζ ↑ BW ωn ↓ 0.4167 ± 0.4167 2 − 4 × 2.917 × (1 − 0.1ωn )
ζ 1,2 = ωn ≥ 18
For 0 ≤ ζ ≤ 0.707, ωn fixed, ζ ↑ BW ↓; 2 × 2.917

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Based on time-domain analysis, we obtain ζ ≥ 0.6 and ωn ≥ 18

Frequency-domain specifications:
1
Resonant peak M r = (ζ ≤ 0.707) As analyzing the prototype second-order system, using
2ζ 1 − ζ 2 similar but more complicate calculation, we obtain
For 0<ζ ≤ 0.707, ζ ↑ M r ↓; ζ ≥ 0.6 Bandwidth BW = ( −b + 1 / 2 b2 + 4ωn4 )1/2
1 ≤ M r ≤ 1.04
For ζ ≥ 0.707, M r = 1 where b = 4ζ 2ωn2 + 4ζωn3Tz − 2ωn2 − ωn4Tz2

Bandwidth BW = ωn [(1 − 2ζ 2 ) + 4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2]1/2

For fixed ωn and ζ, we analyze the effect of Tz.
BW is directly proportional to ωn , ωn ↑ BW ↑
ζ ↑ BW ωn ↓
For 0 ≤ ζ ≤ 0.707, ωn fixed, ζ ↑ BW ↓;
0.6 ≤ ζ ≤ 0.707 1 ≤ BW ωn ≤1.15
ωn ≤ BW ≤ 1.15ωn
BW ≥ 18
ωn ≥ 18

Effects of adding a zero to the OL TF2 The general effect of adding a zero the open-loop
ωn transfer function is to increase the bandwidth of the
R( s) ωn2 Y ( s ) Open-loop TF：G ( s ) = s ( s + 2ζω ) closed-loop system.
n
Bode Diagram
s ( s + 2ζωn ) Closed-loop TF： 20
ωn = 1 0
Y ( s) G( s) ωn2
ζ = 0.2
Magnitude (dB)

M ( s) = = =
R ( s ) 1 + G ( s ) s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 -20

-40 Tz=0
Adding a zero at s = −1 Tz Tz=0.2
-60
Tz=1
R( s) ωn2 Y (s) Tz=5
1 + Tz s Open-loop TF： -80
0
s ( s + 2ζωn )
(1 + Tz s )ωn2 -45
G (s) =
Phase (deg)

s ( s + 2ζωn ) -90
The additional
-135
zero changes
Closed-loop TF：φ ( s ) =
ωn2 (1 + Tz s ) both numerator -180
s + (2ζωn + Tzωn2 ) s + ωn2
2 and denominator. 10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2

Frequency (rad/sec)

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Effects of adding a pole to the OL TF 2

ωn
R( s) ωn2 Y ( s ) Open-loop TF：G ( s ) = s ( s + 2ζω )
n

s ( s + 2ζωn ) Closed-loop TF：

Y ( s) G( s) ωn2
M ( s) = = = 2
R ( s ) 1 + G ( s ) s + 2ζωn s + ωn2 3.4 Nyquist Plot and Nyquist Criterion
Adding a pole at s = −1 Tp

R( s) 1 ωn2 Y (s)
1 + Tp s Open-loop TF：
s ( s + 2ζωn )
ωn2
G (s) =
s ( s + 2ζωn )(1 + Tp s )

ωn2
Closed-loop TF： φ ( s ) =
Tp s + (1 + 2ζωnTp ) s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
3

The effect of adding a pole the open-loop transfer function is

to make the closed-loop system less stable, while decreasing
the bandwidth. Nyquist Criterion
Bode Diagram What is Nyquist criterion used for?
50
Tp=0 R( s ) Y (s)
Tp=0.5

ωn = 1
0 Tp=1 G(s)
Magnitude (dB)

Tp=5 −
ζ = 0.707 -50

-100
H(s)
-150
0
-45 Nyquist criterion is a semigraphical method that
determines the stability of a closed-loop system;
Phase (deg)

-90
-135
-180 Nyquist criterion allows us to determine the stability of a
-225 closed-loop system from the frequency-response of the
-270
-2 -1 0 1 2
loop function G(jw)H(j(w)
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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Review about stability Number of Encirclements and Enclosures

G( s)
Closed-loop TF: M ( s) =
1 + G( s) H ( s)

Characteristic equation (CE):

A C
Δ( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0 D
Stability conditions: B

Open-loop stability: poles of the loop TF G(s)H(s) are all in

the left-half s-plane.

Closed-loop stability: poles of the closed-loop TF or roots Point A is encircled once; Point C is enclosed once;
of the CE are all in the left-half s-plane. Point B is encircled twice. Point D is enclosed twice.

Definition of Encircled and Enclosed Mapping from the complex s-plane to the
Δ(s) -plane
Encircled: A point or region in a complex function plane is Exercise 1: Consider a function Δ(s) =s-1, please map a
said to be encircled by a closed path if it is found inside circle with a radius 1 centered at 1 from s-plane to the
the path. Δ(s)-plane .
Enclosed: A point or region in a complex function plane is jω j Im Δ( s)-plane
said to be enclosed by a closed path if it is encircled in the s-plane
Mapping
countclockwise(CCW) direction. s2 Δ ( s2 )
1
s3 s1 Δ( s3 )
B Point A is encircled in the
0 1 2 σ 0 Δ ( s1 ) Re[ Δ ( s )]
A closed path;
−1 Δ ( s4 )
Point A is also enclosed in the s4
closed path;
s1 = 2; s2 = 1 + j Δ( s1 ) = 1; Δ ( s2 ) = j
Γ
s3 = 0; s4 = 1 − j Δ( s3 ) = −1; Δ( s4 ) = − j

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Principle the Argument Nyquist Criterion and Nyquist Diagram

jω Δ( s)-plane
Let Δ ( s ) be a single-valued function that has a finite s-plane
number of poles in the s-plane.
Suppose that an arbitrary closed path Γ s is chosen in the s-
plane so that the path does not go through any one of the R→∞ Δ( s) = 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
poles or zeros of Δ ( s ) ; 0 σ 1
The corresponding Γ Δ locus mapped in the Δ ( s )-plane will
encircle the origin as many times as the difference Γs
between the number of zeros and poles (P) of Δ( s ) that are
Nyquist Path G( s)H(s)-plane
encircled by the s-plane locus Γ s .
Nyquist Diagram:
In equation form: N =Z−P Plot the loop
N - number of encirclements of the origin by the Δ ( s ) -plane locus function to
−1 0
determine the
Z - number of zeros of Δ ( s ) encircled by the s-plane locus Critical point: closed-loop
P - number of poles of Δ( s ) encircled by the s-plane locus (-1+j0) stability

Nyquist Path Γ s Nyquist Criterion and G(s)H(s) Plot

A curve composed of the imaginary axis and an arc of
jω s-plane G( s)H(s)-plane
infinite radius such that the curve completely encloses the
right half of the s-plane . G( s) H ( s)
R→∞
jω s-plane Nyquist path is in the 0 σ −1 0
CCW direction
Γs
R→∞ Since in mathematics, CCW
is traditionally defined to be Nyquist Path G(s)H(s) Plot
0 σ the positive sense.

Γs The Nyquist Path is shown in the left figure. This path is

mapped through the loop tranfer function G(s)H(S) to
Note Nyquist path does not pass through any poles or the G(s)H(s) plot in the right figure. The Nyquist
Creterion follows:
zeros of Δ(s); if Δ(s) has any pole or zero in the right-
half plane, it will be encircled by Γ s . N =Z−P

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Nyquist Diagram
4

Nyquist Criterion and Nyquist Plot An example 3

jω s-plane G( s)H(s)-plane Consider the system with 2

the loop function 1

Imaginary Axis
5
R→∞ G( s) H ( s) G( s) H ( s) = 0

( s + 1) 3 -1

0 σ −1 0 Matlab program for -2

Nyquist plot
Γs (G(s)H(s) plot)
-3

-4

Nyquist Path Nyquist Plot >>num=5;

-2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
2 3 4 5

N - number of encirclements of (-1,j0) by the G(s)H(s) plot >>den=[1 3 3 1]; Question 2: what if
Z - number of zeros of Δ ( s ) that are inside the right-half plane >>nyquist(num,den); 5K
G( s) H ( s) = ?
P - number of poles of Δ( s ) that are inside the right-half plane ( s + 1)3
Question 1: is the
The condition of closed-loop stability according to the closed-loop system N=0, P=0,
Nyquist Creterion is: stable? N=-P, stable
N = −P

1. With root locus technique: >>num=1;

K ∏ i =1 ( s − zi )
m 5K 1 >>den=[1 3 3 1];
G( s) H ( s) = = K*
G( s) H (s) = ( s + 1)3 ( s + 1)3 >>rlocus(num,den);
∏
n Root Locus

j =1
( s − pi ) For K* varies from 0
3

K* → ∞
to ∞, we draw the RL 2
∏ ( s − pi ) + K ∏ i =1 ( s − zi )
n m
j =1
Δ( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = When K*=8 1

∏
n
( s − pi )
Imaginary Axis

j =1 (K=1.6), the RL ∞ ← K*
cross the jw-axis,
0
K* = 8
the closed-loop -1 K =0*

Δ ( s) has the same poles as G ( s ) H ( s ) , so P can be obtained system is

by counting the number of poles of G ( s ) H ( s ) in the right- marginally stable. -2

half plane. K* → ∞
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis

For K*>8 (K>1.6), the closed-loop system has two roots in

the RHP and is unstable.

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2. With Nyquist plot and >>K=1; 2. With Nyquist plot and >>K=4;
Nyquist criterion: >>num=5*K; Nyquist criterion: >>num=5*K;
>>den=[1 3 3 1]; >>den=[1 3 3 1];
5K 5K
G( s) H ( s) = >>nyquist(num,den); G( s) H ( s) = >>nyquist(num,den);
( s + 1) 3 Nyquist Diagram
( s + 1) 3
4 Nyquist Diagram

K=1 K=4
15

No pole of No pole of 10

G(s)H(s) in RHP,
2
G(s)H(s) in RHP,
so P=0; so P=0;
5
1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0 0
Nyquist plot Nyquist plot
does not -1
encircles (-1,j0) -5

encircle (-1,j0), -2 twice, so N=2

so N=0 -10
-3

-15
Thus N=-P -4
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Thus Z=N+P=2
-5 0
Real Axis
5 10 15 20

The closed-loop system is stable Real Axis

The closed-loop system has two poles in RHP and is unstable

2. With Nyquist plot and >>K=1.6;

>>num=5*K;
Nyquist criterion:
>>den=[1 3 3 1];
Nyquist Criterion for Systems with
G( s) H ( s) =
5K >>nyquist(num,den); Minimum-Phase Transfer Functions
( s + 1) 3 Nyquist Diagram
What is called a minimum-phase transfer function?
K=1.6
6
A minimum-phase transfer function does not have poles
No pole of 4 or zeros in the right-half s-plane or on the jw-axis,
G(s)H(s) in RHP, except at s=0.
2
so P=0; Consider the transfer functions
Imaginary Axis

The Nyquist plot

0
10( s + 1) 10( s − 1)
G1 ( s ) = G2 ( s ) =
just go through -2 ( s + 10) ( s + 10)
(-1,j0) Both transfer functions have the same magnitude for all
-4
frequencies G ( jω ) = G ( jω )
1 2

But the phases of the two transfer functions are drastically

-6
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Real Axis

The closed-loop system is marginally stable different.

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Bode Diagram

Nyquist criterion for systems with minimum-phase loop

20

15 transfer function
G1 ( jω ) = G2 ( jω )
Magnitude (dB)

10
N =0
5
For a closed-loop system with loop transfer function L(s)
0
that is of minimum-phase type, the system is closed-
180
loop stable , if the Nyquist plot (L(s) plot) that
135
∠G2 ( jω ) corresponds to the Nyquist path does not enclose (-1,j0)
Phase (deg)

90
point. If the (-1,j0) is enclosed by the Nyquist plot, the
system is unstable.
45
∠G1 ( jω )
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10 10
The Nyquist stability can be checked by plotting the
A minimum-phase system (all zeros in the LHP) with a segment of L(jw) from w= ∞ to 0.
given magnitude curve will produce the smallest change
in the associated phase, as shown in G1.

Example Consider a single-loop feedback system with the

Consider the loop transfer function: loop transfer function
K
L( s ) = G ( s ) H ( s ) L( s ) = G ( s ) H ( s ) =
s( s + 2)( s + 10)
Analyze the stability of the closed-loop system.
If L(s) is minimum-phase, that is, L(s) does not
Solution.
have any poles or zeros in the right-half plane or Since L(s) is minimum-phase, we can analyze the closed-loop
on the jw-axis, except at s=0 stability by investigating whether the Nyquist plot enclose
the critical point (-1,j0) for L(jw)/K first.
Then P=0, where P is the number of poles of j Im
L( jω ) 1
Δ(s)=1+G(s)H(s), which has the same poles as L(s). = Im[ L( jω ) K ] = 0
K jω ( jω + 2)( jω + 10)
ω=∞
Thus, the Nyquist criterion (N=-P) for a system w=∞:
L( j∞ )
= 0∠ − 270 0 Real
with L(s) being minimum-phase is simplified to K
L( j 0)
N =0 w=0+: = ∞∠ − 90 ω→0
K

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Im[ L( jω ) K ] = Im[
1
]=0
Relative Stability
ω = ± 20 rad / s
jω ( jω + 2)( jω + 10) Gain Margin and Phase Margin
The frequency is positive, so ω = 20 rad / s For a stable system, relative stability describes how stable
the system is.
1 In time-domain, the relative stability is measured by
L( j 20) K = = −0.004167
j 20( j 20 + 2)( j 20 + 10) maximum overshoot and damping ratio.
In frequency-domain, the relative j Im
1. K < 240  L( j 20) > −1
stability is measured by resonance
the Nyquist plot does not enclose (-1,jw); stable peak and how close the Nyquist plot
2. K = 240  L( j 20) = −1 of L(jw) is to the (-1,j0) point. ω=∞
the Nyquist plot goes through (-1,jw); marginally stable −1 Real
The relative stability of the 0
3. K > 240  L( j 20) < −1 blue curve is higher than the
unstable green curve. ω →0
the Nyquist plot encloses (-1,jw).

By root locus technique >>z=[]

>>p=[0, -2, -10];
L( s ) = G ( s ) H ( s ) = K
1
>>k=1 Gain Margin (GM)
s ( s + 2)( s + 10)
>>sys=zpk(z,p,k); (for minimum-phase loop transfer functions)
20
Root Locus
>>rlocus(sys); Phase crossover
j Im L(jw)-plane
15 Phase crossover frequency ωp
ωp
10 ∠L( jω p ) = −180
ω=∞
For a closed-loop system with
5
0 Real
Imaginary Axis

L( jω p )
0 K = 240 L(jw) as its loop transfer
function, its gain margin is ω→0
-5
defined as
-10
1
gain margin (GM) = 20log10
-15 L( jω p )
-20
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 = −20log10 L( jω p ) dB
Real Axis

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gain margin (GM) = 20log10

1 Example Consider the transfer function
L( jω p ) 10
G ( s) =
s ( s + 1)
= −20log10 L( jω p ) dB
Draw its Nyquist plot when w varies from 0 to ∞.
When L( jω ) < 1 (stable), log10 L( jω ) < 0  GM > 0 Solution. Substituting s=jw into G(s) yields: G ( jω ) = 10
jω ( jω + 1)
L( jω ) ↓ (closer to the origin)  GM ↑ (more stable) The magnitude and phase of G(jw) at w=0 and w=∞ are
computed as follows.
L( jω ) ↑ (closer to -1)  GM ↓ (less stable) 10 10
lim G ( jω ) = lim = lim = ∞ Thus the properties of
ω →0 ω →0 jω ( jω + 1) ω →0 ω the Nyquist plot of G(jw)
When L( jω ) = 1 (marginally stable), log10 L( jω ) > 0  GM=0 10 10 at w=0 and w=∞ are
lim ∠G ( jω ) = lim ∠ = lim ∠ = −90
ω →0 ω →0 jω ( jω + 1) ω →0 jω ascertained.
When L( jω ) > 1 (unstable), log10 L( jω ) > 0  GM<0
10
lim G ( jω ) = lim =0 Next we determine the
Gain margin represents the amount of gain in decibels (dB) ω →∞ ω →∞ jω ( jω + 1)
intersection…
that can be added to the loop before the closed-loop lim ∠G ( jω ) = lim ∠
10
= lim ∠
10
= −180
system becomes unstable. ω →∞ ω →∞ jω ( jω + 1) ω →∞ −ω 2

If the Nyquist plot of G(jw) intersects with the real axis, we have
Phase Margin (PM) Im[G ( jω )] = 0
10ω
(for minimum-phase loop transfer functions) 10 −10ω 2 10ω =0 ω =∞
G ( jω ) = = −j 4 ω4 + ω2
jω ( jω + 1) ω 4 + ω 2 ω + ω2
Gain margin alone is inadequate to indicate relative
stability when system parameters other the loop gain are This means that the G(jw) plot intersects only with the real axis of the
G(jw)-plane at the origin.
subject to variation. j Im
Similarly, intersection of G(jw) with the imaginary axis:
With the same gain margin,
system represented by plot A is Re[G ( jω )] = 0 ω =∞
more stable than plot B. ∠L( jω g ) which corresponds to the origin of the G(jw)-plane.
−1
Gain crossover frequency ωg Real The conclusion is that the Nyquist
PM 0 plot of G(jw) does not intersect any
L( jωg ) = 1 L( jωg ) = 1 one of the axes at any finite
nonzero frequency.
Phase margin: B A At w=∞, Re[G ( jω )] = 0
phase margin (PM) =∠L( jωg ) − 180 At w=0, Re[G ( jω )] = −10

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Example Consider a system with a loop transfer function as

2500
L( s ) =
s( s + 5)( s + 50)
Determine its gain margin and phase margin.
Solution. Phase crossover frequency ωp: j Im

Im[ L( jω )] = 0  ω p = 15.88 rad/sec 3.2 Bode Plot

Gain margin: L( jω p ) = 0.182 ω p = 15.88
−1 ω=∞
GM = − 20log10 L( jω p ) = 14.80 dB −0.1820
31.72
Gain crossover frequency ωg: ωg = 6.22
L( jωg ) = 1  ωg = 6.22 rad/sec ω→0

Phase margin:
PM =∠L( jωg ) − 180 = 31.72

Advantages of Nyquist plot: Bode Plot

-By Nyquist plot of the loop transfer function, the
closed-loop stability can be easily determined with
reference to the critical point (-1,j0).
-It can analyze systems with either minimum phase or
nonminimum phase loop transfer function.
Disadvantages of Nyquist plot:
-By Nyquist plot only, it is not convenient to carry out
controller design.
The Bode plot of the function G(jw) is composed of two
plots:
-- the amplitude of G(jw) in decibels (dB) versus log10w
or w
-- the phase of G(jw) in degrees as a function of
log10w or w.
Without loss of generality, the following transfer function
is used to illustrate the construction of the Bode Plot
K (1 + T1s )(1 + T2 s )
G(s) =
s j (1 + τ 1s )(1 + 2ζ s / ωn + s 2 / ωn2 )
where K, T1, T2, τ1, ζ, ωn are real constants. It is assumed
that the second-order polynomial in the denominator has
complex conjugate zeros.

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Substituting s=jw into G(s) yields

1. Real constant K
K (1 + jT1ω )(1 + jT2ω )
G ( jω ) =
( jω )(1 + jτ 1ω )(1 + j 2ζω / ωn − ω 2 / ωn2 ) K dB = 20log 20 K
= constant
The magnitude of G(jw) in dB is obtained by multiplying the
logarithm (base 10) of |G(jw)| by 20; we have
 0 K >0
G ( jω ) dB = 20log10 G ( jω ) ∠K =  
180 K <0
= 20log10 K + 20log10 1 + jT1ω + 20log10 1 + jT2ω
− 20log10 jω − 20log10 1 + jτ 1ω − 20log10 1 + j 2ζω / ωn − ω 2 / ωn2
The phase of G(jw) is
∠G ( jω ) = ∠K + ∠(1 + jT1ω ) + ∠(1 + jT2ω ) − ∠jω
− ∠(1 + jτ 1ω ) − ∠(1 + j 2ζω / ωn − ω 2 / ωn2 )

2. Poles or zeros at the origin, ( jω )

±p
In general, the function G(jw) may be of higher order and
have many more factored terms. However, the above two
equations indicate that additional terms in G(jw) would Magnitude of ( jω ) ± p in dB:
simply produce more similar terms in the magnitude and
phase expressions, so the basic method of construction of ( jω ) ± p = 20log 20 ( jω ) ± p = ±20 p log 20 ω dB
dB

the Bode plot would be the same.

For a given p, it is a straight line with the slope:
In general, G(jw) can contain just four simple types of
factors: d
( ±20 p log10 ω ) = ±20 p dB/decade
d log10 ω
1. Constant factor: K
2. Poles or zeros at the origin of order p: (jw)±p Thus a unit change in log10 ω corresponds to a change of
3. Poles or zeros at s =-1/T of order q: (1+jwT )±q ±20 dB in the magnitude.
4. Complex poles and zeros of order r:
(1 + j2ζω/ωn-ω2/ω2n) At ω =1, ( jω ) ± p = 0.
dB

So these lines pass through the 0dB axis at ω =1.

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The steps of making of sketch of 1 + jωT dB

Step 1: Locate the corner frequency w=1/T on the
Magnitude of ( jω ) ± p : frequency axis;
Step 2: Draw the 20dB/decade line and the horizontal line
±20 p log 20 ω dB at 0 dB with the two lines intersecting at w=1/T.
Step 3: Sketch a smooth curve by locating the 3-dB point at
the corner frequency and the 1-dB points at 1 octave above
and below the corner frequency.

Phase of ( jω ) ± p :
± p × 90

3. (a) Simple zero 1+jwT Consider the function The phase of G(jw)=1+jwT is ∠G ( jω ) = tan ωT
−1

G ( jω ) = 1 + jωT
where T is a positive real constant. At very low frequencies, ∠G ( jω ) ≅ 0
The magnitude of G(jw) in dB is At very high frequencies, ∠G ( jω ) ≅ 90
G ( jω ) dB = 20log10 G ( jω ) = 20log10 1 + ω 2T 2

At very low frequencies, ωT << 1

G ( jω ) dB ≅ 20log10 1 = 0 dB The two lines
intersect at:
( ω 2T 2 is neglected when compared with 1.) ω =1/ T
At very high frequencies, ωT >> 1 (corner
G ( jω ) dB ≅ 20log10 ω 2T 2 = 20log10 ωT dB frequency)

This represents a straight line with a slope of 20dB

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3. (b) Simple pole, 1/(1+jwT)

Consider the function 1
G ( jω ) = 4. Complex poles and zeros
1 + jωT
The magnitude of G(jw) in dB is Consider the second-order transfer function
G ( jω ) dB = 20log10 G ( jω ) = −20log10 1 + ω 2T 2 ωn2 1
G(s) = 2 =
s + 2ζωn s + ωn2 1 + (2ζ ωn ) s + (1 ωn2 ) s 2
At very low frequencies, ωT << 1
The two lines
G ( jω ) dB ≅ −20log10 1 = 0 dB intersect at: We are interested only in the case when ζ ≤ 1, since
ω =1/ T otherwise G(s) would have two unequal real poles, and
At very high frequencies, ωT >> 1 the Bode plot can be obtained by considering G(s) as the
(corner
product of two transfer functions with simple poles.
G ( jω ) dB ≅ −20log10 ω 2T 2 = −20log10 ωT dB frequency)
By letting s=jw, G(s) becomes
This represents a straight line with a slope of -20dB 1
G ( jω ) =
The phase of G(jw): ∠G ( jω ) = − tan −1 ωT [1 − (ω 2 ωn2 )] + j 2ζ (ω ωn )

For w varies from 0 to ∞, ∠G ( jω ) varies from 0°to -90°.

1
G ( jω ) =
[1 − (ω 2 ωn2 )] + j 2ζ (ω ωn )
The magnitude of G(jw) in dB is

G ( jω ) dB = 20log10 G ( jω )
= −20log10 [1 − (ω 2 ωn2 )]2 + 4ζ 2 (ω ωn ) 2
At very low frequencies, ω / ωn << 1
The two lines
G ( jω ) dB ≅ −20log10 1 = 0 dB
intersect at:
At very high frequencies, ω / ωn >> 1 ω = ωn
(corner
G ( jω ) dB ≅ −20log10 (ω ωn ) 4 = −40log10 (ω ωn ) dB frequency)

This equation represents a straight line with a slope of

40 dB decade in the Bode plot coordinates.

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Example Consider the following transfer function

The actual magnitude curve of G(jw) in this case may 10( s + 10)
G(s) =
differ strikingly from the asymptotic curve. s ( s + 2)( s + 5)
Sketch its Bode Plot.

Solution. Letting s=jw, we have

10( jω + 10)
G ( jω ) =
jω ( jω + 2)( jω + 5)
Reformulating it into the form for Bode Plot
The reason for this is that the amplitude K (1 + jT1ω ) 10(1 + j 0.1ω )
and phase curves of the second-order G(jw) G ( jω ) = =
depend not only on the corner frequency wn, jω (1 + jτ 1ω )(1 + jτ 2ω ) jω (1 + j 0.5ω )(1 + j 0.2ω )
but also on the damping ratio ζ, which does
not enter the asymptotic curve. where K = 10, T1 = 0.1, τ 1 = 0.5, τ 2 = 0.2
So G(jw) has corner frequencies at w=10,2 and 5 rad/sec.

The phase of G(jw) is given by 1. Bode plot of K=10

Bode Diagram
 2ζω   ω  2   21

∠G ( jω ) = − tan −1  1 −    
ω ω 20.5
 n   n   
Magnitude (dB)

20

19.5

19
1

0.5
Phase (deg)

-0.5

-1
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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2. Bode Plot of the component with pole at origin : jw 4. Bode plot of simple pole componet 1/(1+j0.5w)
magnitude curve: a straight line with slope of 20 dB/decade, Corner frequency: w=1/0.5=2 rad/sec
passing through the w=1 rad/sec point on the 0-dB axis. Bode Diagram
Bode Diagram 0
20
-20

Magnitude (dB)
0
Magnitude (dB)

-40
-20
-60
-40
-80
-60 0
-89

Phase (deg)
-89.5
Phase (deg)

-45
-90

-90.5
-90
-1 0 1 2 3
-91 10 10 10 10 10
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)

3. Bode plot of simple zero component 1+j0.1w 5. Bode plot of simple pole component 1/(1+j0.2w)
Corner frequency: w=1/0.1=10 rad/sec Corner frequency: w=1/0.2=5 rad/sec
Bode Diagram
60 Bode Diagram
-10

50 -20
Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

-30
40
-40
30
-50

20 -60
90 0
Phase (deg)

Phase (deg)

45 -45

0 -90
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec) Frequency (rad/sec)

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|G(jw)|dB is obtained
by adding the
component curves
together, point by
point.

Bode Plot:
Gain crossover
point: |G(jw)|dB
cross the 0-dB
axis
Phase crossover
point: where the
phase curve cross
the -180°axis.

Nyquist Plot (Polar Plot) :

The gain-crossover point is where G ( jω ) = 1 ,
The phase crossover point is where ∠G ( jω ) = −180 .

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