Dynamics & Control Frequency Response

INTRODUCTION
In an earlier chapter, the output of systems when subject to an impulse, step or ramp input
was discussed. This chapter extends the discussion to when a sinusoidal input is applied.
While for many control systems a sinusoidal input might not be encountered normally it is a
useful testing input since the way the system responds to such an input is very useful source
of information to aid the design and analysis of systems. FREQUENCY RESPONSE
method is a very practical and important alternative approach to the analysis and design of a
control system. There are several techniques that are used for the analysis of frequency data.
In this chapter the two techniques considered are those of Bode and Nyquist.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE DEFINITION

The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of a system to a
sinusoidal input signal. The output signal for a linear system is sinusoidal in the steady-state
when the system is subjected to a sinusoidal signal. It differs from the input waveform only in
magnitude and phase angle. (Figure 1)

Sinusoidal Transfer Function

Consider a linear system represented by transfer function G(s),

R(s) C(s)
G(s)
Input: r (t ) = X sin ωt (sinusoidal function)

Output: c (t ) = L−1{G(s )R(s )} = transient term + steady-state term

The output comprises a transient component and a steady-state component. For a stable
system, the transient component will die away when t → ∞. Thus if we only concerned with
the steady state, the output obtained is
C(t ) = Y sin(ωt + φ ) (steady-state term only)

where: Y = X G( jω ) φ = ∠G(jω )

Figure 1 Input and output sinusoidal signals

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Dynamics & Control Frequency Response

If a sinusoidal input is applied to a linear system the output is also sinusoidal and of the same
frequency. The output can differ from the input in amplitude and phase.
Y(jω )
G( jω ) =  Amplitude ratio of the output sinusoid to the input sinusoid.
X(jω )
Y(jω )
∠G( jω ) = ∠  Phase shift of the output sinusoid wrt. the input sinusoid.
X(jω )
• a negative phase angle is called phase lag,
• a positive phase angle is called phase lead.
In fact, the amplitude of the output is given by the product of that of the input and |G(jω)|,
while the phase angle differs from that of the input by the amount ∠G( jω ) .
Note: G(jω), the sinusoidal transfer function of a system can be obtained by replacing s
with jω in the system transfer function G(s).

Frequency Response For A First-order System

1
A first-order system has a transfer function: G(s ) = (T is the time constant)
Ts + 1
1
The sinusoidal transfer function: G(jω ) =
jωT + 1
1 1 1
Magnitude: G( jω ) = = =
jωT + 1 jωT + 1 ω 2T2 + 1
Phase: tan φ = −ωT , φ = tan -1 ( −ωT ) = − tan −1 ωT

Frequency Response For A Second-order System

ωn2
A second-order system has a transfer function: G(s ) =
s 2 + 2 ζωn s + ωn2
The sinusoidal transfer function:
ωn2 ωn2 ωn2
G( jω) = = =
( jω)2 + 2ζωn ( jω) + ωn2 −ω 2 + 2 jζωnω + ωn2 ωn2 − ω 2 + 2 jζωnω

ω n2 ω n2
Magnitude: G( jω ) = =
(ω n2 − ω 2 ) 2 + (2ζω nω ) 2 (ω n2 − ω 2 ) 2 + 4ζ 2ω n2ω 2

2ζωω n
Phase: φ = − tan −1
ωn2 − ω 2

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Dynamics & Control Frequency Response

Frequency Response For Series Elements

A system consists of a number of elements in series:

R(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)

Transfer Function: G(s) = G1 (s)G 2 (s)

The sinusoidal transfer function: G( jω) = G1 ( jω)G 2 ( jω)

Since: G1 ( jω ) = G1 ( jω ) ∠G1 (jω ) ; G2 ( jω) = G2 ( jω) ∠G2 ( jω) ;

We have: G( jω) = G1 ( jω) ∠G1 ( jω) × G 2 ( jω) ∠G 2 ( jω)

= G1( jω) G2 ( jω) [∠G1( jω) + ∠G2 ( jω)]

Magnitude: G( jω) = G1 ( jω) G 2 ( jω)

Phase: ∠G( jω) = ∠G1 ( jω) + ∠G 2 ( jω)

ADVANTAGES OF USING FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHOD

1. The experimental determination of the frequency response of a system is easily
accomplished due to the ready availability of sinusoidal input signals for various ranges of
frequencies and amplitudes.
2. Transfer function representing the sinusoidal steady-state behavior can be obtained by
replacing s with jω in the system transfer function G(s). The magnitude and phase angle
of G(jω) are readily represented by graphical plots that provide a significant insight for the
analysis and design of control systems.
3. Stability of a closed loop system can be determined by using Nyquist stability criterion.

REPRESENTING FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS IN

GRAPHICAL FORMS
The sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is characterised by its magnitude and phase angle, with
frequency as the parameter. There are two commonly used representations of sinusoidal
transfer functions:
1. Bode diagram or logarithmic plot
2. Nyquist plot or polar plot.

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BODE DIAGRAM OR LOGARITHMIC PLOT

A sinusoidal transfer function may be represented by two separate plots, one giving the
magnitude versus frequency and the other the phase angle versus frequency. A Bode diagram
consists :
1. Bode Magnitude Plot: - the magnitude of the sinusoidal transfer function in units of
decibels (dB) versus the frequency in logarithm scale;
2. Bode Phase Plot: - phase angle versus the frequency in logarithm scale.
Consider a system having a transfer function involving a number of terms,
G(jω ) = G1 ( jω )G2 ( jω )G3 ( jω )

• Magnitude: G( jω ) = G1 ( jω ) G2 ( jω ) G3 ( jω )
Taking logarithm to base of 10, this equation becomes
lg G( jω ) = lg G1( jω ) + lg G2 ( jω ) + lg G3 ( jω )
Magnitude in units of decibels (dB):

G( jω ) dB = 20 lg G( jω ) = 20 lg G1( jω ) + 20 lg G2 ( jω ) + 20 lg G3 ( jω )

(e.g. if |G(jω)| = 10 then, the magnitude in dB is 20dB.)

Plotting magnitude in dB against frequency is just by adding the magnitude plot of individual
element.
• Phase: ∠G( jω ) = ∠G1 ( jω ) + ∠G2 ( jω ) + ∠G3 ( jω )
Phase plot against frequency is just by adding the phase plot of individual element.

The frequency scale used for both the magnitude and the phase plots is logarithmic. This is
enable a graph to cover a greater range of frequencies and also because it often leads to
straight-line graph.

Figure 2
Example of Bode diagram

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Because Bode plots for a system can be built up from the plots for the individual elements
within the transfer function, the common factors that may occur in the transfer function are as
follows:
1. Constant gain k
2. Poles or zeros at the origin (integral or derivative factor)
1 1
or jω , 2
or (jω ) 2 , and so on...... ,
jω (jω )
3. Poles or zeros on the real axis (first order lag or first order lead factor)
1 1
or 1 + jωT or (1 + jω ) 2 , and so on......,
1 + jωT (1 + jω ) 2
4. Complex conjugate poles or zeros (second order lag or second order lead factor)
ωn2 ( jω)2 + 2ζωn ( jω ) + ωn2
or
( jω)2 + 2ζωn ( jω) + ωn2 ωn2

Constant Gain k

Transfer function : G(s) = k

Sinusoidal transfer function: G(jω) = k
Magnitude: |G(jω)| = k
Magnitude in dB: |G(jω)|dB = 20lgk (dB)
Phase: ∠G( jω) = 0o
Bode Plot: The magnitude plot is a straight line of constant magnitude. Changing
the gain k merely shifts the magnitude plot up or down by a certain
number of decibels. The phase is 0o for all frequencies.

Magnitude

20lgk

0 ω in log scale
Phase

0 ω in log scale

Figure 3: Bode plot of constant k

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A Pole At The Origin (Integral Factor)

1
Transfer function : G( s) =
s
1
Sinusoidal transfer function: G( jω) =
jω
1
Magnitude: G( jω) =
ω
1
Magnitude in dB: G( jω) dB = 20 lg = −20 lg ω (dB)
ω
Phase: ∠G( jω) = −90 o
Bode Plot: The Bode magnitude plot is straight line of slope -20dB per decade
frequency which passes through 0dB at ω = 1 rad/sec. The phase is
constant, for all frequencies, at -90o .

A Zero At The Origin (Derivative Factor)

Transfer function : G( s) = s
Sinusoidal transfer function: G( jω) = jω

Magnitude: G( jω) = ω

Magnitude in dB: G( jω) dB = 20 lg ω (dB)

Phase: ∠G( jω) = 90 o

Bode Plot: The Bode magnitude plot is straight line of slope +20dB per decade
frequency which passes through 0dB at ω = 1 rad/sec. The phase is
constant, for all frequencies, at +90o .
dB dB

40 Slope = - 20 dB/dec 40
20 20
0 0
0.1 1 10 100 ω 0.1 1 10 100 ω
- 20 - 20
- 40 - 40 Slope = + 20 dB/dec

φ φ
180 180
90 90
0 0
0.1 1 10 100 ω 0.1 1 10 100 ω
- 90 - 90
- 180 - 180

1
(a) Frequency response curve of (b) Frequency response curve of jω.
jω

Figure 4 Bode plot of integral and derivative factor

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Poles On The Real Axis (First Order Lag)

1
Transfer function : G( s) =
Ts + 1
1
Sinusoidal transfer function: G( jω) =
jωT + 1
1
Magnitude: G( jω) = 2 2
ω T +1
1
Magnitude in dB: G( jω) dB = 20 lg 2 2
= −20 lg ω 2 T 2 + 1 (dB)
ω T +1
Phase: ∠G( jω) = − tan −1 ωT
1
When ω << or ωT << 1, |G(jω)|dB = 0 dB ∠G( jω) = 0 o
T
1
When ω >> or ωT >> 1, G( jω) dB = −20 lg ωT dB ∠G( jω) = −90 o
T
1
When ω = or ωT = 1, G( jω) dB = −20 lg 2 = −3dB ∠G( jω) = −45 o
T
Bode Plot: At low frequency, Bode plot is a straight-line at a constant value of
0dB. At higher frequency, Bode plot is a straight-line of slope -20dB
per decade of frequency which intersects the 0 dB line when ω = 1/T.
The frequency at the intersection point, ω = 1/T, is called corner
frequency. The two straight-lines are called the asymptotic
approximation (asymptotes) to the true curve. The true plot rounds off
the intersection of the two lines. The maximum error is -3 dB at the
corner frequency.

Figure 5 Bode plot of 1st order lead and 1st order lag factor

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Zeros On The Real Axis (First Order Lead)

Transfer function : G( s) = Ts + 1
Sinusoidal transfer function: G( jω) = jωT + 1

Magnitude: G( jω) = ω 2 T 2 + 1

Magnitude in dB: G( jω) dB = 20 lg ω 2 T 2 + 1 (dB)

Phase: ∠G( jω) = tan −1 ωT

1
When ω << or ωT << 1, |G(jω)|dB = 0 dB ∠G( jω) = 0 o
T
1
When ω >> or ωT >> 1, G( jω) dB = 20 lg ωT dB ∠G( jω) = 90 o
T
1
When ω = or ωT = 1, G( jω) dB = 20 lg 2 = 3 dB ∠G( jω) = 45 o
T
Bode Plot: At low frequency, Asymptote is a straight-line at a constant value of
0 dB. At higher frequency, asymptote is a straight-line of slope +20dB
per decade of frequency which intersects the 0 dB line when ω = 1/T.
The true plot rounds off the intersection of the two lines. The
maximum error is 3 dB at the corner frequency.

Complex Conjugate Poles (Second Order Lag)

ω n2
Transfer function : G( s) =
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2

ωn2
Sinusoidal TF: G( jω) =
( jω)2 + 2ζωn ( jω) + ωn2

ωn2 1
= =
2 2 2
[
− ω + 2 jζωnω + ωn 1 − (ω / ωn ) + j[2ζ (ω / ωn )] ]
1
Magnitude: G( jω) =
2 2
[ 1 − ( ω / ωn ) ] + [ 2ζ( ω / ω )] n
2

1
Magnitude in dB: G( jω) dB = 20 lg
[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + [2ζ(ω / ω )]
n
2 2
n
2

= −20 lg [1 − (ω / ω ) ] + [2ζ(ω / ω )]
n
2 2
n
2

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2ζ (ω / ω n )
Phase: ∠G( jω) = − tan −1 2
1 − ( ω / ωn )
ω
When << 1 |G(jω)|dB = 0 dB ∠ G ( jω ) = 0 o
ωn
ω
When >> 1 G( jω ) dB = −20 lg(ω / ω n ) 2 ∠G( jω) = −180 o
ωn
= −40 lg(ω / ω n ) dB
ω
When =1 G( jω ) dB depends on ζ ∠G(jω ) = −90 o
ωn

Bode Plot: At low frequency, magnitude plot is a straight-line at a constant value

of 0dB. At high frequency, magnitude plot is a straight-line of slope -
20dB per decade of frequency which intersects the 0 dB line when
ω=ωn. The corner frequency is at ω = ωn . The true plot, however,
depends on the damping ratio ζ.

Figure 8-6: Bode plot of 2nd order factor

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Dynamics & Control Frequency Response

NYQUIST PLOT OR POLAR PLOT

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude |G(jω)| versus
the phase angle ∠G(jω) on polar coordinates as ω is varied from zero to infinity.

Steps of plotting:

1. Form a table.

Frequency ω Magnitude |G(jω)| Phase Angle ∠G(jω)

0 M0 φ0
ω1 M1 φ1
ω2 M2 φ2
...... ...... ......
∞ M∞ φ∞

2. Positive phase angle is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis.
Im
3. Four key points in plotting Nyquist diagram:
Re[G(jω)]
• starting point of the plot: ω3

at ω = 0
0 Re
• ending point of the plot: ω2
∠G(jω)
at ω = ∞ Im[G(jω)]
|G(jω)|
• the plot crosses the real axis:
at ∠G(jω) = 0o or + 180o
ω1
• the plot crosses the imaginary axis:
ω3 → 0
at ∠G(jω) = + 90o

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General Shape of Polar Plots

The polar plots of a transfer function of the form

k ( jωTa + 1)( jωTb + 1)... b0 ( jω ) m + b1 ( jω ) m−1 ...
G ( jω ) = = , where n>m
( jω ) λ ( jωT1 + 1)( jωT2 + 1)... a 0 ( jω ) n + a1 ( jω ) n −1 ...
will have the following general shape: Im

Im n–m=3
Type 2 system
ω→ ∞
ω→ ∞
ω=0 ω=0 n–m=2 n →∞
0 Re Re
ω→ ∞

n–m=1
ω=0

Type 1 system Type 0 system

1. For λ=0 or type 0 system: At ω = 0, |G(jω)| = finite value, /G(jω) = 00

2. For λ=1 or type 1 system: At ω = 0, |G(jω)| = infinite value, /G(jω) = - 900
3. For λ=2 or type 2 system: At ω = 0, |G(jω)| = infinite value, /G(jω) = -1800
4. For n - m =1: At ω = ∞, |G(jω)| = 0, /G(jω) = - 900
5. For n - m =2: At ω = ∞, |G(jω)| = 0, /G(jω) = - 1800
6. For n - m =3: At ω = ∞, |G(jω)| = 0, /G(jω) = - 2700 ……….

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NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

Simplified Nyquist Stability Criterion

Nyquist stability criterion is based on the open loop frequency response and is a graphical
method of determining the stability of a system under closed loop conditions.
The simplified Nyquist Stability criterion states:
If GH (open loop transfer function) does not have poles in the right-half s-plane
(minimum phase system), the closed-loop system is stable if and only if the - 1
point lies to the left of the polar plot when moving along this plot in the
direction of increasing ω, that is, the polar passes on the right side of - 1.

Im Im Im

-1 0 Re -1 0 Re -1 0 Re

Stable System Marginally Stable Unstable System

RELATIVE STABILITY
In designing a control system, we require that the system be stable. Furthermore, it is
necessary that the system have adequate relative stability. Relative stability of a system is
defined in terms of 2 parameters: Gain Margin and Phase margin.

Gain Margin (GM)

Gain Margin is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the open loop
0
transfer function when phase lag is - 180 . Gain Margin is usually expressed in
decibel (dB).

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Im
1
ωφ ω→∞ GM =
Re |A|
A 0

The phase crossover frequency ωφ is defined as the frequency at which ∠G(jω)

o
the phase angle of the open loop transfer function equals -180 .

At ω = ωφ, Magnitude: A = G( jωφ )H ( jωφ )

1 1
Gain Margin: GM = =
A G( jω )H ( jω )
φ φ

1
Gain Margin in dB: GMdB = 20lg = − 20 lg G( jωφ )H ( jωφ )
A

Summary:
1. For a stable system: A < 1  GM > 1  GMdB > 0dB
2. For a unstable system: A > 1  GM < 1  GMdB < 0dB
3. For a marginally stable system: A = 1  GM = 1  GMdB = 0dB

For a stable system, the Gain Margin indicates how much the gain can be increased before the
system becomes unstable. For an unstable system, the Gain Margin is indicative of how much
the gain must be decreased to make the system stable.

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Phase Margin (PM)

The Phase Margin is defined as the amount of additional phase lag at the gain
crossover frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability.
Phase Margin is found as 180o plus the phase angle of the open loop transfer function
at the frequency when gain is unity.

Im
o
PM = 180 - |φ|
ω→∞
PM Re
ωg φ

ω Unit circle

The gain crossover frequency ωg is defined as the frequency at which |G(jω)|, the
magnitude of the open-loop transfer function is unity.

Summary:
o
1. For a stable system: | φ | < 180  PM > 0
o
2. For a unstable system: | φ | > 180  PM < 0
o
3. For a marginally stable system: | φ | = 180  PM = 0o

Gain Margin and Phase Margin On Bode Plot

ω)|
|G(jω

ωg Gain crossover frequency

ω (rad/sec)
0
Gain Margin GM

∠G(jω
ω)

Phase Margin PM ω (rad/sec)

-180

ωφ Phase crossover frequency

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Gain Margin, Phase Margin of both stable and unstable system in Bode
diagram and Polar plot.

Comments:
1. The gain margin and phase margin of a control system are a measure of the closeness of
the polar plot to the -1 point. Therefore these margins may be used as design criteria. Both
should be given in the determination of relative stability.
2. Both the gain margin and phase margin must be positive for the system to be stable.
Negative margins indicate instability.

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Correlation among Nyquist plot, step response and frequency response

Nyquist Plot Transient Response Bode Diagram

Im |G| dB
Y(t)
1
ω→∞
1
−1 0 Re
0
ω
0 t - 270o
ω→0

(a) Stable and well damped

Im
Y(t)
|G| dB
ω→∞
1 1
−1 0 Re

0 0
t ω
ω→0

- 270o
φ
(b) Stable but oscillatory

Im
Y(t)
|G| dB
ω→∞
1 1
−1 0 Re

0 0
t ω

- 270o
ω→0

(c) Marginally stable system φ

Im Y(t)
|G| dB

ω→∞ 1 1

−1 0 Re

0 0
t ω

0o
φ

(d) Unstable system

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