Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Electronic Devices
• Most electronic devices are made out of
semiconductors, insulators, and conductors.
• Semiconductors
– Old Days – Germanium (Ge)
– Now – Silicon (Si)
– Now – Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) used for high speed
and optical devices.
– New – Silicon Carbide (SiC) – High voltage Schottky
diodes.
4
Elements
• Elements in the periodic table are grouped
by the number of electrons in their valence
shell (most outer shell).
– Conductors – Valence shell is mostly empty
(1 electron)
– Insulators – Valence shell is mostly full
– Semiconductors – Valence shell is half full
(Or is it half empty?)
5
Semiconductors
• Silicon and Germanium are group 4
elements – they have 4 electrons in their
valence shell.
Valence
Electron
Si
6
Silicon
• When two silicon atoms are placed close
to one another, the valence electrons are
shared between the two atoms, forming a
covalent bond.
Covalent
bond
Si Si
7
Silicon
Si
Si Si Si
Si
8
Si
Si Si Si
Silicon
Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
10
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Silicon
• As temperature increases, the valence
electrons gain thermal energy.
• If a valence electron gains enough energy,
it may break its covalent bond and and
move away from its original position.
• This electron is free to move within the
crystal.
12
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
+
Si Si Si Si Si Si
-
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
13
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
+
Si Si Si Si Si Si
-
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Semiconductors
• As temperature increases, more bonds
are broken creating more negative free
electrons and more positively charged
empty states. (Number of free electrons
is a function of temperature.)
• To break a covalent bond, a valence
electron must gain a minimum energy
Eg, called the energy band gap.
(Number of free electrons is a function
of Eg.)
15
Insulators
• Elements that have a large energy band
gap of 3 to 6 eV are insulators because at
room temperature, essentially no free
electrons exist.
• Note: an eV is an electron volt. It is the
amount of energy an electron will gain if it
is accelerated through a 1 volt potential.
16
Electron Volt
Conductors
• Elements that have a small energy band
gap are conductors.
• These elements have a large number of
free electrons at room temperature
because the electrons need very little
energy to escape from their covalent
bonds.
18
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors have a band gap energy
of about 1 eV
– Silicon = 1.1 eV
– GaAs = 1.4 eV
– Ge = 0.66 eV
19
Empty States
• An electron that has sufficient energy and
is adjacent to an empty state may move
into the empty state, leaving an empty
state behind.
20
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
+
Si Si Si Si Si Si
This electron can
fill the empty
Si Si Si Si Si state.
Si
Si Si Si Si Si
Empty Si
state
originally here.
21
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si + Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Empty state
Si Si Si Si Si now
Si here.
22
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si + Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
23
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
+
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
24
Empty States
• Moving empty states can give the
appearance that positive charges move
through the material.
• This moving empty state is modeled as a
positively charged particle called a hole.
• In semiconductors, two types of “particles”
contribute to the current: positively
charged holes and negatively charged
electrons.
25
Carrier Concentrations
• The concentrations of holes and free
electrons are important quantities in the
behavior of semiconductors.
• Carrier concentration is given as the
number of particles per unit volume, or
• Carrier concentration =
# 3
cm
26
Intrinsic Semioconductor
• Definition – An intrinsic semiconductor
is a single crystal semiconductor with no
other types of atoms in the crystal.
– Pure silicon
– Pure germanium
– Pure gallium arsenide.
27
Carrier Concentration
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the
number of holes and free electrons are the
same because they are thermally
generated.
• If an electron breaks its covalent bond we
have one free electron and one hole.
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the
concentration of holes and free electrons
are the same.
28
Intrinsic Semiconductors
ni
• = the concentration of free electrons in an
intrinsic semiconductor.
• = the concentration of holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
29
#
( )( )
cm 3
⋅ o
K
3
2
30
• T = temperature (ºK)
• K = Boltzmann’s constant = 86.2×10-6
eV/ºK
31
Material Constants
Material Eg (eV)
B #
( )( )
cm ⋅ K
3 o
3
2
Important Note:
Book uses a slightly different
Notation!
− Eg
ni = BT exp
3
KT
33
#
Material Eg (eV) B
( )( )
cm 6 ⋅ o K 3
Example
• Find the intrinsic carrier concentration of
free electrons and holes in a silicon
semiconductor at room temperature.
35
MathCAD
T := 300 ⋅K
15 1
Bsi := 5.23 ⋅10 ⋅
3
cm ⋅ K( 1.5 )
Egsi := 1.12 ⋅eV
36
MathCAD
1.5 − Eg si
ni := Bsi⋅T ⋅exp
2 ⋅ K B ⋅T
10 1
ni = 1.5 × 10
3
cm
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Since the concentrations of free electrons
and holes is small in an intrinsic
semiconductor, only small currents are
possible.
• Impurities can be added to the
semiconductor to increase the
concentration of free electrons and holes.
38
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• An impurity would have one less or one
more electron in the valance shell than
silicon.
• Impurities for group 4 type atoms (silicon)
would come from group 3 or group 5
elements.
39
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• The most common group 5 elements are
phosphorous and arsenic.
• Group 5 elements have 5 electrons in the
valence shell.
• Four of the electrons fill the covalent bonds in
the silicon crystal structure.
• The 5th electron is loosely bound to the impurity
atom and is a free electron at room temperature.
40
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
-
Si Si P Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
41
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• The group 5 atom is called a donor
impurity since it donates a free electron.
• The group 5 atom has a net positive
charge that is fixed in the crystal lattice
and cannot move.
• With a donor impurity, free electrons are
created without adding holes.
42
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Adding impurities is called doping.
• A semiconductor doped with donor
impurities has excess free electron and is
called an n-type semiconductor.
43
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• The most common group 3 impurity is
boron which has 3 valence electrons.
• Since boron has only 3 valence electrons,
the boron atom can only bond with three of
its neighbors leaving one open bond
position.
44
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si B Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
45
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• At room temperature, silicon has free
electrons that will fill the open bond
position, creating a hole in the silicon atom
whence it came.
• The boron atom has a net negative charge
because of the extra electron, but the
boron atom cannot move.
46
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
+
Si Si B Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
47
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Since boron accepts a valence electron, it
is called an acceptor impurity.
• Acceptor impurities create excess holes
but do not create free electrons.
• A semiconductor doped with an acceptor
impurity has extra holes and is called a
p-type semiconductor.
48
Carrier Concentrations
• For any semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium nopo=ni2, where
• no = the concentration of free electrons.
• po = the concentration of holes.
• ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration
3 − Eg
ni = BT 2
exp
2 KT
49
Current in Semiconductors
• The two processes that cause free
electrons and holes to move in a
semiconductor are drift and diffusion.
• Drift – the movement of holes and
electrons due to an electric field
• Diffusion – the movement of holes and
electrons due to variations in
concentrations.
54
Drift Current
• Assume that an electric field is applied to
to a semiconductor.
• This field acts on holes and electrons.
55
Drift Current-Electrons
• Electrons – The Electric
r field creates a force in
E the opposite direction of
the electric field –
s −
vdn e Attractive.
r • vdn is the drift velocity of
Jn electrons.
• Jn is the current density
n-type due to electrons.
56
Drift Current-Electrons
• The electrons acquire a drift velocity of
s r
vdn = − µ n E
• Where µn is the mobility of electrons with
units of cm2/(volt-sec).
• The units of vdn are cm/sec.
• For low-doped silicon, a typical number is
µn=1350 cm2/volt-sec.
57
Drift Current-Electrons
s r
vdn = − µ n E
• The minus sign (-) indicates that the
electrons move in the opposite direction
of the applied electric field.
58
J n = −envdn = enµ n E
• e = the charge on an electron = 1.602×10-
19 coulombs.
Drift Current-Holes
• The holes acquire a drift velocity of
s r
vdp = µ p E
• Where µp is the mobility of holes with
units of cm2/(volt-sec).
• The units of vdp are cm/sec.
• For low-doped silicon, a typical number
is µdp=480 cm2/volt-sec.
62
Mobility - Aside
• Note that µn> µp.
• Electrons are faster than holes.
• P-type and n-type devices operate the
same. However, n-type devices are faster.
63
J p = epvdp = epµ p E
• e = the charge on an electron = 1.602×10-
19 coulombs.
Drift Current
r r
E E
+ r s −
h vdp vdn e
r r
Jp Jn
n-type n-type
r r r
J = enµ n E + epµ p E
66
Ohm’s Law
• Another form of Ohm’s law is J=σE
• σ is the conductivity of the material.
• Noting that
r r r
J = enµ n E + epµ p E
• and
v r
J = σE
67
Conductivity
σ = enµ n + epµ p
68
Diffusion Currents
(Cover Them)
69
Excess Carriers
Excess Carriers
• These additional holes and electrons are
called excess holes (δp) and excess
free electrons (δn).
• When excess holes and free electrons
are created, these concentration of
holes and free electrons increase above
the thermal equilibrium value
n = no+ δn p = po + δp
71
Excess Carriers
• In steady state, the generation of excess
carriers will not cause the carrier
concentration to increase indefinitely due
to a process called recombination.
• Electron-Hole Recombination – a free
electron combines with a hole and both
disappear.
72
Excess Carriers
• Generation – Creates free electrons – hole
pairs.
• Recombination – Eliminates free electrons
and holes in pairs.
• Excess Carrier Lifetime – The mean time
over which an excess free electron and
hole exist before recombination.
2
Semi-conducteurs à l’équilibre
Semi-conducteurs
• Structure en bandes
d’énergie:
• Bande de valence: c’est la
dernière bande remplie à
T=0K
• Bande de conduction: c’est
la bande immédiatement au
dessus et vide à T=0K
4
• La notion de bandes
permet d’introduire le
porteur de charge positif
: un trou
Aux températures
différentes de 0 K,
électrons « montent » dans
BC, laissent des « trous »
dans la BV
5
Conduction bipolaire
• Laprésenced’électronset
trousentraîneuneconduction
bipolairedanslesSC
Onpeutprivilégierune
conductionparledopage
dusemiͲconducteur,ie
l’introductiond’impuretés
E externe
6
• Fonction de Fermi:
f (E) 1
1 e ( E E F ) / kT
• Densité d’états:
3/ 2
1 § 2mc* ·
NC (E) ¨ 2 ¸¸
2 ¨
( E EC )1/ 2 Eg
2S © ! ¹
3/ 2
1 § 2mv* ·
Nv (E) ¨ 2 ¸¸
2 ¨
( EV E )1/ 2 f
2S © ! ¹
• Densité de porteurs:
n ³N
EC
C ( E ). f n ( E ).dE
EV
p ³ N ( E ). f
f
v p ( E ).dE
9
• Approximation de Boltzmann:
• Si le niveau de Fermi est à plus de « 3kT » du minimum de la
bande de conduction ou du maximum de la bande de valence, on
peut simplifier la fonction de distribution:
fn ( E ) | e ( E E F
) / kT
( EF E ) / kT
f p (E) | e
10
3/ 2
EC EF § 2m kT ·
*
n exp(la bande de)valence
N•C Dans NC
avec(trous): 2¨¨ C
2
¸¸
kT © h ¹
EF Ev avec
3/ 2
§ 2m kT ·
*
p N v exp( ) Nv 2¨¨ v
2
¸¸
kT © h ¹
11
EC EV kT NC
Ei EFi ln( )
2 2 NV
12
Semi-conducteur intrinsèque
SC à grands « gap »
Type SiC, GaN, Diamant
Introduction du dopage
13
3 régimes:
•Extrinsèque
•Épuisement des donneurs
•Intrinsèque
17
• Le problème « ressemble »
au modèle de l’atome
d’hydrogène
m0e 4 13.6
En eV
2(4SH 0 ) 2 ! 2 n 2
• Introduction du Rydberg
« modifié » :
§ m ·§ H 0 ·
* 2
Ed EC 13.6¨¨ ¸¸¨ ¸
© m0 ¹© H ¹
Exemple de dopants et leurs énergies
18
n NA p ND n 2 ( N D N A )n ni2 0
19
n
1ª
2 «¬
2 2º
N D N A ( N D N A ) 4ni
2
1
»¼
1ª
p N D N A ( N D N A ) 4ni
2 «¬
2 2 2º
1
»¼
• Dans la pratique (ND, NA, et ND – NA >> )ni si bien que:
n | ND N A
p | ni2 /( N D N A )
20
EFn EC kT ln( N C /( N D N A ))
E Fp EV kT ln( NV /( N A N D ))
21
Différence Ef - Efi
© ni ¹
type p
§ Na ·
Ei E f kT ln¨¨ ¸¸
© ni ¹
22
Différence Ef - Efi
( E F E Fi ) / kT eI Fi / kT
n ni e ni e Équations de
( E F E Fi ) / kT eI Fi / kT Boltzmann
p ni e ni e
avec:
eI Fi EF EFi ! 0 typen
eI Fi EF EFi 0 typep
23
Semi-conducteurs dégénérés:
approximation de Joyce –Dixon
• Dans ce cas , l’approximation de Boltzmann n’est
plus valable pour le calcul:
• soit de n et p
• soit de la position du niveau de Fermi:
on utilise alors l’approximation de Joyce-Dixon:
ª n 1 n º ª p 1 p º
EF EC kT «ln » EV kT «ln »
¬ N C 8 C¼
N ¬ N V 8 V¼
N
24
(n ni ) nd ND
n nd N D N A p pa
( p ni ) pa NA
n, p : électrons (trous) libres dans BC (BV)
nd (pa) : électrons (trous) liés aux donneurs (accepteurs)
26
Ed E f N d
1 nd
f n (1 exp ) 1 Ed E f
2 kT 1 exp
2
• Proba de non occupation et nb de trous surkT
Ea :
E f Ea Na
1 pa
fp (1 exp ) 1 E f Ea
4 kT 1 exp
4 kT
28
f D (E) ! f (E)
29
pour le Silicium
1/ 2
§ N d 300 ·
'Eg # 22.5¨¨ 18 ¸¸ meV
© 10 T ( K ) ¹
32
'p 'n
rp rn
Wp Wn
• Exemple: type n +excitation lumineuse en faible injection (
ie )
'n 'p n0
p p0 'p n n0 'n | n0
• En régime de faible injection le nombre de porteurs
majoritaires n’est pas affecté.
35
np ni2
1 Équation de
r
W m 2ni p n Shockley-Read
1 1 1
W Wm W n( p)
36
ni
r 0 Taux net de génération.
2W m Création de porteurs
37
Excitation lumineuse
TypeP
38
Recombinaisons de surface
40
l vth.W | 100 A
o
W | 0.1 ps
41
• Accélération: J qE / m *
• Vitesse: v qEW / m *
r µE
Si : 1500 cm2/Vs
• Mobilité: µ qW / m* GaAs: 8500 cm2/Vs
In0.53Ga0.47As:11000 cm2/Vs
42
J cn nev n neµn E
• Pour les trous:
Vitesse de saturation
• Différents
comportement en
fonction du SC
Survitesse
(« overshoot »)
46
• Courant de diffusion:
• Origine: gradient de concentration
• Diffusion depuis la région de forte concentration vers la région de
moindre [].
• 1° loi de Fick:
dn dp
J diff e(n p ) eDn
x
D
x
D
eDp
dx dx
• Constante ou coefficient de diffusion
[Dn , p ]=cm2/s.
49
JT J cond J diff Jn J p
dn dp
JT (neµn peµp ) E e( Dn Dp )
dx dx
D kT
µ e
50
dn( x, t ) ª J ( x 'x) J n ( x) º
A'x A« n » RG
dt ¬ e e ¼
dn( x, t ) dJ n ( x) 'x
A'x #A RG
dt dx e
On obtient alors les équations de
continuité pour les électrons et les trous:
dn( x, t ) 1 dJ n dp ( x, t ) 1 dJ p
rn g n rp g p
dt e dx dt e dx
51
dn d n n n0
2
Dn 2
J n (diff ) eDn
dn dt dx Wn
dx
dp dp d2 p p p0
J p (diff ) eD p Dp 2
dx dt dx Wp
52
d 2 ( p p0 ) p p0 p p0
dx 2 D pW p L2p Longueur de diffusion: représente la
distance moyenne parcourue avant
Ln DnW n Lp DpW p que l’électron ne se recombine avec
un trou (qq microns voire qq mm)
• Solutions: Ln ou Lp >> aux dispos VLSI
R et G jouent un petit rôle sauf
'n( x) (n( x) n0 ) 'n(0)e x / Ln
dans qq cas précis (Taur et al)
53
Équation de Poisson
d 2V dE U ( x)
dx 2 dx H sc
• Dans les SC, deux types de charges (fixes et mobiles):
d 2V
e
> p ( x ) n( x ) N
( x) N A ( x)@
dx 2 H sc D
Longueur de Debye
d 2 ) Fi
dx 2
e
H sc
>N d ( x ) ni e e) Fi / kT
@
enremarquantque: V(x)=))L cte
• Si Nd(x) => Nd+'Nd(x) , alors )Fi est modifié de ')Fi
d 2 'IFi e 2 N d e
'IFi 'N d ( x)
dx 2
H sc kT H sc
55
Longueur de Debye
• Signification physique?
• Solution de l’équation différentielle du 2° degré:
x H sc kT
'IFi A exp avec LD
LD e2 N D
• La « réponse » des bandes n’est pas abrupte mais « prend »
quelques LD ( si Nd=1016 cm-3, LD=0.04µm). Dans cette
région, présence d’un champ électrique (neutralité électrique
non réalisée)
56
wn 1 wJ n wE
or Jn VE E / U n et en / H sc
wt e wx wx
d’où
wn
n
Solution: n(t ) v exp(t / U nH sc )
wt U nH sc
W U nH sc Tempsderelaxationdiélectrique( 10-12 s)